Thread of empowerment

2
Chapter -2

Background of Textile

2.1 Weaving Empowerment for Women in Rural India

Why are women leaving textile industry in Rural india?

In India, roughly 3.5 to 4 crore people are engaged in the total value chain of the Textile
sector alone and it is the second largest provider of work after agriculture. Women are key
drivers of consumer purchasing decisions. Enterprises that have invested in women as
their workforce and decision-makers have consistently experienced positive outcomes.

Women in rural India also play a crucial role in the entire textile value chain, from raw
material production like cotton farming and silkworm rearing to processes such as reeling,
spinning, weaving, garment manufacturing, design and marketing. However, there are
different challenges that cause women to leave the industry, depending on which part of
the value chain they are involved in.

According to the World Bank data, India's female labour force participation has decreased
from 31 per cent in 2000 to 24 per cent in 2021. Notably, the textile industry employs
around 60 to 70 per cent of women, with over 27 million working mainly in unorganised
sectors such as handicrafts and handlooms.

Amid its locations in small towns, India's textile industry also serves as a major employer
for rural populations. Traditionally, rural women used the thigh reeling technique for
yarn-making, causing health issues. Experts, however, told BW Businessworld that
exploitation by middlemen further affected income. These factors contribute to the decline
of the female workforce in the textile industry.

In garment factories, employment is often based on piece-work contracts. Men work long
hours for financial stability, but rural women face challenges, especially if the factory is far
from their homes. Consequently, those who produce more output are seen as experts,
reinforcing the perception that men have superior skills and training opportunities.
“Women mostly do traditional artisan activities like reeling and spinning. However, these
tasks, including thigh reeling, can be physically demanding and lead to injuries. As manual
practices have limited productivity potential, the income earned by rural women artisans is
inadequate to handle inflation. Consequently, many women abandon these traditional
activities,” said Srinivas Ramanujam, Chief Executive Officer (CEO), Villgro.

In traditional weaving, Ramanujam told BW Businessworld that male master weavers hold
authority over the process. Women's training in weaving is often restricted to setting up the
loom, hindered by social and cultural limitations in many clusters. Unfortunately, these
clusters have faced challenges in competing with modern power loom factories as their
productivity hasn't improved over time. Nevertheless, fabrics created by women in some
clusters remain popular and continue to be in demand.

Clean technology to rescue?

Recently, Union Power Minister RK Singh released two new reports by Ceew and Villgro,
which showed that clean technologies have the potential to impact 37 million livelihoods in
India's agriculture and textile sectors and translate into a market opportunity worth almost
Rs 4 lakh crore (about USD 50 billion).

Further, 70 per cent of women and farmers using clean technology reported an income
increase, typically by 35 per cent. They use clean-energy powered products such as
solar-powered silk reeling machines, multi-food processors, micro solar pumps and solar
vertical fodder grow units, among others, to enhance and diversify their income.

"India can promote innovations that enhance productivity in traditional yarn and fabric
production without compromising quality and promote household-based enterprises by
leveraging innovations such as solar reeling and spinning machines and solar looms,
allowing women to establish businesses from their own homes,”

2.2 History of women in textile work :

The involvement of women in textile work is one of the oldest and most consistent
contributions to human society, spanning across ancient civilizations, colonial times,
industrial revolutions, and modern movements for empowerment. From prehistoric times,
textile production was a domestic necessity primarily handled by women. They spun fibers
into thread, wove cloth, and created garments for the family and community. In ancient
Egypt, women were often depicted weaving on looms in tomb paintings, showing their vital
role in daily life. Similarly, in ancient Greece, weaving was a central part of women’s lives,
symbolizing female diligence and wisdom. The mythological tale of Arachne, who
challenged the goddess Athena to a weaving contest, reflects the cultural importance of
textile skill among women. In India, evidence from the Indus Valley Civilization (around
2500 BCE) suggests that spinning and dyeing were well-developed practices, and women
likely played an essential role in this craftsmanship.

During the medieval period, textile production became more structured, yet women
remained deeply involved. In Europe, while most guilds were male-dominated, women
often worked in unrecognized or lower-status roles such as spinning and lace-making. In
fact, in Florence during the 14th century, women made up a significant portion of the wool
industry workforce, spinning yarn from home as part of the putting-out system. This system
allowed merchant employers to distribute raw materials to rural women who then worked
from home, making it possible to care for children while earning income. In Islamic
societies, women also engaged in embroidery and weaving, often producing textiles for
domestic use or dowries. Meanwhile, in India during the Mughal era, women artisans,
particularly in regions like Lucknow and Hyderabad, were renowned for their embroidery
skills. The delicate chikankari work of Lucknow is believed to have flourished under the
patronage of Mughal emperors, with women artisans contributing to the luxurious
garments worn by royalty and nobility.

The arrival of colonial rule in many parts of the world, especially South Asia and Africa,
had a major impact on the traditional textile economy. In colonial India, for instance, British
industrial goods flooded the market, destroying the local handloom industry. However,
women continued to weave, spin, and embroider, both as a means of survival and cultural
preservation. A powerful real-life example can be seen during India's freedom movement
in the early 20th century. Mahatma Gandhi’s Swadeshi campaign encouraged Indians to
boycott British goods and revive traditional hand spinning using the charkha. This
movement saw mass participation of women, especially in rural areas. Kasturba Gandhi,
Gandhi’s wife, became a role model by actively spinning khadi and teaching other women
to do the same. Thousands of women took up the spinning wheel, which not only
promoted economic independence but also symbolized national pride and unity. This era
transformed textile work from a domestic chore into a tool for political resistance and
empowerment.

With the Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries, textile production shifted from
homes to factories. Women, especially from poor and working-class backgrounds, became
a crucial labor force in textile mills across Britain, Europe, and later in the United States
and India. In places like Manchester in the UK, known as "Cottonopolis," women and
young girls worked long hours in harsh conditions for meager wages. Despite this
exploitation, mill work provided women with some financial independence and brought
them into public life. In America, the Lowell Mill Girls of Massachusetts became famous for
their labor strikes and demands for better conditions in the 1830s. These women, often
teenagers from rural areas, not only helped build the textile economy but also planted
early seeds of the labor rights movement.

In the post-independence era and into modern times, women have continued to play a
central role in the textile and garment industries. In Bangladesh and India, millions of
women work in garment factories, producing clothes for global markets. Though
challenges like low wages and unsafe conditions persist—highlighted by the 2013 Rana
Plaza collapse in Bangladesh that killed over 1,000 workers, most of them women—these
jobs also offer women from marginalized communities a chance to earn income and gain a
sense of identity. Moreover, initiatives like women-led handloom cooperatives in states like
Assam, Tamil Nadu, and Odisha in India are empowering women artisans to revive
traditional crafts while building sustainable livelihoods. One such example is SEWA (Self
Employed Women’s Association) in Gujarat, which supports women in textile and
embroidery work, helping them access markets, earn fair wages, and achieve social
dignity.

The history of women in textile work reflects both the burdens and the power of female
labor across centuries. Whether in ancient homes, royal courts, colonial resistance,
industrial factories, or modern cooperatives, women have continuously shaped the
evolution of textiles. Their contributions have not only sustained families and economies
but also led to social change, empowerment, and cultural preservation.

2.3 Government schemes for women in textile

The Indian government has introduced various schemes to promote the empowerment of
women in the textile industry, recognizing their significant contribution to this sector
through weaving, stitching, embroidery, handloom, and garment work. These schemes aim
to provide women with skill development, financial support, employment opportunities, and
modern infrastructure, enabling them to achieve economic independence and social
empowerment.

One of the most important schemes is Samarth (Scheme for Capacity Building in Textile
Sector), which focuses on skill development. This scheme provides free training to
unemployed youth and women in textile-related trades such as weaving, tailoring,
embroidery, and dyeing. The training is conducted in partnership with industries and
reputed training institutions. Women trained under Samarth receive not only practical
knowledge but also a stipend and job placement support. A notable example is from Tamil
Nadu, where women from rural backgrounds were trained in garment stitching under
Samarth and later employed in textile export units. This helped them become financially
self-reliant and contribute to their families’ income.

Another major initiative is the Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana (PMMY), which offers
collateral-free loans up to Rs. 10 lakhs to micro and small enterprises, including those in
the textile sector. It has three categories: Shishu (up to Rs. 50,000), Kishor (Rs. 50,000–5
lakhs), and Tarun (Rs. 5–10 lakhs). Many women have benefited under the Shishu
category to start small-scale tailoring or embroidery units. For instance, a woman in Surat,
Gujarat, started her own boutique with a Rs. 50,000 loan under PMMY and expanded it by
employing two other women from her neighborhood. This scheme not only boosts
entrepreneurship but also encourages women to take leadership roles in textile
businesses.
The National Handloom Development Programme (NHDP) is another key scheme that
supports women handloom weavers. It provides assistance in upgrading looms, buying
raw materials, attending exhibitions, and marketing their products. Many women in states
like Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, and Assam have benefited from this scheme. A real example
comes from Varanasi, where women weavers were supported under NHDP to modernize
their looms and received training in contemporary designs. This helped them connect with
larger markets and increase their earnings significantly. Additionally, the scheme promotes
the use of e-commerce platforms so that artisans, especially women, can directly sell their
products to customers.

The Scheme for Integrated Textile Parks (SITP) aims to create modern textile
infrastructure and generate employment, especially for women. These parks provide
facilities such as dyeing units, testing labs, common workspaces, and housing for workers.
Many of these textile parks prefer hiring women for roles in stitching, quality control, and
packaging. In the Brandix India Apparel City located in Andhra Pradesh, over 60% of the
workforce comprises women from nearby rural areas. These parks not only provide a safe
and structured working environment but also offer health, education, and transportation
facilities, making them ideal for women workers.

Additionally, the Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana – National Rural Livelihoods Mission

(DAY-NRLM) plays a vital role in empowering women through the formation of Self Help
Groups (SHGs). These SHGs are engaged in income-generating textile activities like
tailoring, weaving, and handicrafts. The government provides financial aid,
capacity-building training, and market access to these groups. In Odisha, for example, a
women-led SHG received training and funding under NRLM to create and sell handloom
sarees. They also accessed online platforms like Amazon Karigar to reach national and
international buyers, increasing their profits and recognition.

For women working in the coir sector—a part of the broader textile industry—the Mahila
Coir Yojana provides targeted support. This scheme offers training and a 75% subsidy on
the cost of coir processing equipment for women entrepreneurs. In Kerala, several women
were trained in spinning coir yarn and supported to start their own units, creating jobs for
other women in their community.

The government schemes such as Samarth, PMMY, NHDP, SITP, DAY-NRLM, and
Mahila Coir Yojana are playing a transformative role in enhancing the participation of
women in the textile industry. These initiatives not only provide financial and skill support
but also promote entrepreneurship, rural employment, and cultural heritage. By bridging
the gap between traditional craftsmanship and modern markets, these schemes are
helping women in the textile sector emerge as empowered contributors to India’s economic
and social development.

2.4 NGO and SHG

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and Self Help Groups (SHGs) play a critical role
in empowering women in the textile sector by providing training, financial support, market
access, and a sense of community. These organizations act as a bridge between rural
women and opportunities for income generation, skill development, and social recognition.
In India, where a large portion of textile work—such as weaving, stitching, embroidery,
dyeing, and handicraft—takes place in the informal sector, NGOs and SHGs provide vital
support to women who often lack formal education, resources, or market access.

NGOs across the country have helped revive traditional textile arts while empowering
women artisans economically. For instance, SEWA (Self Employed Women’s Association),
one of the most well-known NGOs in Gujarat, has supported thousands of women working
in embroidery, weaving, and garment-making. SEWA provides skill development
workshops, access to raw materials, cooperative marketing, and legal rights awareness.
One notable example is of women in Kutch, Gujarat, who were skilled in traditional mirror
work and embroidery but had no access to markets. SEWA trained them in quality
improvement, product diversification, and digital marketing. Today, these women sell their
handcrafted garments not only in Indian cities but also in international exhibitions, earning
stable incomes and gaining respect in their communities.

Similarly, NGOs like Dastkar, Kadambini, and Kala Raksha have worked with women in
Rajasthan and Odisha to revive fading textile crafts like bandhani, ikat, and kantha
embroidery. These organizations help women artisans adapt traditional techniques to
contemporary designs, making their products more appealing to modern consumers.
Through capacity-building programs and collaborations with designers, NGOs make it
possible for rural women to reach urban and global markets. For example, in Barmer,
Rajasthan, women trained under Dastkar's initiative began creating modern cushion
covers, bags, and stoles using traditional block printing. Their products were later
showcased at trade fairs in Delhi and Mumbai, giving them exposure and boosting their
incomes.

Alongside NGOs, Self Help Groups (SHGs) have emerged as powerful grassroots
institutions that enable women to collectively work, save money, and access loans. SHGs
usually consist of 10–20 women from a village who meet regularly, save small amounts,
and rotate credit among themselves. In the textile sector, SHGs help women pool
resources, buy raw materials in bulk, set up small units, and market their goods more
effectively. Government programs like the National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM)
support SHGs by providing seed capital, training, and market linkages.

A real-life example is from Tamil Nadu, where an SHG named "Nila Tailoring Group" was
formed in a rural district with 15 women trained in tailoring. With support from a local NGO
and funds under NRLM, the group set up a small stitching unit, taking orders from schools
for uniforms and from traders for women's garments. Over time, the women upgraded their
skills and began selling their designs in nearby towns. Their earnings helped improve
household incomes, pay for their children's education, and increase their confidence. In
Odisha, SHGs supported by the Mission Shakti program have empowered tribal women to
take up weaving and traditional dyeing techniques. These groups now sell their products
through exhibitions, e-commerce platforms, and state emporiums.

SHGs also play a critical role in enabling financial inclusion for women in textiles. Many
members open bank accounts, access credit from banks, and receive loans for business
expansion. This access to formal banking reduces dependence on moneylenders and
encourages savings habits. Moreover, working in groups helps women develop leadership
skills, negotiate better prices with buyers, and create a supportive environment for growth.
In Assam, SHGs engaged in handloom weaving were supported through a cluster
approach where 10–15 groups worked collectively to fulfill large orders for traditional
Assamese textiles. This helped them scale up their operations while preserving local
culture.

NGOs and SHGs together form the backbone of women's empowerment in the textile
sector. They not only provide technical and financial support but also promote confidence,
unity, and entrepreneurship among women. By linking tradition with technology, and skill
with market access, these organizations are helping women transform from home-based
workers to self-reliant artisans and business owners. Their role is essential in ensuring that
the textile industry remains both inclusive and sustainable, with women as its strong and
visible leaders.

2.5 Gap in existing study

Although women form the backbone of the textile and garment industry, especially in
countries like India, Bangladesh, and other developing nations, there remain significant
gaps in the academic and policy-related study of textiles in relation to women’s rights. Most
research tends to focus on economic aspects such as employment numbers and export
values, while ignoring deeper issues like workplace safety, fair wages, social security,
reproductive health, and gender-based discrimination. One of the major gaps is the lack of
gender-sensitive research and data collection. While it is widely acknowledged that a
majority of the workforce in textile and garment sectors are women, very few studies
specifically document their lived experiences, challenges, and aspirations. For instance, in
India’s handloom sector, which employs millions of women informally, there is limited data
on their income levels, working conditions, and ownership of assets like looms or land.

Another gap is the undervaluation of women's unpaid or home-based textile work, which is
not recognized in official statistics. Many women, especially in rural areas, engage in
weaving, embroidery, and tailoring from their homes, often as part of family enterprises or
seasonal work. However, this contribution is rarely recorded or appreciated in economic
studies or policy documents. As a result, these women are left out of schemes that offer
training, subsidies, or financial support. A real-life example can be seen in villages of West
Bengal, where women continue to practice kantha embroidery, a traditional form of quilt
stitching, often passed down through generations. Despite its artistic and commercial
value, their labor is considered a “household craft” and does not receive the same
recognition or market support as formal industry work.

Further, there is a lack of focus on women’s rights in industrial textile units, especially
regarding wages, maternity benefits, working hours, and sexual harassment. Many women
working in textile factories, especially in countries like Bangladesh and southern India,
report long working hours, low wages, and unsafe conditions. However, these human
rights issues are often overlooked in textile industry research, which tends to focus on
productivity and profit. A tragic example is the Rana Plaza collapse in Bangladesh in 2013,
where over 1,100 garment workers died—most of them young women. This event
highlighted the poor working conditions and lack of legal protection for women workers, but
even after such incidents, comprehensive studies linking textile labor and women’s rights
remain scarce.

In addition, education and awareness about legal rights and labor laws among women
workers is extremely low, and this is not often addressed in academic studies. Most
research does not explore how lack of legal literacy prevents women from demanding fair
wages or safe workplaces. For example, in Tamil Nadu, many women in spinning mills,
known as “Sumangali workers,” are hired under exploitative contracts that offer a lump
sum after several years of underpaid labor. These women often work under strict
conditions, are discouraged from unionizing, and lack awareness of their rights. Despite
media reports and NGO interventions, there is little scholarly research that documents
these violations from a rights-based perspective.

Moreover, there is limited inclusion of women’s voices in textile policymaking and

research. Most studies are written from an industry or government perspective, focusing
on export growth or production levels. Women's personal stories, their creative processes,
struggles for self-expression, or efforts to balance work with family responsibilities are
rarely documented. This creates a gap in understanding the true role and needs of women
in the textile sector. For instance, tribal women in Odisha and Jharkhand, who create
beautiful handwoven and naturally dyed textiles, are often left out of mainstream
discussions because of their geographic isolation and lack of formal education. Their craft
knowledge and rights to land, forest produce, and identity-linked weaving traditions are
seldom protected or acknowledged in national textile policies.

While women are key contributors to the textile sector, the study of textiles remains
incomplete without a strong focus on women’s rights, voices, and lived realities. There is a
need for interdisciplinary research that combines economics, gender studies, law, and
culture to address the many layers of inequality and invisibility women face. Closing these
gaps will not only lead to better policies and practices but will also ensure that the textile
industry becomes a truly inclusive and empowering space for women.
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