Chapter 7

Nationalism
Overview
This chapter will introduce and discuss the ideas of nationalism and nation. Our
concern will be not so much to understand why nationalism has arisen, or what
functions it serves; rather our concern would be to think carefully about nationalism
and assess its claims and aspirations. After studying this chapter you should be
able to:
o understand the concepts of nation and nationalism.
o acknowledge the strengths and limitations of nationalism.
o appreciate the need for ensuring a link between democracy and nationalism.

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7.1 INTRODUCING NATIONALISM
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If we were to take a quick poll of what people commonly understand

by the term nationalism we are likely to get responses which talk
about patriotism, national flags, sacrificing for the country, and the
like. The Republic Day parade in Delhi is a striking symbol of Indian
nationalism and it brings out the sense of power, strength, as well as
diversity which many associate with the Indian nation. But if we try
to go deeper we will find that it is difficult to arrive at a precise and
widely accepted definition of the term nationalism. This need not
mean that we should abandon the effort. Nationalism needs to be
studied because it plays such an important role in world affairs.
During the last two centuries or more, nationalism has emerged
as one of the most compelling of political creeds which has helped to
shape history. It has inspired intense loyalties as well as deep hatreds.
It has united people as well as divided them, helped to liberate them
from oppressive rule as well as been the cause of conflict and
bitterness and wars. It has been a factor in the break up of empires
and states. Nationalist struggles have contributed to the drawing
and redrawing of the boundaries of states and empires. At present a
large part of the world is divided into different nation-states although
the process of re-ordering of state boundaries has not come to an
end and separatist struggles within existing states are common.
Nationalism has passed through many phases. For instance, in
the nineteenth century Europe, it led to the unification of a number
of small kingdoms into larger nation-states. The present day German
and Italian states were formed through such a process of unification
and consolidation. A large number of new states were also founded
in Latin America. Along with the consolidation of state boundaries,
local dialects and local loyalties were also gradually consolidated into
state loyalties and common languages. The people of the new states
acquired a new political identity which was based on membership of
the nation-state. We have seen a similar process of consolidation
taking place in our own country in the last century or more.
But nationalism also accompanied and contributed to the break
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empires in the early twentieth century in Europe as well as the
break-up of the British, French, Dutch and Portuguese empires in
Asia and Africa. The struggle for freedom from colonial rule by India
and other former colonies were nationalist struggles, inspired by the
desire to establish nation-states which would be independent of
foreign control.
The process of redrawing state boundaries continues to take
place. Since 1960, even apparently stable nation-states have been
confronted by nationalist demands put forward by groups or regions
and these may include demands for separate statehood. Today, in
many parts of the world we witness nationalist struggles that
threaten to divide existing states. Such separatist movements have
developed among the Quebecois in Canada, the Basques in northern
Spain, the Kurds in Turkey and Iraq, and the Tamils in Sri Lanka,
among others. The language of nationalism is also used by some
groups in India. Arab nationalism today may hope to unite Arab
countries in a pan Arab union but separatist movements like the
Basques or Kurds struggle to divide existing states.
We may all agree that nationalism is a powerful force in the
world even today. But it is more difficult to arrive at agreement
regarding the definition of terms like nation or nationalism. What
is a nation? Why do people form nations and to what do nations
aspire? Why are people ready to sacrifice and even die for their
nation? Why, and in what way, are claims to nationhood linked to
claims to statehood? Do nations have a right to statehood or national
self-determination? Or can the claims of nationalism be met without
conceding separate statehood? In this chapter we will explore some
of these issues.

In this age of globalisation, the world

is shrinking. We are living in a global
village. Nations are irrelevant.

That’s not the case. Nationalism is still

relevant. You can see this when Indian
team goes out to play cricket. Or when
you discover that Indians living abroad
still watch Bollywood films.
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7.2 NATIONS AND NATIONALISM
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A nation is not any casual collection of people. At the same time it is

also different from other groups or communities found in human
society. It is different from the family which is based on face-to-face
relationships with each member having direct personal knowledge
of the identity and character of others. It is also different from tribes
and clans and other kinship groups in which ties of marriage and
descent link members to each other so that even if we do not
personally know all the members we can, if need be, trace the links
that bind them to us. But as a member of a nation we may never
come face to face with most of our fellow nationals nor need we
share ties of descent with them. Yet nations exist, are lived in and
valued by their members.
It is commonly believed that nations are constituted by a group
who share certain features such as descent, or language, or religion
or ethnicity. But there is in fact no common set of characteristics
which is present in all nations. Many nations do not have a common
language, Canada is an example here. Canada includes English
speaking as well as French speaking peoples. India also has a large
number of languages which are spoken
in different regions and by different
communities. Nor do many nations have

LET’S DO IT Do a common religion to unite them. The

same could be said of other
characteristics such as race or descent.
Identify any patriotic
song in your language. What then constitutes a nation? A
How is the nation nation is to a great extent an ‘imagined’
described in this song? community, held together by the
Identify and watch
collective beliefs, aspirations and
any patriotic films
imaginations of its members. It is based
in your language. How
has nationalism been on certain assumptions which people
portrayed and its make about the collective whole with
complexities worked which they identify. Let us identify and
out in these films? understand some of the assumptions
which people make about the nation.
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Shared Beliefs
Nationalism
First, a nation is constituted by belief. Nations are not like mountains,
rivers or buildings which we can see and feel. They are not things
which exist independent of the beliefs that people have about them.
To speak of a people as a nation is not to make a comment about
their physical characteristics or behaviour. Rather, it is to refer to the
collective identity and vision for the future of a group which aspires
to have an independent political existence. To this extent, nations
can be compared with a team. When we speak of a team, we mean a
set of people who work or play together and, more importantly,
conceive of themselves as a collective group. If they did not think of
themselves in this way they would cease to be a team and be simply
different individuals playing a game or undertaking a task. A nation
exists when its members believe that they belong together.

Why don t you cheer for our team?

Don t you have any nationalist spirit?

I am as much a nationalist as anyone

else. I cast my vote; I pay my taxes and I
respect the laws of our country. I am also
proud to belong to this country.

History
Second, people who see themselves as a nation also embody a sense
of continuing historical identity. That is, nations perceive themselves
as stretching back into the past as well as reaching into the future.
They articulate for themselves a sense of their own history by drawing
on collective memories, legends, historical records, to outline the
continuing identity of the nation. Thus nationalists in India invoked
its ancient civilisation and cultural heritage and other achievements
to claim that India has had a long and continuing history as a
civilisation and that this civilisational continuity and unity is the
basis of the Indian nation. Jawaharlal Nehru, for instance, wrote in
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his book The Discovery of India, “Though outwardly there was diversity
and infinite variety among the people, everywhere there was that
tremendous impress of oneness, which held all of us together in
ages past, whatever political fate or misfortune had befallen us”.

Territory
Third, nations identify with a particular territory. Sharing a common
past and living together on a particular territory over a long period
of time gives people a sense of their collective identity. It helps
them to imagine themselves as one people. It is therefore not
surprising that people who see themselves as a nation speak of a
homeland. The territory they occupied and the land on which they
have lived has a special significance for them, and they claim it as
their own. Nations however characterise the homeland in different
ways, for instance as motherland, or fatherland, or holy land. The
Jewish people for instance, in spite of being dispersed and scattered
in different parts of the world always claimed that their original
homeland was in Palestine, the ‘promised land’. The Indian nation
identifies with the rivers, mountains and regions of the Indian
subcontinent. However, since more than one set of people may lay
claim to the same territory, the aspiration for a homeland has been
a major cause of conflict in the world.
Shared Political Ideals
Fourth, while territory and shared historical identity play an important
role in creating a sense of oneness, it is a shared vision of the future
and the collective aspiration to have an independent political existence
that distinguishes groups from nations. Members of a nation share
a vision of the kind of state they want to build. They affirm among
other things a set of values and principles such as democracy,
secularism and liberalism. These ideals represent the terms under
which they come together and are willing to live together. It represents,
in other words, their political identity as a nation.
In a democracy, it is shared commitment to a set of political
values and ideals that is the most desirable basis of a political
community or a nation-state. Within it, members of political
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arise from the recognition of the rights of each other as citizens. A
nation is strengthened when its people acknowledge and accept
their obligations to their fellow members. We might even say that
recognition of this framework of obligations is the strongest test of
loyalty to the nation.

Common Political Identity

Many people believe that a shared political vision about the state
and society we wish to create is not enough to bind individuals
together as a nation. They seek instead a shared cultural identity,
such as a common language, or common descent. There is no doubt
that speaking the same language makes it easier for us to
communicate with each other and sharing the same religion gives
us a set of common beliefs and social practices. Observing the same
festivals, seeking the same holidays, and holding the same symbols
valuable can bring people together, but it can also pose a threat to
the values that we cherish in a democracy.
There are two reasons for this. One, all major religions in the
world are internally diverse. They have survived and evolved through
a dialogue within the community. As a result there exists within
each religion a number of sects who differ significantly in their
interpretation of the religious texts and norms. If we ignore these
differences and forge an identity on the basis of a common religion
we are likely to create a highly authoritative and oppressive society.
Two, most societies are culturally diverse. They have people
belonging to different religions and languages living together in the
same territory. To impose a single religious or linguistic identity as
a condition of belonging to a particular state would necessarily
exclude some groups. It might restrict the religious liberty of the
excluded group or disadvantage those who do not speak the national
language. Either way, the ideal that we cherish most in democracy
– namely, equal treatment and liberty for all – would be severely
limited. For both these reasons it is desirable to imagine the nation
in political rather than cultural terms. That is, democracies need
to emphasise and expect loyalty to a set of values that may be
enshrined in the Constitution of the country rather than adherence
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We have identified above some of the ways in which nations

express their sense of collective identity. We have also seen why
democratic states need to forge this identity on the basis of shared
political ideals. But we are still left with an important question,
namely, why do people imagine themselves as a nation? What are
some of the aspirations of different nations? In the next two sections
we shall try to address these questions.

7.3 NATIONAL SELF-DETERMINATION

Nations, unlike other social groups, seek the right to govern
themselves and determine their future development. They seek, in
other words, the right to self-determination. In making this claim a
nation seeks recognition and acceptance by the international
community of its status as a distinct political entity or state. Most
often these claims come from people who have lived together on a
given land for a long period of time and who have a sense of common
identity. In some cases such claims to self-determination are linked
also to the desire to form a state in which the culture of the group is
protected if not privileged.
Claims of the latter kind were frequently made in the nineteenth
century in Europe. The notion of one culture - one state began to
gain acceptability at the time. Subsequently, the idea of one culture-
one state was employed while reordering state boundaries after
World War I. The Treaty of Versailles established a number of small,
newly independent states, but it proved virtually impossible to
satisfy all the demands for self determination which were made at
the time. Besides, re-organisation of state boundaries to satisfy
the demands of one culture - one state, led to mass migration of
population across state boundaries. Millions of people as a
consequence were displaced from their homes and expelled from
the land which had been their home for generations. Many others
became victims of communal violence.
Humanity paid a heavy price for re-organising boundaries in a
way that culturally distinct communities could form separate
nation-states. Besides, even in this effort it was not possible to ensure
104 that the newly created states contained only one ethnic community.

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DEMAND FOR NATIONAL S ELF- DETERMINATION IN BASQUE

Demands for national

self-determination have
been raised in different
parts of the World.
Let us look at one
such case.
Basque is a hilly and
prosperous region in
Spain. This region is
recognised by the
Spanish government as an ‘autonomous’ region within the Spanish federation. But
the leaders of Basque Nationalist Movement are not satisfied with this autonomy.
They want this region to become a separate country. Supporters of this movement
have used constitutional and, till recently, violent means to press for this demand.
Basque Nationalists say that their culture is very different from the Spanish
culture. They have their own language that does not resemble Spanish at all.
Only one-third of the people in Basque understand that language today. The
hilly terrain makes the Basque region geographically distinct from the rest of the
Spain. Ever since the Roman days, the Basque region never surrendered its
autonomy to the Spanish rulers. Its systems of justice, administration and finance
were governed by its own unique arrangements.
The modern Basque Nationalist Movement started when, around the end of
nineteenth century, the Spanish rulers tried to abolish this unique political-
administrative arrangement. In the twentieth century, the Spanish dictator Franco
further cut down this autonomy. He went as far as to ban the use of Basque
language in public places and even homes. These repressive measures have now
been withdrawn. But the leaders of Basque movement continue to be suspicious
of the motives of the Spanish government and fearful of the entry of ‘outsiders’ in
their region. Their opponents say that Basque separatists are trying to make
political gains out of an issue already resolved. Do you think Basque nationalists
are justified in demanding a separate nation? Is Basque a nation? What more
would you like to know before you can answer this question? Can you think of
similar examples from different parts of the world? Can you think of regions and
groups in our country where such demands have been made?
Source: Multiple Resources including www.en.wikipedia.org

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Indeed most states had more than one ethnic and cultural
Political Theory

community living within its boundaries. These communities, which

were often small in number and constituted a minority within the
state were often disadvantaged. Hence, the problem of
accommodating minorities as equal citizens remained. The only
positive aspect of these developments was that it granted political
recognition to various groups who saw themselves as distinct nations
and wanted the opportunity to govern themselves and determined
their own future.
The right to national self-determination has also been asserted
by national liberation movements in Asia and Africa when they
were struggling against colonial domination. Nationalist movements
maintained that political independence would provide dignity and
recognition to the colonised people and also help them to protect
the collective interests of their people. Most national liberation
movements were inspired by the goal of bringing justice and rights
and prosperity to the nation. However, here also, it proved almost
impossible to ensure that each cultural group, some of whom
claimed to be distinct nations, could achieve political independence
and statehood. As a result, migration of populations, border wars,
and violence have continued to plague many countries in the region.
Thus we have the paradoxical situation of nation-states which
themselves had achieved independence through struggle now acting
against minorities within their own territories who claim the right
to national self- determination.

Virtually every state in the world today faces the dilemma of

how to deal with movements for self-determination and this has
raised questions about the right to national self-determination.
More and more people are beginning to realise that the solution
does not lie in creating new states but in making existing states
more democratic and equal. That is, in ensuring that people
with different cultural and ethnic identities live and co-exist as
partners and equal citizens within the country. This may be
essential not only for resolving problems arising from new claims
for self-determination but also for building a strong and united
state. After all, a nation-state which does not respect the rights
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and cultural identity of minorities within the
state would find it difficult to gain the loyalty
of its members.

7.4 NATIONALISM AND PLURALISM LET’S DO IT Do

Cut out clippings from
Once we abandon the idea of one-culture-one- various newspapers and
state, it becomes necessary to consider ways magazines related to the
by which different cultures and communities demands of various
can survive and flourish within a country. It is gr oups in India and
in pursuit of this goal that many democratic abroad for the right to
societies today have introduced measures for self-determination. Form
recognising and protecting the identity of an opinion about the
cultural minority communities living within following:
their territory. The Indian constitution has an o What are the reasons
elaborate set of provisions for the protection of behind these demands?
religious, linguistic and cultural minorities. o What strategies have
they employed?
The kinds of group rights which have been
o Ar e their claims
granted in dif ferent countries include
justified?
constitutional protection for the language,
o What do you think
cultures and religion, of minority groups and their
could be the possible
members. In some cases identified communities
solution?
also have the right to representation as a group
in legislative bodies and other state institutions.
Such rights may be justified on the grounds that
they provide equal treatment and protection of the law for members
of these groups as well as protection for the cultural identity of the
group. Different groups need to be granted recognition as a part of
the national community. This means that the national identity has
to be defined in an inclusive manner which can recognise the
importance and unique contribution of all the cultural communities
within the state.
Although it is hoped that granting groups recognition and
protection would satisfy their aspirations, some groups may continue
to demand separate statehood. This may seem paradoxical when
globalisation is also spreading in the world but nationalist
aspirations continue to motivate many groups and communities.
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TAGORE’S CRITIQUE OF NATIONALISM
Political Theory

”Patriotism cannot
be our final
spiritual shelter; my
refuge is humanity.
I will not buy glass
for the price of
diamonds, and I
will never allow
patriotism to
triumph over
humanity as long as
I live.”
This was said by Rabindranath Tagore.
He was against colonial rule and asserted
India’s right to independence. He felt that
in the British administration of the colonies,
there was no place for ‘upholding of dignity
of human relationships,’ an idea which was
otherwise cherished in the British
civilisation. Tagore made a distinction
between opposing western imperialism and
rejecting western civilisation. While Indians
should be rooted in their own culture and
heritage, they should not resist learning
freely and profitably from abroad.
A critique of what he called ‘patriotism’
is a persistent theme in his writings. He
was very critical of the narrow expressions
of nationalism that he found at work in
parts of our independence movement. In
particular, he was afraid that a rejection of
the west in favour of what looked like Indian
traditions was not only limiting in itself; it
could easily turn into hostility to other
influences fr om abroad, including
Christianity, Judaism, Zoroastrianism and
Islam which have been present in our
108 country.

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Considerable generosity and skill is needed for countries to be able
to deal with such demands in a democratic manner.
To sum up, the right to national self-determination was often
understood to include the right to independent statehood for
nationalities. But not only would it be impossible to grant
independent statehood to every group that sees itself as a distinct
cultural group, or nation, it would probably also be undesirable. It
might lead to the formation of a number of states too small to be
economically and politically viable and it could multiply the problems
of minorities. The right has now been reinterpreted to mean granting
certain democratic rights for a nationality within a state.
The world we live in is one that is deeply conscious of the
importance of giving recognition to identities. Today we witness
many struggles for the recognition of group identities, many of which
employ the language of nationalism. While we need to acknowledge
the claims of identity, we should be careful not to allow identity
claims to lead to divisions and violence in the society. We need to
remember that each person has many identities. For instance, a
person may have identities based on gender, caste, religion,
language, or region, and may be proud of all of them. So long as
each person feels that he/she can freely express the different
dimensions of his/her personality, they may not feel the need to
make claims on the state for political recognition and concessions
for any one identity. In a democracy the political identity of citizen
should encompass the different identities which people may have.
It would be dangerous if intolerant and homogenising forms of
identity and nationalism are allowed to develop.

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1. How is a nation different from other forms of collective belonging?

2. What do you understand by the right to national self-determination?

How has this idea resulted in both formation of and challenges to
nation-states?
Exercises

3. “We have seen that nationalism can unite people as well as divide
them, liberate them as well as generate bitterness and conflict”.
Illustrate your answer with examples.

4. Neither descent, nor language, nor religion or ethnicity can claim to

be a common factor in nationalisms all over the world. Comment.

5. Illustrate with suitable examples the factors that lead to the emergence
of nationalist feelings.

6. How is a democracy more effective than authoritarian governments in

dealing with conflicting nationalist aspirations?

7. What do you think are the limitations of nationalism?

110 Credit: Image on opening page: Shweta Rao

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