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T h e Pseudo-Clementine Recognitions and
Homilies (10-14) in Syriac
 Syriac Studies Library

58

Sériés Editors

Monica Blanchard

Cari Griffïn

Kristian Heal

George Anton Kiraz

David G.K. Taylor

The Syriac Studies Library brings back to active circulation major reference works in
the field of Syriac studies, including dictionaries, grammars, text editions, manuscript
catalogues, and monographs. The books were reproduced from originals at The
Catholic University of America, one of the largest collections of Eastern Christianity
in North America. The project is a collaboration between CUA, Beth Mardutho:
The Syriac Institute, and Brigham Young University.
The Pseudo-Clementine Recognitions and
Homilies (10-14) in Syriac

Edited with an Introduction by

Paul Anton de Lagarde

1
2012
gorgias press
Gorgias Press LLC, 954 River Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
www.gorgiaspress.com
Copyright © 2012 by Gorgias Press LLC
Originally published in 1861
All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. No part
of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or
otherwise without the prior written permission of Gorgias Press LLC.

2012

1
ISBN 978-1-60724-941-2

Reprinted from the 1861 Leipzig edition.

Digitized by Brigham Young University. Printed in the United States of America.

 Series Foreword

This series provides reference works in Syriac studies from original books digitized at the
ICOR library of The Catholic University of America under the supervision of Monica
Blanchard, ICOR's librarian. The project was carried out by Beth Mardutho: The Syriac
Institute and Brigham Young University. About 675 books were digitized, most of which
will appear in this series.

Our aim is to present the volumes as they have been digitized, preserving images of the
covers, front matter, and back matter (if any). Marks by patrons, which may shed some light
on the history of the library and its users, have been retained. In some cases, even inserts
have been digitized and appear here in the location where they were found.

The books digitized by Brigham Young University are in color, even when the original text is
not. These have been produced here in grayscale for economic reasons. The grayscale images
retain original colors in the form of gray shades. The books digitized by Beth Mardutho and
black on white.

We are grateful to the head librarian at CUA, Adele R. Chwalek, who was kind enough to
permit this project. "We are custodians, not owners of this collection," she generously said at
a small gathering that celebrated the completion of the project. We are also grateful to
Sidney Griffith who supported the project.
7473

CLEIEITIS SQMMI

RECOGNITIONES

SYRIACE.

PAULIS ANTONIUS DE lAGARDE

EIÌID1T,

LIPSIAE lg61 LONDINH

F. A. BROCKHAUS, ' WILLIAMS & NORGATE.

WAS IIFCBT »Eft BESEItSETZUNG IN 1HGENII WELCHE SPRACHE BI.E1HT VOIUIF.HAI.TEN.

Prof, H, H YY ER * ML D, 0,
GÜILELMO CURETONI
THEOLOGO LONDINIENSI

SACRUM,
 Uuum mense Octobri anni 1852 Londhiium venissero, omnibus aliis musei
britannici eodieibus spretis, recognitionum clementinarum versionem syriacam
describe» coepi. quod facientem inhibuit Guilelmus Cure:ton, so sibi huno
codicem reservatum ye I le significans: cui viro do Uteris syriacis optime merito
obtemperare honestum videbatur. idem Aprili anni 1860, quum septimum Lou-
dinii adessem, ultro dementem obtulit: so eisim uimis occupatum esse dieebat,
quam ut ¡Hi edendo posset vacare, ncque tantum iure suo cessit, sed partem
operis longe maximam*) manu sua deseriptam dono dedit, quam tamen ad co-
dicem denuo exigendam et oiun altero esemplo eonferendam fore monebat rem
igitur confeci, et iam sumtibus meis etiam dementem odo, ter a me cum codi-
cibus coUatum, quarum collationum iìnem feci IV Non. ì l a i a s , I X Kal. lunias,
IV Kon. Iunias.
codices duo Bunt:
A oblongus, M. Brit. add. 12150, scriptus Edessac a. 4 1 1 :
B quadratus, M. Brit. add. 1 4 6 0 9 , quatuor saeculis ilio recentior. pagina-
rum numerus in margino meo notatus.
et quadrates quidem. nihil habet praeter librum oblongi p r i m u m * * ) , mu-
tilus et a codicum syriacorum custode male habitus, qui folia nullo ordine
composita bibìiopego uompingenda tradidit. foUo (quod nnne est) 176 adscriptes
est numerus X X I , folio 16ß X X , folio 158 X I X , folio 150 X V I LI, folio 142 X V I I ,
folio 130 X Y . neuter ubique satis commode legi potest, ita tamen, ut sì
unum habeas, quid in altero scriptum fuerit dubitare nequeas. et in oblongo
quidem fol. 8 ACDF, in quadrato fol. 175 A D 177 AD 178 A sive madore cor-
rupta sive malis manibus lacerate sunt.
editio inea nihil est nisi Adele***) oblongi exemplum: quae quadrates
praebet, imcis inclusa leguntur, semper ad solum yocabulum proximo praecedens
referenda, nisi quibus locis numerum aliquem addo, velut [ 3 - . . ] indicai loco
vocabulorum trium proximorum quadratura ea habere, quae uncis saepta appo-
siti. contra lunulis includo, quae in oblongo a prima manu leguntur. ß signi-
ficai correctorem, stella rasuram, crux additamentam, signum «a omissionem,
lineolae looum qui legi nequit.
libar primus edìtionis synacae (unicus, si quadratimi sequaris) ea confinet,
quae recognitionum versio rufiniana libris tribus primis et quarti capite primo
dimidio, liune in modum :

*) fol. 1 D usque ad tertiuni voeabulum fotil 59 B.

**) nam fol. 178 A (p. 128 editieni» meae) subscriptum habet explicit hktorìa de-
mentis, gui ßimonem. Petrum seguu/iu) est.
***) puncta diacritica literarum lìisch et Dolath omisi, ubi codex iis destitutus est.
acccntus quadrati noia curavi.
VI

I 1 pag. 2,1 I 16 pag. 11,28 1 3 1 pag. 20,29 I 46 pag. 28,10 I 61 pag . 35,14
2 2,18 17 12,13 32 21,3 47 28,27 62 35,26
3 3,3 18 12,33 33 21,17 48 29,11 63 36,14
4 3,29 19 13,23 34 22,3 49 29,22 64 36,31
5 4,20 20 13,35 35 22,24 50 29,35 65 37,6
6 5,9 21 15,1 36 23,14 51 30,22 66 37,22
7 5,29 22 15,28 37 23,26 52 31,1 67 38,6
S G, 17 23 16,8 38 24,15 53 31,23 68 38,24
9 7,10 24 17,1 39 24,30 54 32,2 69 38,33
10 8,35 25 17,20 40 25,1!. 55 32,24 70 39,21
li 9,11 26 18,18 4L 25,24 56 33,3 71 40,2
12 9,29 27 18,35 42 26,3 57 33,13 72 40,22
13 10,15 28 19,18 43 26,15 58 33,34 73 41,11
14 10,33 29 19,29 44 26,30 59 34,7 74 41,29
15 1 ! ,14 30 20,14 45 27,22 6(1 34,28

II 1 p. 42,21 ir io p. 51,5 II 31 p 59,8 [ 1 4 5 p 67,10 i n 59 p 75,7

2 43,14 17 51,22 32 59,27 46 67,29 60 75,24
3 43,30 18 52,2 33 60,6 47 68,14 61 76,5
4 44,9 19 52,31 34 60,31 48 68,27 62 76,21
5 44,29 20 53,14 35 61,20 49 69,4 63 77,4
6 45,11 21 53,31 36 62,4 50 69,13 64 77,20
7 46,9 22 54,16 37 62,21 51 70,1 65 78,1
H 46,17 23 55,5 38 63,7 52 70,24 66 78,23
9 46,32 24 55,20 39 63,20 53 71,9 67 78,34
10 47,30 25 56,1 40 64,13 54 72,2 68 79,14
11 48,3 26 56,31 41 64,22 55 72,22 69 79,26
12 48,20 27 57,16 42 65,10 56 73,6 70 80,2
13 49,2 28 57,27 43 66,10 57 73,30 71 80,19
14 50,8 29 58,9 44 66,26 58 74,13 72 81,1.
15 50,24 30 58,29

III í p. 81,21 III 16 p. 90,32 I I I 31 p. 98,16 i n 46 p. 107,1. III 61 p, 115,15

2 82,2 17 91,18 32 98,28 47 107,22 62 115,31
3 82,12 IS 91,31 38 99,15 48 107,33 63 116,23
4 83,13 19 92,10 34 99,28 49 108,10 64 117,24
5 20 92,25 35 100,13 50 108,35 65 118,6
T—<
—-
33

6 85,3 21. 93,8 36 100,31 51 109,6 66 118,28

7 85,14 22 93,24 37 101,20 52 109,28 67 119,18
8 86,3 23 94,19 38 102,18 53 110,20 68 119,30
<> 86,20 24 [15,1 39 102,34 54 111,3 69 120,20
10 87,3 25 95,16 40 103,12 55 111,22 70 121,1
11 87,22 26 95,35 41 103,27 56 112,16 71 121,17
12 88,17 27 96,22 42 104,20 57 112,31 72 122,1
13 88,33 28 97,4 43 105, L8 58 113,13 73 122,9
14 89,22 29 97,13 44 105,35 59 113,27 74 122,20
15 90,8 30 97,28 45 106,1.5 60 114,30 75 122,29

IV 1 usque ad denunciavimus p. 123,22,

 TU

s e g u i t a r libel' tertius contra gentiles. homilía graeci operis decima:

hom. 10,1 p. 124,2 hom. 10, 8 p. 126,2 hom. 10,15p. 128,18 hom. 10,21 p, 130,23
2 124,6 9 126,17 16 128,35 22 131,3
3 124,19 10 127,5 17 ¡29,7 23 131,17
4 124,30 11 127,13 18 129,20 24 131,30
5 125,7 12 127,20 19 130,3 25 132,4
13 125,17 13 127,31 20 130,16 26 132,16
7 125,28 14 128,7

seguitar lilier quartos, homilía undecima:

hom. 11,1 p. 132,29 hom. 11,10 p. 136,12 hom. 11,19 p. 140,16 hom. 11,28 p. 143,18
2 132,35 11 136,28 20 140,27 29 143,34
3 133,12 12 137,9 21 141,13 30 144,12
4 133,21 13 137,27 22 141,25 31 144,21
5 134É 1.4 138,9 23 141,35 32 144,30
6 134,15 15 138,17 24 142,10 33 145,9
7 134,34 16 139,6 25 142,16 34 145,29
8 135,8 17 139,28 26 142,25 35 145,34
9 135,24 18 140,8 27 143,6 36 146,18

sequuntar TripoUlana Phoeniciae. homilía duodecima non integra et tertia

decima.
hom. 12,1 p. 146,32 hom. 12, 7 p. 148,34 hom. 12,13 p. 150,27 hom. 12,19 p. 152,29
2 147,0 8 149,12 14 151,4 20 153,10
3 147,20 9 149,24 15 151,14 21 153,19
4 147,28 10 149,34 16 151,28 22 153,34
5 148,2 11 150,11 17 152,6 23 154,5
ti 148,16 12 150,18 18 152,20 24 154,25
hom,13,lp.l54,35*) hom. 13, 7p, 156,25 hom. 13,12p. 158,27 , hom. 13,17p. 160,11
2 155,12 8 157,5 13 158,31 18 160,21
3 155,18 9 157,17 14 159,8 19 161,6
4 155,32 10 157,28 15 159,19 20 161,15
5 156,10 11 158,12 16 159,32 21 161,33
6 156,15

seguitar liber decimiti quartus.- homilía quarta decima.

hom. 14,1 p. 162,12 hom. 1 1, 4 p. 163,25 hom. 14,7 p. 165,3 hom. 14,10 p. 166,8
2 162,25 5 164,3 8 165,12 li 166,18
3 163,5 6 164,28 9 165,29 12 167,3
habemus igitar in litro que codice recogn. I — I V i m i , in oblongo solo homil.
X—-.XIV, si discrepantiarum leviorum rationem habere nolimus.

Won possum hoe loco Augustnm Steldtìum silcutio praeterire, typographum

meum, qui quurn aiitea syriaca rmmquam attigissot, Tito et Clemente exscribendis
ita mihi se pvobavit, ut merito cum omnibus commendare possim.

*) rnallem recogn. VII V,ó adseribere.

vm

Librum quem nunc edo in germanicum sermonem verti, quae yersio adno-
tationibus explieata edetur, si et rei familiaris ratio et patriae conditio permi-
serit. ego eiiim libris meis edendis et itineribus in Britanniam suscipiendis
tantum pecuniae insumpsi, ut, absoluta apocryphorum syriacorum editione, in-
gratorum civium pertaesus tandem alt huiuseemodi negotii» abstinendum mihi
esse videam: Germano» vero si a bono deo mox non sine ingenti totius patriae
calamitate et quodam quasi incendio in antiquam iustae nationis ineolumitatem
restitution iri auguramur, proximo tempore libris logendis vacare posse negamus.
Berolini anno 1861 ineunte.
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 Processing may be accomplished in open tanks, in retorts, in
specially constructed pasteurizers, such as used in the brewing
industry, and in hot chambers, the method is not material, though
there may be considerable difference in point of economy.
 FACTORY ARRANGEMENTS.
The making of ketchup is simple and the factory arrangement for
doing the work should be as compact as possible, so that after the
pulp is once heated, there is an advantage in having the various
steps follow in succession by gravity rather than be conveyed by
pumps, especially in small plants. The piping should be as short and
direct as possible. The machinery for filling bottles, corking, etc.,
leaves much to be desired; as separate units they work fairly well,
but there needs to be some method devised for handling the bottles
automatically from the time they are placed on the washer until they
are labeled, ready for the box. At present the time between turning
the crate of tomatoes upon the sorting belt until it is ready for the
box is only slightly over two hours. Further improvement will not be
so much in shortening the time as in eliminating the hand labor.
The foregoing description applies to the making of unfermented,
non-preservative ketchup, made from sound stock and delivered into
the bottle. Very little ketchup, comparatively speaking, is sold to the
consumer in any package other than the bottle. It can be delivered
into the bottle when first made, at less expense for labor, with less
fuel, and with distinctly less waste than at any subsequent time. It
will have a better color and consistency than if stored in bulk and
bottled later. It is, therefore, advisable to bottle as much as possible
at the time it is made. Ketchup may be packed in bulk in jugs, tin
cans, and in barrels, but not satisfactorily; the jug is a poor package;
the enamel may be dissolved off the tin can and pinholes form; and
the barrel always gives a poor color and off flavor. The best
container for bulk ketchup is the gallon glass bottle.
 PULP STOCK.
During the height of the season, it may not be possible to convert
all the tomatoes directly into ketchup, in which event the surplus
may be made into pulp. The first part of the operation is identical
with that already described. The concentration is carried just far
enough so that subsequently by slow heating for spicing it will give
the proper consistency when made into ketchup. A standard has not
been fixed, but tentatively it has been proposed that it be at about a
specific gravity of 1.035. The concentration may be carried further
and water added at the time of the final cooking, but when this is
done, the resultant product does not have the same smooth
consistency that is obtained by using the thinner pulp. Heavy pulp is
made for the purpose of economizing in cans, but experience has
shown that economy does not always follow. The higher the
concentration, the higher the acid content, and this may attack the
enamel and metal with resulting bitter flavor and frequent pinholes.
Some manufacturers who prepare their own pulp carry the
concentration between 1.030 and 1.033. The method of obtaining
this density is to use flasks graduated to hold 500 or 1000 grams of
water at 200 degrees F., fill them with the hot pulp and weigh at
once. For each flask there should be a proper counterpoise, and the
balance be sensitive and weigh in grams. If the 1000-gram flask be
used, the specific gravity will be the same as the weight of the pulp.
With a valve funnel the flask may be filled level full and the weight
taken in less than thirty seconds. For cold pulp, a similar flask is
used, but graduated at 60 degrees F. and after filling, the flask is set
in a sling and whirled a few times to free it from bubbles, filled again
to the level, and then weighed. For pulp of a specific gravity of less
than 1.037, this gives fairly concordant results, but the errors
increase rapidly the higher the concentration. The same methods
may be employed on ketchup. Recently, W. D. Bigelow has improved
the apparatus by using a copper flask and adding a handle by which
the flask may be submerged in the kettle to take the sample and
thus prevents the entrance of air. The use of flasks of any size is
described in Bulletin No. 3, National Canners’ Association.
The use of the specific gravity method only partly solves the
question of standardization. Two pulps each of 1.035 may vary
considerably in what the chef terms body and there is no method of
accurately measuring this factor or expressing it. Pulp made by
draining will be lighter in weight with the same body, and that from
skins and cores will be rough or have the appearance of separating
into small flakes or lumps. The specific gravity bears a close relation
to the soluble solids, and as these do not have a constant ratio to
the fiber in whole fruit, and as the ratio is further disturbed by
drainage and in the use of trimmings, it is obvious that the method
will not give an exact standard.
Pulp should be filled into gallon or five gallon cans as hot as
possible and sealed at once. The practice followed by some
manufacturers is to steam the cans first, then depend upon the heat
in the pulp to sterilize. The cans are allowed to stand hot for forty
minutes, then cooled. The other practice is to give the hot cans a
process of about twenty minutes for gallons, forty minutes for five
gallons, and then to cool. Cooling is essential to retain color and
flavor, as prolonged heat causes “stack burning,” producing a
brownish color and a bitter taste. The highest grade pulp can not be
held in barrels for the reason that the heat is retained too long.
Stack burning will take place in glass if the packages are not allowed
to cool well in the air before being stored, though the changes are
not so marked as in the tin.
 PULP FROM TRIMMINGS.
The losses in stock from canning tomatoes amounts to about forty
per cent. This is due to the unbusiness-like attempt to can all kinds
—very large, very small, and wrinkled, which can not be peeled with
economy—to wasteful methods of peeling, and to excessive draining
of fruit from handling in too thick layers. In this waste there is much
that has good food value and which might be worked up into pulp or
ketchup stock if properly done. In order to do this, the tomatoes
should be sorted so that only those which are in perfect condition for
canning will go to the peelers. These should be medium sized, firm,
evenly ripened all over, and free from wrinkles. Such tomatoes can
be peeled at the minimum of expense and loss. The sound tomatoes
which are small, excessively large, wrinkled, or with green butts, can
go in with whole tomato stock. The loss in peeling will then be small
and can advantageously be discarded. If it be decided to use
trimmings from the peeling tables, provision must be made for extra
washing, as the ordinary washer removes little more than the coarse
dirt and particles, is not sufficient for unusual conditions or to
remove tightly-adhering material, and, furthermore, rot must be
eliminated before the tomatoes go to the peelers. The writer has
never seen a group of one hundred, or any number, of peelers who
will stop to trim and separate rot from peels and cores. Trimming
can be done better by a few when sorting the tomatoes than at any
subsequent step. If clean skins and cores can be had from the
peeling table, they can be converted into pulp and sold if labeled
properly, “from trimmings.” Whether such waste is suitable for a
good product depends upon how it is handled. For the most part, it
has not been handled as well as it should be.
The finished pulp made from skins and cores is not the same as
that from whole stock. It contains more fiber, remains more or less
lumpy, and lacks the smooth body of whole pulp. The color is not so
good, and the flavor is likely to be somewhat different. The flavor of
the seed cells and that of the fleshy portion of the tomato are
different. Pulp made from each part separately shows marked
difference, that from the seed cells being poor in color, but with the
more characteristic fruit flavor. Tests show that neither part has any
true jellying powers, but that the part from the seed cells gives the
quality of smoothness, the holding together of the particles of solids.
Neither gives a first class pulp alone.
 COLOR.
Home-made ketchup generally has a rather dark reddish or
brownish color, due to prolonged heating, made necessary under
kitchen conditions. At one time this was thought desirable and some
of the older recipes call for the use of caramel in order to imitate this
color. Most manufacturers now aim to secure a clean, clear color,
preferably bright red. This may be obtained when good fruit is used
and handled quickly; a muddy brownish or yellowish color is looked
upon with suspicion as indicating poor material or defective
methods.
The necessity for a clear red variety has already been pointed out,
for without proper stock, a superior product of uniform quality can
not be made. The tomatoes must be well vine-ripened, as the
presence of green fruit and green butts has a decidedly dulling
effect. Colorimeter tests show that the use of even small quantities
of green material have an immediate dulling effect. Promptness in
handling the fruit after the tissue is once exposed to the air is also
essential. The tomato, like some other fruits, turns brownish when
the surface is cut or exposed. This does not occur as rapidly, nor is it
so marked as in apples or in pears, but it is present. When the
tomato is converted into pulp, every particle is exposed to the air for
a very short time—long enough to make some slight change. The
change is most marked in pulp from raw stock and least in that
which has been well heated. It naturally follows that ketchup made
promptly from whole stock will have the best color, that from canned
tomatoes next, then canned pulp, and lastly, that from trimming
stock. Pulp allowed to stand hot for too long a time will have a
brownish color like stack burning. When barrel pulp was used, this
was ascribed to the tannin extracted from the oak.
Pulp should not come in contact with iron at any stage, as the
union of the acid of the fruit with the metal will cause discoloration.
When such discoloration does occur, it becomes uniform throughout
the mass, and not in the neck of the bottle as has sometimes been
described.
Darkening in the neck of the bottle is frequently due to the spices
used, as has already been pointed out. It can be redistributed
throughout the whole by placing the bottle in a shaker for a short
time.
Darkening at the top may sometimes be due to extraction of color
from the corks. Soaking corks in two per cent acetic acid, then in hot
water before drying, and paraffining, will assist in preventing
discoloration on cheap grades.
Discoloration in the neck also results from the small amount of air
incorporated and from any subsequent addition which may come in
through the cork or seal. Bottles which are full to the cork may show
no darkening, those having a space of an inch or more between the
contents and cork may show little discoloration, while those having
more space will show much more marked discoloration. This holds
for both pulp and ketchup and in this case the discoloration begins
on the surface and works downward. The product made from some
fruit will discolor more than that made from fruit grown in another
section of the country.
A bright red color is secured in some brands of ketchup by means
of paprika, as indicated under spicing.
A light colored ring in the bottom of a bottle is generally due to
organisms and debris, indicative of the use of barrel or trimming-
stock pulp, or it may result from changes after the process of
manufacture. It has been mistaken for sand.
 KEEPING QUALITY.
Ketchup must not only keep while in the unopened bottle, but for
a reasonable time after opening, if it is to be a commercial success.
Every canner understands that if he puts food in a hermetically
sealed package and sterilizes by heat, that it will keep until opened.
The same principle applies to ketchup in the bottle, but there are
some packers who wish to be spared this expense and trouble and
prefer to use a substitute for heating.
The keeping quality after opening depends upon the utilization of
the same principles followed in the household operation of making
fruit butters, ketchup, preserves, and pickles, that is, sufficient
concentration and the use of sugar and vinegar. A ketchup can be
made essentially a pickle with an excessive quantity of vinegar and it
will keep; it can be made a preserve with excess of sugar and it will
keep; or, it can be made a distinctive sauce well concentrated in
which the vinegar and sugar are used only in sufficient quantity to
give proper flavor, and it will keep. Apple juice or cider will spoil
quickly if allowed to stand in a warm place; apple sauce will behave
in like manner only a little more slowly; but if the juice and sauces
be boiled together until they have acquired the consistency or state
known as apple butter, they will keep very well. The acidity, sugars,
and solids have been increased by the concentration. In the making
of tomato ketchup, the fruit does not have sufficient acidity and
sugar of itself to give preservative property at the concentration
desired for a sauce, so these are augmented by the addition of
vinegar and sugar.
A great deal of stress has also been placed upon the effect of the
spices in acting as preservatives. Experiments have demonstrated
conclusively that when these are used in the small quantities
required for flavoring, that their effect is practically nil. The active
principles of the spices are effective only when present in the
proportion of 1 to 500 or 600 and in ketchup the proportion is only 1
to several thousand. Likewise the quantity of salt is too small to have
effect.
The keeping qualities of a mild ketchup will depend far more upon
the sterilization than most manufacturers realize. It is easy to make
almost any ketchup apparently keep while the bottle is unopened.
The spoilage after opening is most often observed to be due to mold
which has been assumed to come from infection from the air. As a
matter of fact, this is nearly always due to spores which have been
held in abeyance, due to lack of air while in the bottle, and which
begin growth as soon as conditions are favorable. Spores which fall
into the bottle from the air might be unable to germinate upon such
a medium, while those already present would.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMERCIAL KETCHUP.
While tomato ketchup is a complex and variable product, its
general composition may be determined with a fair degree of
accuracy. Inspection will give a good idea of color, consistency,
smoothness of body, fineness of finish, tendency to separate,
presence of objectionable particles, and evidence of gross
fermentation. The odor and taste will give a clue to the kind and
quantity of spices used and to a certain extent the character of the
raw material. Judging by odor and taste is not so well done as
judging by the eye by most persons. The education of those two
senses has been neglected and therefore fail to give all the
information which might be acquired in this way.
A chemical examination which will give the specific gravity, total
and soluble solids, sugar, salt, and total and volatile acidity, will be
sufficient to give a good idea of the stock used—tomato, salt, sugar,
and vinegar, but not the spices. A microscopic examination will assist
in determining the condition of the material used and whether
decomposition has taken place before or after manufacture. The
facts obtained through these sources will permit of classifying
commercial ketchup with a fair degree of accuracy.
There has been a very marked change in the character of ketchup
since the transition from the preservative to non-preservative goods,
not only microscopically, but also in composition. Formerly, there
were very many brands of thin liquid ketchup, showing little
concentration of pulp, very low in sugar, and having only small
quantities of vinegar; the standard was bulk rather than quality. The
microscopic examination also showed that the product had
frequently undergone change before and after preparation. Recent
examinations show that there has been a very marked improvement;
that the body is decidedly heavier, more sugar and vinegar are used,
the tissue is cleaner, and there are fewer organisms present, also
that the difference in composition in preservative and non-
preservative ketchup is small, whereas, formerly it was marked.
The variations found in ketchup of rather recent examination show
in the non-preservative kind the specific gravity varied between
1.091 and 1.177; the solids between 19 and 37 per cent; the salt
between 2 and 4 per cent; sugar between 12 and 29 per cent; and
volatile acids between .54 and 1.24 per cent. In the preservative
kind, the specific gravity ranged from 1.032 to 1.120; the solids from
9.23 to 28 per cent; salt, 1.48 to 3.4 per cent; sugar, 4.95 to 16.9
per cent; and volatile acidity, .16 to .64 per cent. As a class they
averaged lower in concentration of tomato and in sugar and vinegar,
though if proper sterilization had been used, some of them would
have kept without difficulty. In experimental work it was found that a
ketchup concentrated so that when finished it showed an added
sugar content of 15 per cent or more, a total acidity of 1.2 per cent,
and a specific gravity of 1.120 or more, that it would keep. To obtain
a total acidity of 1.2 per cent means the addition of about .4 to .6
per cent acidity in the vinegar used. However, there are brands of
ketchup on the market which keep well after being opened and
which have a total acidity of less than 1.0 per cent.
The manufacturer can use the following as a starting point for
non-preservative ketchup; pulp, 100 gallons; sugar, 60 pounds; salt,
8 pounds; vinegar, 100 grain, 2 gallons; spice to flavor; and
concentrate to 50 to 55 gallons.
 MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION.

A discussion of the microscopic appearance of ketchup in terms

which can be readily understood by manufacturers is not an easy
task, as it necessarily involves technical knowledge. The subject has
become one of importance, owing to the attitude of many food
officials in enforcing a microscopic standard for this product, and on
the part of many brokers in requiring a guarantee to comply with
this standard in making purchases. Many manufacturers have either
assumed or found it necessary to have their finished products
examined. Some employ “experts” to make the examinations in their
own plants, while the majority send their samples to commercial
laboratories. The total tax upon the industry for such work amounts
to thousands of dollars annually. The result of the work as a whole
has been beneficial, as any effort is which attracts attention to
details. It has likewise been the means of causing much
unpleasantness and not infrequently loss, because of lack of
understanding on the part of both manufacturer and examiner as to
the cause of certain findings. The manufacturers have proceeded in
the usual way without sufficient knowledge of what the resultant
product will be unless there is careful supervision of material and
methods, while too frequently the examiner is neither experienced in
technique of the examination nor in the effects of the different steps
in manufacture upon the product. Furthermore, much distrust in
microscopic finding is evinced when a half dozen or more samples
from the same batch, sent to as many persons, result in as many
different reports. It naturally causes a lack of confidence in both paid
examiners and in food officials, though those who make these
examinations may be absolutely honest in their findings. In order to
clarify some of the points, it has become necessary to go into detail,
into both the method of examination and into the effect produced by
manufacture.
A scientific method of food examination is necessary for food
officials in order to determine the condition of a product, but is not
necessary for the manufacturer, though it may be advantageous.
The latter is in a position to know what enters his factory and what
changes take place in the food until it reaches the sealed package.
He should have no fear of a method which correlates the findings in
the finished product with that of the material used and the changes
due to treatment.
Undue importance may seemingly be given to the subject of
ketchup, but the principle involved applies as well to other products.
The fundamental basis for the microscopic examination of any
food product must depend upon the structure of the material which
enters into its composition. Any attempt to determine an abnormal
condition, such as decomposition, without a knowledge of the
normal, must necessarily be of little value. There is some work which
can be done in a mechanical manner by almost anyone capable of
looking through a microscope, and if the work is properly
supervised, it may have a value, but the lines along which this can
be done are very limited. Any attempt to apply such superficial
methods to the general examination of food products can not
properly protect the public and may be unfair to the producer. It has,
therefore, been deemed advisable to incorporate a brief statement
concerning the structure of the tomato before discussing the
resultant products.
 HISTOLOGY OF THE TOMATO AND OF THE
RESULTING KETCHUP.

STRUCTURE OF THE TOMATO.

Pericarp. The tomato is a typical berry, the ovary wall, free from
the calyx, forming the fleshy pericarp, which encloses chambers
filled with a clear matrix, containing the seeds. The pericarp consists
of an outer tough membrane, the epidermis, a more or less thick
layer of parenchyma tissue, the pulp, and an inner thin, delicate
membrane, the lining layer of the loculi or chambers in which are the
seeds. The epidermis consists of a single layer of cells which have a
very thick continuous cuticle about one-half of the diameter of the
whole cell. The cuticle differs in chemical composition from the rest
of the cell walls, being impervious to water, and resisting rotting
longer than do the cellulose walls. As it is continuous over the whole
of the fruit, the skin can be readily separated from the other tissues.
Hot water facilitates the removal of the skin, as it causes the
cellulose of the walls to swell more than the cuticle, producing an
effect as of shrinkage of the outer wall and a consequent curling of
the skin. The radial walls of the epidermis are short and irregularly
thickened, leaving pits in the walls, and giving them a beaded
appearance. The skin constitutes about 1.3 per cent of the tomato.
The layers of parenchyma just beneath the epidermis are closely
united and flattened, with their adjoining walls irregularly thickened.
On account of their position, they are called hypoderm. In the
tomato the hypoderm consists of two or three layers of cells, parts
of which usually separate with the epidermis. Below these cells are
the thin-walled parenchyma cells, which are approximately globular,
vary considerably in size, are very loosely held together, and have
many intercellular spaces. These cells constitute the mass of the
pulp, and with the juice constitute 96.2 per cent of the tomato.
 The layer of cells which lines the chambers has the typical leaf
epidermal structure, the wavy outlines, the hollows and
protuberances of adjoining cells fitting one another so that they form
a continuous layer. They are also flattened laterally. The structure
can be understood readily when it is known that the pericarp is
really a metamorphosed leaf and that the outer side of the leaf
forms the inner wall of the ovary.
The chambers of the tomato are filled with a clear, slimy matrix in
which the seeds are embedded. The matrix consists of parenchyma
cells of various sizes and with delicate walls, and a small nucleus.
The cells are massed loosely, and can be separated readily. In those
cells, as well as in the wall cells, are starch grains which vary in size,
being round or approximately so, and having the hilum, when
visible, a straight line to one side of the center.
Coloring Matters. In the parenchyma cells are two coloring
matters, one yellow, which is amorphous in structure, and the other
red and of crystalline form. The sap contains a yellow color in
solution which differs in its reactions from those in the pulp.
Red Color in Tomatoes. The red coloring matter in tomatoes is
in the form of irregularly shaped crystal-like chromoplasts, which
occur in masses of various sizes. They are present in largest
amounts usually in the protoplasm which lies close to the ectoplasm
and in that surrounding the nucleus. They vary from sharp, bright-
colored forms to those more or less blunt in outline, and dull in color.
They may be situated largely in the periderm, the soft parenchyma
beneath the periderm, or through the whole mass of the
parenchyma with the exception of the matrix surrounding the seeds
in the loculi. In tomatoes having the color in the periderm a
considerable amount is lost by adherence to the skin. The
chromoplasts are not affected by rotting to the same extent as are
the other constituents of the cell; they can be found floating free in
the debris from rotted cells, still retaining considerable color. They
lose their color gradually, in some varieties much more rapidly than
in others. In stored pulp which has fermented, the color may be
faded to a dull yellowish brown. In tomatoes intended for ketchup
where a bright red color is desirable, care should be used in the
selection of a variety having the chromoplasts bright, properly
oriented, and in sufficient quantity.
Vascular Bundles. In the pulp of the tomato are found strands
of vascular tissue, entering from the stem, and dividing and
ramifying through the soft pulp. These consist of long tubes with
thin walls, some of which have a strengthening band in spiral form
on their interior walls, the associated cells being without any special
marking. The strands vary in size from those having a few tubes to
those having a large number.
Seeds. The seeds of the tomato are small, flattened, yellow
bodies covered by a clear gelatinous membrane. Their peculiar
characteristic is the out-growth of hairs of varying lengths. The
seeds constitute about 2.5 per cent of the weight of the tomato.
 STRUCTURE OF KETCHUP.
Although the tomato pulp is broken into fine particles by the
action of the cyclone, and the skin and seeds are removed by the
fine sieves, pieces of the various tissues can be readily identified.
The skin and seeds have characteristics which would serve to
distinguish them from similar parts of other vegetables which might
be used for adulteration, but particles of skin and hairs from the
seeds are rarely found. The distinctive features which can be relied
upon are the red, irregularly-shaped, chromoplastic bodies in the
parenchyma cells, and the peculiar wavy-outlined cells of the lining
layer of the chambers. As nearly all young vegetable tissues have
spiral vessels in their vascular strands, these are not distinctive,
except that they might differentiate similar tissues of different size.
There is very little starch in mature tomatoes, and moreover, as the
cooking causes the starch to swell and lose its structure, the starch
could not be used for identification.
Good ketchup made from whole tomatoes, in spite of the
minuteness of the particles, has a clean appearance, and can be
readily distinguished from poor ketchup. All ketchup will have some
micro-organisms present, as it is practically impossible to free the
tomatoes from them in the washing, but the number is very small in
some of the best, in the manufacture of which careful washing and
sorting have been done. The poorer the ketchup, usually, the greater
number of organisms—bacteria, yeasts, and molds; sometimes one
form predominating, sometimes all three being in great abundance,
this latter condition usually prevailing in the poorest ketchup, where
more or less rotting has occurred.
As the tomato pulp is a favorable medium for certain organisms,
these will develop first, and it has also been determined that while
one organism is developing vigorously, others present are checked
until the activity of the first ceases. Then again, as the composition
of the pulp is being altered by the development of the organisms,
the changes induced render it a more suitable medium for other
organisms which are present but held in abeyance, so that pulp
which has been allowed to stand for some time will usually have
present not only a large number, but also different kinds of
organisms.
 CHANGES PRODUCED IN PULP BY ROTTING.
When tissue is held and allowed to rot spontaneously, the pulp is
decomposed into a granular, watery mass. The cells beneath the
epidermis are the finest and driest in the sound tomato, considerable
pressure of the cover-glass being required to separate them for
examination. Even when forced apart, the cells retain their shape.
They contain a delicate semi-transparent protoplasm with a rather
large nucleus surrounded by protoplasm and having strands from
this mass connect with the protoplasm lining the wall. Pieces of the
same tissue, on having the skin removed so as to expose the broken
tissue to the air, were covered with mold in one day and in three
days so badly disorganized that the cells separated with the weight
of the cover-glass. The cells were transparent, the walls collapsed
into a wrinkled mass, the protoplasm had disappeared, except a
skeleton of the nucleus, but the red chromoplastic masses were
intact. The middle lamella of the cells is the part which dissolves
first, allowing the cells to separate and causing the walls to become
thinner. The cell cavity is often filled with bacteria, so that the effect
of the rotting can not be seen until the cells have been washed
thoroughly. These bacteria have been mistaken for the particles left
by the decomposition of the cell contents. The vascular bundles are
surrounded usually by small parenchyma cells which do not separate
readily from the strand in the healthy tissue, but in the decayed
tissue the vessels can be seen clearly, free from other tissue. In
advanced stages of rottenness the walls of the vessels may be
dissolved, leaving only the spiral thickening, and the parenchyma
tissue crumbled into powder-like fragments. The parts of the tomato
which resist rotting the longest are the skin, which may be washed
clean of adhering particles, the spirals of the vessels, and red
particles of the chromoplasts.
The conditions found in the rotted sections and pieces of tomato
can be distinguished in the poor ketchup and these factors, together
with the large number of organisms present, serve for purposes of
differentiation.
 ORGANISMS IN KETCHUP.
Tomato pulp furnishes a medium suitable for the development of
many organisms, as it contains all of the necessary food elements.
The raw pulp has an acidity of from 0.2 to 0.4 per cent usually,
though there may be variation due to fermentation and other
causes. On account of its mild acidity, it is especially suitable for the
development of many yeasts and molds, and some forms of
bacteria, consequently there is present a varied and abundant flora if
the pulp be held for an appreciable time before using, or if it has
been made from tomatoes not properly sorted and washed. Where
the black rot occurs on tomatoes, the tissue is hardened like cork,
and if not removed on the sorting belt, is broken into small pieces by
the cyclone, and appears as black specks in the ketchup, these being
readily perceived by the naked eye. The white rot forms soft spots,
which, though not so prominent as the black, carry much more
contamination, as, apart from the bacteria, yeasts, and molds
present, they are often swarming with Protozoa. These are not
ordinarily recognized in the ketchup, as a chemical or physical shock
causes them to contract, assume a spherical shape, and become
motionless. In this condition they resemble the immature conidia of
some of the molds. Rarely only one organism predominates in pulp
from rotted fruit, then the rot consisting of a nearly pure culture. In
all cases of soft rot, there is much more contamination carried, as
the organisms are small and a greater number present in a given
area. Whenever the inner tissue of tomatoes is exposed, organisms
develop rapidly, the forms varying with the locality and the
conditions in the pulp. Some of these organisms may survive the
treatment of the pulp when converted into ketchup, or the original
organisms may be destroyed, and a different set gain access and
develop, but in either event all the organisms alive or dead which
were present at the period of manufacture are found in the ketchup.
It has been noted that certain brands of ketchup have
predominating organisms present which are practically constant from
year to year.
A method for the microscopic examination of ketchup in order to
determine the number of organisms present is described in Circular
No. 68, Bureau of Chemistry. It consists in an adaptation of a
method used in examining blood in physiological and pathological
work, and of yeast in the brewing, wine-making, and distilling
industries. The outfit required consists of two parts, the microscope
and the counting chamber, each with minor accessories. The optical
outfit recommended for food examination consists of a microscope
with eye pieces and objectives which will give approximate
magnifications of 90, 180, and 500 diameters. It is advised that
these magnifications be obtained by using 16 mm and 8 mm
apochromatic objectives, and ×6 and ×18 compensating oculars (×6
ocular and 16 mm objective equals ×90; ×6 ocular and 8 mm
objective equals ×180; and ×18 ocular and 8 mm objective equals
×500), higher objectives being impracticable on account of their
short working distances. This equipment is adequate for working
upon blood or yeast, but is wholly inadequate for bacteriological
work, except that of the simplest character and under conditions
quite different from those found in ketchup and other food products.
The counting apparatus or chamber recommended is known as
the Thoma-Zeiss haemacytometer, named from the designer and
maker. The apparatus consists of a heavy glass slip, on which is
cemented a glass 0.2 mm thick, having a circular hole in the middle.
In the center of the hole is mounted a smaller disk 0.1 mm thick,
leaving an annular space. In the middle of the small inner disk are
etched two sets of twenty-one parallel lines which cut each other at
right angles. The drop of liquid to be examined is placed on this
square, after which it is covered with a specially heavy cover-glass,
which, if perfect and adjusted so closely that Newton’s rings appear,
gives a layer of liquid 0.1 mm in depth. The drop to be examined
must be so small that it remains in the middle of the chamber, but in
contact with the cover-glass and bottom of the cell. Each side of the
ruled square is 0.1 mm, and as there are 20 spaces on a side, there
is a total of 400 small squares, the depth being 0.1 mm, thus the
cubical content of each is 1-4,000 c mm or 1-4,000,000 cc. For
convenience in counting, every fifth space is sub-divided. Other
counting chambers have been devised based on the same principle,
but varying chiefly in their rulings for convenience in counting.
The other apparatus recommended consists of a 50 cc graduated
cylinder, slides, and cover-glasses.
Since the counting chamber has been used extensively in blood
examination and in yeast work, a brief description of the technique
as followed in the latter may serve to give a better understanding of
its limitations. First, in the preparation of the sample, the cylinder
and flasks for mixing, and the pipette must be absolutely clean. The
liquid to be examined is shaken thoroughly and then the measured
sample withdrawn as quickly as possible to prevent the cells from
settling and diluted with weak sulphuric acid (about 10 per cent),
which prevents any further development of cells, and also aids both
in the separation of the cells from one another and in their
suspension—the latter factor being important when only a single
drop is taken for examination. When counting blood cells, a normal
or other salt solution is used so as to have the specific gravity of the
diluent approximately that of the blood serum. The dilution is made
as low as possible, since the number obtained in the count has to be
multiplied by the dilution co-efficient, and any errors made are
increased proportionately. A slight error when multiplied by the
factor 4,000,000, the unit for each square, becomes very large in the
total. The sample is shaken very thoroughly after the diluent is
added, a drop of the liquid taken by means of a pipette, placed in
the center of the counting chamber, and the cover-glass put in place.
The withdrawal of the pipette and the transference of the drop to
the chamber are done as quickly as possible to prevent the cells
from sinking. The determination of the number of blood corpuscles,
yeasts, or other cells in one cubic centimeter, the unit of volume
generally used, will depend upon the average found in a number of
squares. The number of squares to be counted is determined by
making counts until a constant average is obtained, for if a true
average is not obtained, the counting, naturally, is of no value. If the
mounts do not show uniformity in the field, they are repeated.
In using the counting chamber for counting yeast cells and blood
corpuscles, for which it was originally devised, the bodies to be
examined are fairly large, well defined, and suspended in a fairly
clear liquid, usually of rather high specific gravity. Even with these
favorable conditions, the work must be done by observing the most
careful technique in order to get relative results, which will be of
value, and they are absolutely useless if any detail has been slighted
or neglected. In attempting to adapt the method to food products,
very different conditions are encountered—conditions which are
opposed to obtaining accurate results. Food products, like ketchup,
consist of a mixture of solids and liquids in which are various forms
of organisms, the latter in varying condition, due to their
environment and treatment, as well as to stages of disorganization.
In estimating the number of yeasts and spores in pulp or ketchup,
the Thoma-Zeiss counting chamber is used and the mount observed
under a magnification of 180 diameters. To prepare the sample, 10
cc of the material has 20 cc of water added and is “thoroughly
mixed.” Before taking a drop for examination, the sample is allowed
to rest for a “moment” to allow the “coarsest particles” to settle.
This step in the technique is not as clear as could be desired, for
what might be considered as “thoroughly mixed” by one
microscopist as a half dozen shakings of the cylinder, might not be
so construed by another even with sixty shakings. As the material
consists of both solids and liquid, this is a very important detail, as it
may easily account for some of the wide differences in results
obtained by different workers on the same sample. In a bulletin[2]
dealing with the examination of solid foods, the following statement
occurs relative to the shaking in order to be able to obtain the
bacterial condition: “The longer the shaking, the more perfect was
the diffusion of particles. It could not, however, be continued beyond
a comparatively short period of time, because of the multiplication of
organisms. With the quantities of tissue above stated, ten minutes’
shaking was selected as a happy medium between an undesirable
multiplication of the organisms on the one hand and the retention of
the organisms by the tissue and the consequent lowering of the
numbers found, on the other.” The organisms in pulp or ketchup are
dead, or, if alive, do not possess such phenomenal power of
multiplication, therefore, the shaking should be conducted with
sufficient energy and for a sufficient time to insure their separation
from the tissue. Furthermore, “letting stand for a moment” may
mean thirty seconds or two or three minutes to different persons.

2. No. 115—Bureau of Chemistry, Dept. of Agr.

In all biological work involving the counting of organisms, either
by the plate or direct method, in the case of yeast, the operator
works as rapidly as possible to prevent the organisms from settling,
so as to have them evenly distributed in order that he may obtain an
average sample. A pipette is used for removal of a drop of the liquid
and the drop placed in the chamber as quickly as possible to prevent
settling. No directions are given as to how the drop of the diluted
pulp or ketchup is to be removed to the chamber, so that a stirring
rod or other apparatus is frequently used, as the solid particles
interfere with the use of a fine pipette. If the rod be inserted to the
bottom, or nearly to the bottom of the mixture and withdrawn slowly
and another withdrawn somewhat rapidly, a difference of fifty per
cent or even more may result in the count. It is not possible for
different operators to use pipettes, glass rods, pen knives,
toothpicks, and matches for drawing the samples, and get
comparable results. It has been found that in (all of these have been
seen in use) the counting of the organisms in pulp and ketchup,
some persons use distilled water, others tap water, some clean their
measuring flasks and pipettes, while others rinse them, so that
naturally reports are made of such varying numbers that
manufacturers do not look upon the method with confidence. It is
only by using uniform methods and the same care necessary for
other biological work that even an approximation can be made.
 STRUCTURE OF THE TOMATO.
To obtain the number of yeasts and spores in the sample, a count
is made in one-half of the ruled squares. Two hundred squares
represent a volume equivalent to 1-20 c mm, which, multiplied by
the dilution, would give the number in 1-60 c mm. It is stated that it
is believed that it is possible for manufacturers to keep the count
below 25 per 1-60 c mm.
The same mount is used in estimating the bacteria, but the ×18
ocular used so as to increase the magnification to approximately 500
diameters. The “number in several areas, each consisting of five of
the small squares, is counted.” Nothing is said as to the order of the
five squares, whether in a row or other arrangement, nor what
number constitutes “several.” The average number found in five
squares represents the number in 1-800,000 part of a cc, and this
multiplied by 3, for the dilution, would make the factor 1-2,400,000
for a cc. It is stated that it is believed that it is possible for
manufacturers to keep within 12,500,000 bacteria per cc in the pulp
and 25,000,000 in ketchup. The number present is expressed in
terms per cc though the yeast and spores are expressed in 1-60 c
mm. Possibly bacteria to the lay mind mean something dangerous,
so by expressing the numbers in millions they appear appalling.
Yeasts and spores are not so generally associated with dirt and
disease so that by giving them a small unit, only 1-60,000 part of a
cc, they may seem much less offensive. If the mind is capable of
conceiving what is meant by millions per cc for bacteria in one case,
there seems to be no good reason why the same unit of volume
should not hold for the other.
To estimate the number of molds present, a drop of the undiluted
pulp or ketchup is placed on an ordinary slide and the ordinary
cover-glass pressed down until a film of 0.1 mm is obtained. The
directions state that after some experience this can be done, but do
not state how one’s efforts may be directed to obtain this result. It is
apparent that by experience in comparing a measured amount with
a judged amount that the tendency would be toward accuracy, but
in this case there is no measured amount for comparison, except the
diluted drop in the counting chamber. Some workers have placed
thin cover-glasses under the edges of the mount so as to have
something to help in estimating the thickness of the film, but as the
thinnest ordinary cover-glasses vary from .12 to .17 mm in
thickness, the error varies 20 to 70 per cent from that required. One
manufacturer in advertising No. 1 cover-glasses states that they vary
from 0.13 to 0.17 mm, while another states they vary from 1-200 to
1-150 of an inch (0.127 to 0.169 mm). Careful checks show that it is
not always easy to get exactly .1 mm on the specially prepared
counting chamber; that unless the cover be placed with care and
pressed uniformly on all sides until Newton’s rings appear, a variation
of ten per cent or more in thickness may occur, and without such a
guide the error becomes greater. The micrometer screw adjustment
on the microscope can be used to help in determining the thickness,
but none of the workers observed has used this refinement.
The examination for mold is made with the ×6 ocular and 16 mm
objective, giving a magnification of approximately 90 times. About
50 fields are supposed to be examined and the result expressed in
terms of the per cent in which mold was found. It is stated that it is
believed that manufacturers can conduct their operations so that
mold will not be present in more than 25 per cent of the fields.
There are, therefore, three units in which to express the results:
bacteria in cubic centimeters, yeasts and spores in one-sixtieth of a
cubic millimeter, and molds in percentage of microscopic fields.
Aside from the errors which may occur in the manipulation of the
purely mechanical part of the technique, there are other
considerations which affect the accuracy of the results. First, the
differentiation between organisms and tissues is not considered
possible by most pathologists and bacteriologists without differential
staining. Even in such simple examinations as those for diphtheria
and tuberculosis, a stain is required. In foods the particles of the
plant tissue and the organisms are not so different that they can be
clearly separated without using similar technique. It is possible to
make some separation, but not with accuracy. Threads of
protoplasm may be mistaken for bacilli; the granular contents of a
cell for cocci, yeasts, or spores; bits of cell wall for hyphae under the
magnifications given, and the results obtained be high or low,
depending upon the personal ability of the operator. Each error
magnified by the enormous factor used in calculating the final result
naturally gives figures which may be far above or below the truth.
Those who have had special training in plant structure and
bacteriology are likely to give the higher figures, while those who
have had these subjects as incidentals in a scientific course are apt
to give much lower ones.
Second. The standard is set for what organisms shall be counted
and those which need not be. It is said that micrococci need not be
counted because of the difficulty in distinguishing them from
“particles of clay, etc.,” and not upon their power to produce
decomposition. When an organism is a coccus and when rod shaped
is not easily settled, even with the aid of pure cultures and high
power objectives. More than one organism has found a home first in
one group and then in the other, and differentiation with the low
power obtained by an 8 mm objective is impossible. There are
always present some very large rods, but there may be more very
short ones which may not be counted, and there is nearly always a
diplococcus present, which, with the magnification used, is difficult
to differentiate from a rod. There are four forms associated with rot
and tomato diseases which have been carefully studied—all rods, but
very small ones. Ps. fluorescence, 0.68×1.17-1.86; Ps.
michiganense, 0.35-0.4×0.8-1.0; B. carotovorus, 0.7-1.0×1.5-5; and
B. solanacearum, 0.5×1.5. Bacillus subtilis, .7×2-8 and some lactic
acid forming varieties are always present. It is clearly a matter of
judgment on the part of the examiner as to which organisms he will
count and which he will not attempt to count. A personal equation is
thus introduced which nullifies the possibilities of scientific accuracy.
 The yeasts and spores are counted together. They can not be
separated under the microscope, neither can they be differentiated
from contracted protozoa which may be present in large numbers. In
counting these, it is not always possible to distinguish the smaller
yeast cells and smaller spores from the refractive bodies which are
formed in some mold hyphae when these are impoverished, and
which are liberated if thorough shaking of the sample be done. The
yeasts found in pulp and ketchup are more likely to be “wild yeasts”
and these are, as a general thing, smaller than the cultivated,
sporulate more readily, and have more highly refractive spores.
Then, some of the so-called molds found form minute conidia and
when these and the yeasts are mixed with the detritus of the tomato
and the mass subjected to heat, with the consequent changes, the
accuracy of the count becomes a somewhat problematical matter. A
careful examination of the kind and condition of the hyphae present
might assist materially in making some distinction.
In counting molds, no distinction is made as to whether a small bit
is in the field or a large mass. In making a mount for molds, the
solids generally tend to stay in the center of the field while the liquid
tends to run to the edge. The fields selected may therefore give a
high or low result determined by their location. One examiner
desiring to favor the manufacturer may select the outer part for
most of the fields, while another, making the examination for the
buyer, who may wish to make a rejection, may reverse the
operation. Some persons modify the directions given by counting
only pieces which are one-sixth the diameter of the field, while
others use a smaller fraction. It is easily possible to have one clump
of mold in one field which will be twenty to thirty times in extent
that of another, yet both are given equal value in the final
expression.
Third. No real relation exists between the organisms counted and
decomposition, for mere numbers are not always coincident with
putrefactive activity. A pulp or ketchup may be bad and show less
than 30,000,000 bacteria, or it may be good and show 300,000,000.
Rotting, or decomposition, may depend more upon the cocci and the
organisms which are not counted than upon those which are. The
only work done in which microscopical and chemical work were
reported on the same samples appears in Circular No. 78, Bureau of
Chemistry. This was not done upon samples prepared and kept
under control, but for the most part upon commercial pulp and
ketchup. The results do not show any close relation between the
number of organisms and the lactic acid content which is given as
the measure of decomposition.
Fourth. Bacteria are expressed in numbers per cc, yeast and
spores in numbers per 1-60 c mm. Since the counting can be done
only in the fluid portion, an error occurs proportional to the number
of bacteria in or attached to the tissue which cannot be counted.
The error of assuming that numbers of organisms alone are a
sufficient index of the wholesomeness of a food product is well
illustrated by work on water analysis. The following statement by an
authority on the subject is illuminative: “The belief is widespread
among the general public that the sanitary character of a water can
be estimated pretty directly by the number of bacteria it contains.
Taken by itself, however, it must be admitted that the number of
colonies which develop when a given sample of water is plated
affords no sure basis for judging its potability. A pure spring water
containing at the outset less than 100 bacteria per cubic centimeter
may come to contain tens of thousands per cubic centimeter within
twenty-four to forty-eight hours, after standing in a clean glass flask
at a fairly low temperature. There is no reason for supposing that
the wholesomeness of the water has been impaired in any degree by
this multiplication of bacteria.”[3]

3. Jordan, E. O. A text-book of General Bacteriology. 1908.

There are certain steps in the process of manufacture which also
influence the number of organisms which may be counted. A pulp
may vary from an unevaporated tomato juice to a concentration
which is represented by an evaporation of a volume of water up to
60 per cent, and ketchup may vary from a thin watery consistency to
one which is so heavy that it will scarcely flow from the bottle. It
becomes evident that a method which does not sustain some close
relation to the amount of tomato present would naturally be
deficient as a standard for judging. For example, a tomato juice with
an initial count of 10,000,000 if evaporated to one-half its volume
will have more than twice the number of organisms estimated in the
original. The pulp is composed of both liquid and solids and part of
the liquid portion only is driven off by evaporation, leaving in the
residue a different proportion to the solids. As the organisms can be
counted only in the liquid portion, it is obvious that with
concentration, the number will be increased at a much greater ratio
than will the reduction of the bulk. A thin pulp with 10,000,000
bacteria may easily be worse than a heavier one with 30,000,000 or
40,000,000, if judged by numbers alone. The same conclusion is
necessarily true for ketchup. It clearly refutes the argument that a
product having twice as many bacteria as another of the same kind
is more than twice as bad. The effect of recommending an arbitrary
low limit for bacterial content, irrespective of the consistency of the
product, is to cause manufacturers to pack thin pulp and sloppy
ketchup, and to discourage the more desirable heavy body. The
examination of a very large number of samples shows that the
majority of the heavy pulps and ketchup upon the market show
much higher counts than the thin ones when the tissues show good
stock in both.
It is not possible to concentrate any pulp to the consistency of
paste and have it pass under the present method; that is,
considering a product to be filthy, putrid or decomposed if the
bacteria exceed 25,000,000 per cubic centimeter.
There are some soup and ketchup manufacturers who still follow
the draining method for separation and this is generally done to
secure a certain quality in the flavor. This kind of pulp always shows
a high bacterial count, which is usually ascribed to fermentation. As
the draining can be started in about twenty minutes, and is nearly
always completed in forty minutes to one hour, there is little time for
fermentation, and yet such a pulp may show several times the count
of the original whole pulp. The condition is similar to that which
takes place in the separation of cream by gravity. Dr. John F.
Anderson, U. S. Public Health Service,[4] has shown that the bacterial
content of gravity cream is about sixteen times that of bottom milk
and that this discrepancy may be much wider. One test is given in
which the cream showed 386 times as many organisms as the
bottom milk. The question logically arises whether, if a pulp which
contains 10,000,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter and is considered
sound, becomes “filthy, putrid or decomposed” when the same pulp
is heavily concentrated and the count becomes 100,000,000, or a
cream is bad when it contains 2,000,000, though the whole milk
from which it was derived contained only 300,000. There should be
a recognized difference in rating a product in which the number of
organisms is influenced by concentration, and one in which they
have developed. Some very erroneous statements have been made
upon increase of bacteria in pulp while standing. Some of these have
been based upon the academic proposition that reproduction in
bacteria may occur every twenty minutes under perfect conditions of
food supply, freedom of movement, and optimum temperature. Such
statements are obviously not based on experiments with pulp.
Assuming that such a rate of reproduction were possible, a pulp with
an initial start of only 5,000,000 would increase to 10,000,000 in
twenty minutes; 20,000,000 in forty minutes; 40,000,000 in one
hour; 80,000,000 in one hour and twenty minutes; 160,000,000 in
one hour and forty minutes; 320,000,000 in two hours; and
2,560,000,000 in three hours. No food product like tomato pulp,
cider, or grape juice would be usable in a very short time. To
determine the rate of increase of the organisms in tomato pulp,
experiments were made, using sound tomatoes. In each experiment,
the tomatoes were divided into two lots, one lot used raw, the other
steamed, the steaming varying from two minutes’ time, just
sufficient to slip the skins, and eight minutes, in which the whole
tomato is softened. Samples were taken at hourly intervals for the
first six hours, then at intervals of twelve hours, the samples
counted by means of the plate and direct methods. For the plates
tomato gelatin was used with an acidity of 0.3% and 0.4%, the
samples for the direct count were put in cans, sterilized, and
counted later. With the lower acidity there were liquifiers which
prevented the counting of some plates, so that in the later trials the
higher acidity gelatin was used. The count of the molds was not
normal, due to the frequent stirrings, which prevented spore
formation, besides injuring the hyphae.

4. The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 1909. Vol. 6, p. 393.

The results varied, some pulps giving a much higher initial count
than others, but they all agreed in having a comparatively slight
increase in the first three hours, the large numbers which one is led
to expect not being present until the pulp had stood for at least five
hours and under the most favorable conditions; usually it requires a
longer time. The plates and the direct count agreeing in the general
trend, though the numbers obtained by the two methods varied. In
the pulp obtained from the steamed tomatoes, the initial count was
much lower in the tomatoes steamed eight minutes, being only 20
per cc in the plates, but the same thing was true of these in that the
increase was very slow at first. The figures from all the trials, both
raw and steamed pulp, and from the plates and direct counts, show
that the theoretical estimation of the increase of organisms from the
classic twenty minutes required for reproduction of an organism with
the consequent progression, irrespective of the condition of the
organism at the start, or its environment, will have to be modified.
In the plates all colonies, aside from the molds, were counted as
bacteria, but this would not give a very large error, as yeast does not
reproduce at the same rate as do bacteria.
The state of comminution of the product determines to a
considerable extent the number of organisms which may be
counted. The more finely the comminution, the greater the number.
Two pulps made from the same material, one run through an
ordinary cyclone and the other through a finishing machine, will
show from 50 to 100 per cent more in the latter. Coarse pulp and
coarse ketchup may be inferior articles and yet give the better
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