Flame Photometer Analyzer for Stack Gas Monitoring

A flame photometer is an analytical instrument used for the quantitative determination of

specific metal ions (mainly alkali and alkaline earth metals) present in emissions. It is commonly
used to measure sodium (Na⁺), potassium (K⁺), calcium (Ca²⁺), and lithium (Li⁺) in stack gases
or particulate-laden flue gases.

1. Constructional Features of Flame Photometer

A flame photometer consists of the following main components:

1. Nebulizer/Sample Introduction System:

• Introduces the gas sample (after appropriate extraction and filtering) into the system.

• Converts the liquid or gas sample into fine droplets (aerosol).

• Ensures consistent sample flow into the burner.

2. Mixing Chamber:

• Mixes fuel gas (e.g., propane or acetylene) and oxidant (air or oxygen) before
combustion.

• Helps in stable and homogeneous flame generation.

3. Burner/Flame System:

• The heart of the instrument — where the sample is atomized and excited in the flame.

• At high flame temperatures, metal ions are thermally excited and emit characteristic
wavelengths of light.

o Sodium → 589 nm (yellow)

o Potassium → 766 nm (violet-red)

4. Optical System (Monochromator/Filters):

• Selects the specific wavelength of light emitted by the element of interest.

• Uses optical filters or a monochromator to isolate the emission spectrum.

5. Photodetector/Photocell:

• Converts the light signal into an electrical signal (current or voltage).

• The signal is directly proportional to the concentration of the ion in the flame.

6. Readout System (Display/Recorder):

• Shows the final output in digital or analog format.

• Often calibrated in ppm or mg/Nm³ of metal ion in the sample.

2. Operational Features of Flame Photometer

1. Sample Extraction from Stack:

• Stack gases are isokinetically sampled and passed through filters and condensers.

• Liquid extracts (e.g., condensed water-soluble particles) are fed into the photometer.

2. Atomization and Excitation:

• The sample solution is sprayed into the flame, where metal ions are atomized.

• These atoms absorb thermal energy and move to an excited state.

3. Emission and Detection:

• Excited metal atoms emit characteristic light as they return to ground state.

• The intensity of this light is measured using a photodetector.

 4. Calibration and Quantification:

• The instrument is calibrated using standard solutions of known concentrations.

• A calibration curve is generated to relate light intensity to ion concentration.

5. Real-Time or Periodic Monitoring:

• Flame photometers can be manual or semi-automated for stack analysis.

• For continuous emissions monitoring, special high-temperature-resistant probes are

used.

Key Applications in Stack Monitoring:

• Power plants (measuring sodium, potassium in ash-laden gas)

• Fertilizer and glass industries

• Air pollution control audits (as part of stack emission monitoring protocol)

• Checking alkali metal content which affects ESP or baghouse performance

Summary Table

Feature Description

Used For Measuring metal ions (Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺) in gases/liquids

Sample Introduction Nebulizer and spray chamber

Excitation Source Flame (air-acetylene or air-propane)

Detection Emission light measured by photocell

Output Concentration in ppm or mg/Nm³

Carbon monoxide, when inhaled, passes through the lungs and diffuses directly
into the blood stream where it combines with the red blood pigment called
hemoglobin forming carboxyhemoglobin, COHb.

The affinity of carbon monoxide for hemoglobin is 210 times greater than that of
oxygen and as a result the amount of hemoglobin available for carrying oxygen
for body tissue is considerably reduced.

The body tissues are thus deprived of their oxygen supply and death could result
by asphyxiation (lack of oxygen).
In addition, the presence of COHb in the blood retards the dissociation of
remaining oxyhemoglobin, so the tissues are further deprived of oxygen.

SULPHUR DIOXIDE

There is considerable evidence that SO, aggravates existing respiratory diseases

in humans and contributes to their development. Even healthy individuals
experience broncho-constriction when exposed for a few minutes to levels of 1.6
ppm.. This condition is accompanied by shallow breathing and an increased
respiratory rate.
The acute irritant effects of the gas are confined to the upper respiratory tract
where more than 95 per cent of inhaled SO, is absorbed. The chronic effects
resulting from extended exposure to low concentrations include incidence of
respiratory infection in children.

OXIDES OF NITROGEN

The major oxides of nitrogen which affect human health are nitric oxide (NO) and
nitrogen dioxide (NO,). NO is not an irritant and at concentrations that occur in
the atmosphere it does not show any adverse health effects.

However, its main toxic potential results from its oxidation to NO₂. Table 2.14
gives typical concentration of NO, in four Indian cities. These figures, which were
reported over 1-2 month periods compare favourably with longterm averages of
0.02-0.05 ppm for London* and for several Japanese citiesa

1. Grab Sampling

Definition:

• A single sample collected at a specific point in time and location that

represents the conditions at that moment.

Key Features:

• Shows only the prevailing conditions at the time of sampling.

• Not suitable for representing average or long-term wastewater

characteristics.

• Should not be used alone as the basis for wastewater treatment design.

Applications:

• Useful when:

o Flow is intermittent

o Wastewater quality fluctuates sharply

o Visible changes occur in color, oil, or suspended solids

• Helps in determining peak loading or extreme conditions.

Collection:

• Manual sampling is typically used.

• Enables real-time observation and quick response by operating personnel.

2. Composite Sampling

Definition:

• A sample made by combining multiple individual samples collected at

intervals over time or in proportion to flow.

Key Features:

• Provides more accurate and representative data over a period of time.

• Suitable when waste composition varies with time or flow rate.

• Used for process control, compliance monitoring, and design data.

Collection Methods:

• Manual Sampling:

o Fixed volume grab samples collected at regular intervals.

o If flow is variable, sample volume is proportional to flow rate.

o Flow meters are used to determine sample quantity.

• Automatic Samplers:

o Collect samples at pre-set intervals (time-based or flow-based).

o Some collect a continuous composite sample, others collect

individual containers.

o Sample pickup line is placed below water surface for better

representation.
Oil Pollution – Key Points (7–8 Points)

1. Sources of Oil Pollution:

Oil enters water bodies through industrial effluents, oil refineries, automobile waste,
petrochemical plants, and marine sources such as ballasting, tank washings, offshore
drilling, and tanker accidents.

2. Insolubility and Spread:

Oil is insoluble in water, floats, and spreads rapidly into a thin film on the surface,
creating oil slicks that interfere with gas exchange.

3. Evaporation and Degradation:

Lighter toxic hydrocarbons evaporate quickly, while heavier ones degrade slowly
through biological activity, prolonging environmental impact.

4. Impact on Birds:
Oil damages bird feathers, reducing buoyancy and insulation, causing hypothermia,
and makes birds ingest oil while feeding or preening, leading to toxic effects.

5. Effect on Aquatic Life:

Floating organisms and surface breathers like fish, turtles, and plankton are highly
affected, and the toxicity of oil to many species is still not fully understood.

6. Oxygen Depletion:
Oil slicks inhibit oxygen transfer from the air to water and microbial degradation of
hydrocarbons consumes oxygen, leading to low DO levels.

7. Shoreline Contamination:
Winds and tides push oil to shore, where it accumulates, causing aesthetic problems,
habitat destruction, and long-term coastal pollution.

The Forest Conservation Act, 1980 was enacted by the Government of India to regulate
deforestation and preserve forest ecosystems by controlling the use of forest land for
non-forest purposes.

Key Objectives:
1. Prevent deforestation by restricting the conversion of forest land for agriculture,
industry, mining, or infrastructure projects.

2. Protect forest biodiversity and ecological balance.

3. Promote sustainable forest management and afforestation efforts.

Salient Features:

• Prior approval of Central Government is mandatory for using forest land for non-forest
purposes.

• Establishment of Advisory Committee to monitor forest use.

• Emphasis on compensatory afforestation when forest land is diverted.

• Helps in the conservation of wildlife, control of soil erosion, and maintenance of

hydrological cycles.

The ozone layer is a region in the stratosphere (15–35 km above Earth) rich in ozone
(O₃) that protects life by absorbing most of the sun’s harmful ultraviolet (UV-B and UV-
C) radiation.

2. What is Ozone Depletion?

Ozone depletion refers to the thinning or destruction of the ozone layer, mainly caused
by ozone-depleting substances (ODS) such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, and
carbon tetrachloride released from human activities.

3. How Depletion Happens (Reaction):

CFCs released into the atmosphere break down under UV light, releasing chlorine atoms
that destroy ozone molecules:

Cl+O3→ClO+O2\text{Cl} + O_3 \rightarrow ClO + O_2Cl+O3→ClO+O2

One chlorine atom can destroy up to 100,000 ozone molecules.

 4. Effects of Ozone Depletion:

Increased UV radiation reaching Earth leads to skin cancer, cataracts, immune

suppression, crop damage, and harm to marine plankton and ecosystems.

5. Global Measures and Recovery:

The Montreal Protocol (1987) led to a global ban on ODS. As a result, the ozone layer is
gradually recovering and is expected to return to normal levels by 2050–2070.

What is Acid Rain?

• Acid rain is precipitation (rain, snow, fog) that contains high levels of acidic components,
mainly sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) and nitric acid (HNO₃).

• It forms when sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) released from industrial
emissions, vehicles, and power plants react with water vapor in the atmosphere.

I. Effects on Human Health

1. Respiratory Problems:

• Inhalation of fine acidic particles can lead to asthma, bronchitis, and chronic respiratory
diseases.

2. Irritation of Eyes and Skin:

• Acid rain and fog can cause eye irritation, and in some cases, skin inflammation upon
prolonged exposure.

3. Contamination of Drinking Water:

• Acid rain increases acidity in lakes and groundwater, potentially leaching toxic metals
like lead and mercury, affecting public water supplies.
 4. Indirect Health Effects:

• By affecting crops and aquatic life, acid rain can reduce food quality, impacting nutrition
and food safety.

II. Effects on the Environment

1. Soil Degradation:

• Acid rain lowers soil pH, causing loss of essential nutrients (Ca, Mg) and increasing toxic
metal mobility, harming plant life.

2. Forest Damage:

• Weakens trees by damaging leaves, leaching nutrients, and making them vulnerable to
diseases and extreme weather.

• Common in high-altitude forests (e.g., in the Himalayas or Western Ghats).

3. Water Body Acidification:

• Lakes and streams become acidic, affecting fish, amphibians, and plankton.

• Many sensitive species cannot survive below pH 5, leading to biodiversity loss.

4. Damage to Buildings and Monuments:

• Acid rain reacts with calcium carbonate (limestone and marble) in historical structures
(e.g., Taj Mahal), causing erosion and staining.

• Also corrodes steel structures, paint, and glass.

5. Impact on Agriculture:

• Alters soil chemistry, affecting crop yield and quality.

• Damages leaf surfaces, reducing photosynthesis and growth.