EE303: Digital System Design

Boolean Algebra (I)

Kyeongha Kwon
School of EE, KAIST
 Review
 Digital Systems

 Number Systems
− Decimal numbers, Binary numbers,… Base-r numbers

− Number-base conversions

− Signed binary numbers

− Binary codes: Grey code, ASCII code

 Digital Logics
− Logical operation: AND, OR, NOT

− Truth table, symbol, waveform

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 Review: Signed Binary Numbers
 1’s complement (by Inverting all bits)
− 1’s complement of 0011 is 1100

− For an n-bit number K, the 1’s complement is (2n-1) – K

 2’s complement (by inverting all bits and plus 1)

− 2’s complement of 0011 is 1101

− For an n-bit number K, the 2’s complement is (2n-1) - K + 1 = 2n - K

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 Review: Logical Operation
 Symbols
2-input AND gate 2-input OR gate NOT gate
(inverter)

 Truth tables

z = 1 only if x = y = 1 z = 0 only if x = y = 0; z = 0 if x = 1;
otherwise z = 0 otherwise z = 1 z = 1 if x = 0 4
 Boolean Algebra
 In 1854, George Boole introduced Boolean Algebra, defined with
A set of element (S)
− Used to represent proposition (true or false) or digital signals (high or low)
Binary operators: + (OR) and ∙ (AND)
− Used to assign each pair of elements from S to an element from S
− For example, a + b = c for a, b, c ∈ S

 In 1904, E. V. Huntington more formalized Boolean Algebra,

− By providing 6 postulates that must be satisfied (called Huntington’s postulates)

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 Huntington’s Postulates (I)
 1. Closure with respect to the operators:
− any logical operation yields a value in the set {0,1}

 2. Distinct elements : 0 ≠ 1
 3. Identity element with respect to the operators:
− x+0=x x∙1=x

 4. Commutative law
− x+y=y+x x∙y=y∙x

 5. Distributive law
− x ∙ (y + z) = (x ∙ y) + (x ∙ z) x + (y ∙ z) = (x + y) ∙ (x + z)

 6. Complement exist for all the elements:

− x + x’ = 1 x ∙ x’ = 0

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 Huntington’s Postulates (II)
 1. Closure with respect to the operators:
− The results of OR and AND must be in the same set, which has the input of the operations
− Any logical operation yields a value in the set {0,1}

 2. Distinct elements
− Boolean algebra is a set with at least two, distinct elements 0 and 1.
− There exist at least two elements 0, 1 ∈ S such that 0 ≠ 1.

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 Huntington’s Postulates (III)
 3. Identity element with respect to the operators:
− Identify element is an element (e) such that when a binary operation (*) is performed
on it (e) and any other given element (x), the result is the given element (x)
: “x * e = x” for every x in S
− For OR (+), 0 is an identity element: x + 0 = x
− For AND (∙), 1 is an identity element: x ∙ 1 = x

 4. Commutative law with respect to the operators:

− “x * y = y * x” for every x and y in S
− For OR (+), x + y = y + x
− For AND (∙), x ∙ y = y ∙ x
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 Huntington’s Postulates (IV)
 5. Distributive law
− “x * (y ^ z) = (x * y) ^ (x * z)” for every x, y, and z in S
− x ∙ (y + z) = (x ∙ y) + (x ∙ z)
− x + (y ∙ z) = (x + y) ∙ (x + z)

 6. Complements exist for all the elements:

− For every x in S, there exists a unique element called x’ (=complement of x) such that:
x + x’ = 1 and x ∙ x’ = 0

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Does a Boolean Algebra satisfy Huntington’s Postulates?
 1. Closure with respect to +, ∙:
− Yes, both operations produce 0 or 1 for all input combinations.

 2. Distinct elements
− Yes, by definition: 0 ≠ 1.

 3. Identity element with respect to +, ∙:

− Yes, from truth tables, x + 0 = x, x ∙ 1 = x.

 4. Commutative law with respect to +, ∙:

− Yes, if x and y columns are swapped, results are unchanged

 5. Distributive law
− Yes (proof to follow).

 6. Complement
− Yes, 0' = 1, 1' = 0. 10
 Duality Principle
 Let’s review Huntington’s postulates.
− Identity element: a + 0 = a ↔ a ∙ 1 = a
− Commutative property: a + b = b + a ↔ a ∙ b = b ∙ a
− Distributive property: a ∙ (b + c) = (a ∙ b) + (a ∙ c) ↔ a + (b ∙ c) = (a + b) ∙ (a + c)

− Complement: a + a’ = 1 ↔ a ∙ a’ = 0

 Dual expression
− The expression one obtains by interchanging AND and OR, and interchanging 0's and 1's

 Duality principle
− If a binary expression is valid, its dual expression is also valid.

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 Some Simple Theorems
 Theorem 1: a + a = a (Dual: a ∙ a = a)
− Proof: a + a = (a + a) ∙ 1 Identity element
= (a + a) ∙ (a + a’) Complement
= a + a ∙ a’ Distributive property
=a+0 Complement
=a Identity element

 Theorem 2: a + 1 = 1 (Dual: a ∙ 0 = 0)
− Proof: a + 1 = 1 ∙ (a + 1) Identity element

= (a + a’) (a + 1) Complement
= a + a’ ∙ 1 Distributive property + Theorem 1
= a + a’ Complement
=1 Identity element
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 Involution and Absorption Theorems
 Involution theorem: (a’)’ = a
− Recall the complement postulate:
• a + a’ = 1, a ∙ a’ = 0
• a’ = complement of a, a = complement of a’
− Applying double inverse on a value will give the initial value: (a’)’=a

 Absorption theorem: a + a ∙ b = a (Dual: a ∙ (a + b) = a)

- Proof: a + ab = a ∙ 1 + ab Identity element
= a(1 + b) Distributive property
= a(b + 1) Commutative property
=a∙1 Theorem 2
=a Identity element
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 DeMorgan’s Theorem
 A key to simplify Boolean algebra:
(a + b)’ = a’b’ (ab)’ = a’ + b’
− Algebraic proof is long.
− Alternatively, we can use truth tables to verify the expression:

a b a+b (a + b)’ a' b' ab'

Left-hand side of Right-hand side of

the expression
= the expression

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 Venn Diagram
 Visualizing logic relations

(A + B)’ = A’B’ (AB)’ = A’ + B’

Visualizing DeMorgan’s theorem
Basic logic operations

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 DeMorgan’s Theorem: Ex1
 Find the complement of a + b’c’
− Let x = b’c’, the original expression becomes a + x.
− Then, the complement of a+x = (a + x)’
= a’ x’ DeMorgan’s theorem

= a’ (b’c’)’
= a’ (b + c) DeMorgan’s theorem

= a’b + a’c

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 DeMorgan’s Theorem: Ex2
 Simplify (a(b + c(b + a)))’
− Solution: (a(b + c(b + a)))’ = a’ + (b + c(b + a))’ DeMorgan’s theorem
= a’ + b’(c(b + a))’ DeMorgan’s theorem

= a’ + b’(c’ + (b + a)’) DeMorgan’s theorem

= a’ + b’(c’ + b’a’) DeMorgan’s theorem
= a’ + b’c’ + b’a’ Distributive property
= a’ + b’c’ Theorem 2

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 Boolean Functions
 Described by an Boolean-algebra expression
− Consists of binary variables (x, y, z..), constants (0 or 1), and logic operation symbols (+, ∙).
− Results in binary 0 or 1 for given value of binary variables
− e.g. F1 = x + y’z

Truth table of F1 Logic gate implementation of F1

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 Boolean Functions
 Why Boolean algebra?
− The Boolean expression decides the interconnection of gates in the logic circuit.
− There can be many different expressions that have essentially the same truth table.
− Simplifying the expression using Boolean algebra = Reducing the cost of a logic circuit!

 Example: F2 = x’y’z + x’yz + xy’

2 inverters
3 AND gates
1 OR gate

Straightforward logic gate implementation of F2 19

 Boolean Functions
 Optimize the Boolean expression
− F2 = x’y’z + x’yz + xy’
= x’z(y’ + y) + xy’ Distributive property

= x’z + xy’ Complement postulate

2 inverters
2 AND gates
1 OR gate

We saved 1 AND gate!

(Also #inputs to gates are reduced.)

Simplified logic gate implementation of the same function, F2

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 Representation Conversion
 Transition between Boolean expression, truth table, and circuit

Boolean Easy
Circuit
Expression

Easy Difficult
Truth
Table

− We will learn some methods that help us do these conversions

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 Terms and Literals
 In a Boolean function
− Each term requires a gate
− Each variable within the term designates an input to the gate (a literal)

 Recall the previous example

− F2 = x’y’z + x’yz + xy’ 3 terms and 8 literals

= x’z(y’ + y) + xy’
= x’z + xy’ 2 terms and 4 literals

3 gates with 8 inputs

2 gates with 4 inputs 22

 Minterms
 Minterms: AND terms or standard product
− A binary variable may appear in its normal (x) or complement (x’).
− Consider two (n=2) binary variables x and y combined with an AND operation.
• Four (2n) possible combinations: xy, x’y, xy’, and x’y’
• Called a minterm, or a standard product.

− n variables can be combined to form 2n minterms.

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 Minterms
 For 3 variables, which have 23 minterms
− Binary numbers from 0 to 23-1
− A symbol for each minterm, mj
• The subscript j denotes the decimal equivalent of the binary number of the minterm designated.

− Each minterm is obtained from an AND term of the n variables,

• With each variable being primed if the corresponding bit of the binary number is a 0.

Prime for 0

Itself for 1
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 Maxterms
 Maxterms: OR terms or standard sums (2n combinations)
− Each maxterm is obtained from an OR term of the n variables,
• With each variable being primed if the corresponding bit of the binary number is a 1 (not 0).

Prime for 0 Prime for 1

complement relation! (applying DeMorgan’s Theorem)

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 Truth Table to Expression
 How to convert a truth table to an expression
− Form a minterm for each combination of the variables that produces a 1 in the function
− Take the OR of all those terms

A truth table
x y z F Boolean Expressions can be represented
0 0 0 0 in Sum-of-Products form!
0 0 1 0 - Each row with output of 1 becomes a product term (minterm)
0 1 0 0 Minterms (prime for 0) - Sum all those minterms (maxterm of minterms)

0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
F = xyz + xyz’ + x’yz 26
 Converting to Circuit
 x’ → Inverter (of x)
 Minterm (or product) → AND
 Maxterm (or sum) → OR

x y z F xyz
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 Minterms xyz’
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 x’yz
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
F = xyz + xyz’ + x’yz 27
 Reducing Boolean Expressions
 Let’s simplify F = xyz + xyz’ + x’yz
− Step 1: Use Theorem 1 (a + a = a)
F = xyz + xyz + xyz’ + x’yz
− Step 2: Use distributive property, a(b + c) = ab + ac
F = xy(z + z’) + yz(x + x’)
− Step 3: Use complement postulate (a + a’ = 1)
F = xy·1 + yz·1
− Step 4: Use identity postulate (a · 1 = a)
F = xy + yz

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 Optimized Hardware Implementation
 Simplified equation
 Simplified hardware = Less gates, less inputs.

 The same functionality!

x y z F xy
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 Minterms
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 yz
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
F = xyz + xyz’ + x’yz = xy + yz 29
 Summary
 Boolean algebra
− Huntington’s postulates, Duality principle, DeMorgan’s theorem…
 Boolean functions
− Simplifying the expression using Boolean algebra
= Reducing the cost of a logic circuit
 Representation Conversion
− between truth table, circuit, and Boolean expression that are equivalent
− Minterms and maxterms

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