Fixing Frege Princeton Monographs In Philosophy

John P Burgess download

https://ebookbell.com/product/fixing-frege-princeton-monographs-
in-philosophy-john-p-burgess-2088656

Explore and download more ebooks at ebookbell.com

Here are some recommended products that we believe you will be
interested in. You can click the link to download.

Fixing Frege John P Burgess

https://ebookbell.com/product/fixing-frege-john-p-burgess-50731014

Free For All Fixing School Food In America Janet Poppendieck

https://ebookbell.com/product/free-for-all-fixing-school-food-in-
america-janet-poppendieck-51816736

Free For All Fixing School Food In America Poppendieck Janet

https://ebookbell.com/product/free-for-all-fixing-school-food-in-
america-poppendieck-janet-5269338

Fixing It The Complete Survivors Guide To Anxietyfree Living Bev

Aisbett

https://ebookbell.com/product/fixing-it-the-complete-survivors-guide-
to-anxietyfree-living-bev-aisbett-10477102
How To Organize Just About Everything More Than 500 Stepbystep
Instructions For Everything From Organizing Your Closets To Planning A
Wedding To Creating A Flawless Filing System Peter Walsh

https://ebookbell.com/product/how-to-organize-just-about-everything-
more-than-500-stepbystep-instructions-for-everything-from-organizing-
your-closets-to-planning-a-wedding-to-creating-a-flawless-filing-
system-peter-walsh-47124542

Fixing Their Heart A Reverseharem Postapocalyptic Romance Men Of Eagle

Peak Book 2 Mira Stanley

https://ebookbell.com/product/fixing-their-heart-a-reverseharem-
postapocalyptic-romance-men-of-eagle-peak-book-2-mira-stanley-48575390

Fixing Broken Cities 2nd Edition John Kromer

https://ebookbell.com/product/fixing-broken-cities-2nd-edition-john-
kromer-49113984

Fixing Intelligence For A More Secure America William E Odom

https://ebookbell.com/product/fixing-intelligence-for-a-more-secure-
america-william-e-odom-50349496

Fixing Social Security The Politics Of Reform In A Polarized Age R

Douglas Arnold

https://ebookbell.com/product/fixing-social-security-the-politics-of-
reform-in-a-polarized-age-r-douglas-arnold-50730378
 (+:+0)(4')'

































24+0%'610 /101)4#2*5 +0 2*+.1512*;

 KK

(+:+0)(4')'
,QJP2$WTIGUU
24+0%'610 70+8'45+6; 24'55

24+0%'610 #0& 1:(14&

%QR[TKIJV l 
 KKK

(QT#NGZKCPF(QMKQP
 KX

%QPVGPVU

#EMPQYNGFIOGPVUVKZ

%*#26'4 (TGIG4WUUGNNCPF#HVGT


%*#26'4 2TGFKECVKXG6JGQTKGU


%*#26'4 +ORTGFKECVKXG6JGQTKGU


6CDNGUV

0QVGUV

4GHGTGPEGUV

+PFGZV
 X

#EMPQYNGFIOGPVU

( 14 51 UJQTV C YQTM CU VJG RTGUGPV QPG VJG NKUV QH RGTUQPU VQ YJQO VJG CWVJQT JCU VJG
RNGCUCPV FWV[ QH CEMPQYNGFIKPI FGDVU KU C NQPI QPG 2CWN $GPCEGTTCH 5QNQOQP (GHGTOCP

-KV (KPG *CTXG[ (TKGFOCP # 2 *C\GP 4KEJCTF *GEM #MKJKTQ -CPCOQTK 5CWN -TKRMG

5VGHCP .GWGPDGTIGT «[UVGKP .KPPGDQ 2GPGNQRG /CFF[ 'FYCTF 0GNUQP %JCTNGU

2CTUQPU 0GKN 6GPPCPV -CK 9GJOGKGT CPF %TKURKP 9TKIJV &QWDVNGUU VJGTG JCXG DGGP

QVJGTU YJQUG PCOGU JCXG GUECRGF O[ JKIJN[ HCNNKDNG OGOQT[ VQ YJQO + OWUV QHHGT

CRQNQIKGU CU YGNN CU VJCPMU 5QOG QH VJQUG PCOGF QHHGTGF KPHQTOCVKQP CPF CUUKUVCPEG QP

URGEKHKE RQKPVU QH YJKEJ RCTVKEWNCTU YKNN DG PQVGF KP VJG DQF[ QH VJG OQPQITCRJ 1VJGTU

JCXG GZGTVGF C INQDCN KPVGNNGEVWCN KPHNWGPEG YJQUG EQPVTKDWVKQP VQ VJG YQTM KU PQV VJG NGUU

KORQTVCPV HQT DGKPI JCTFGT VQ NQECNK\G ;GV QVJGTU RTQXKFGF QPG QT CPQVJGT HQTWO KP YJKEJ

+ EQWNF RTGUGPV XGTUKQPU QH UQOG QH VJG OCVGTKCN HQT ETKVKECN EQOOGPV CPF VQ VJKU NCUV

ECVGIQT[ + OWUV PQY CFF *CTT[ (TCPMHWTV YJQO + OGPVKQP KP ITCVKVWFG HQT VJG KPXKVCVKQP

VQ EQPVTKDWVG VQ VJG UGTKGU KP YJKEJ VJKU DQQM PQY CRRGCTU

 
(TGIG4WUUGNNCPF#HVGT

6*' )4'#6 NQIKEKCP )QVVNQD (TGIG YTQVG VJTGG DQQMU GCEJ TGRTGUGPVKPI C UVCIG KP C

ITCPF RTQITCO HQT RTQXKFKPI C NQIKECN HQWPFCVKQP HQT CTKVJOGVKE CPF JKIJGT OCVJGOCVKEU

*KU $GITKHHUUEJTKHV  KPVTQFWEGF C EQORTGJGPUKXG U[UVGO QH U[ODQNKE NQIKE 6JG HKTUV

JCNH QH JKU )TWPFNCIGP  QHHGTGF C FGXCUVCVKPI ETKVKSWG QH RTGXKQWU CEEQWPVU QH VJG

HQWPFCVKQPU QH CTKVJOGVKE YJKNG VJG UGEQPF JCNH QHHGTGF CP QWVNKPG QH JKU QYP KPIGPKQWU

RTQRQUGF HQWPFCVKQP 6JG VYQ XQNWOGU QH VJG )TWPFIGUGV\G   HKNNGF KP VJG

VGEJPKECN FGVCKNU QH JKU QWVNKPG WUKPI JKU NQIKECN U[ODQNKUO CPF GZVGPFGF VJG RTQLGEV HTQO

CTKVJOGVKE VJG VJGQT[ QH VJG PCVWTCN PWODGTU VQ OCVJGOCVKECN CPCN[UKU VJG VJGQT[ QH VJG

TGCN PWODGTU 7PHQTVWPCVGN[ LWUV CU VJG UGEQPF XQNWOG QH VJG )TWPFIGUGV\G YCU IQKPI VQ

O
RTGUU $GTVTCPF 4WUUGNN FKUEQXGTGF C EQPVTCFKEVKQP KP (TGIG U U[UVGO

5WDUGSWGPV YQTM KP NQIKE CPF HQWPFCVKQPU QH OCVJGOCVKEU NCTIGN[ D[RCUUGF VJG

)TWPFIGUGV\G WPVKN C EQWRNG QH FGECFGU CIQ YJGP RJKNQUQRJGTU CPF NQIKEKCPU VQQM C PGY

O
NQQM CV (TGIG U KPEQPUKUVGPV U[UVGO CPF TGEQIPK\GF VJCV OQTG ECP DG UCNXCIGF HTQO KV

VJCP JCF RTGXKQWUN[ DGGP VJQWIJV +P VJGUG NCUV [GCTU COGPFGF CPF RCTCFQZHTGG XGTUKQPU

O
QH (TGIG U U[UVGO JCXG DGGP RTQFWEGF UWDUVCPVKCN RQTVKQPU QH ENCUUKECN OCVJGOCVKEU JCXG

DGGP FGXGNQRGF YKVJKP UWEJ U[UVGOU CPF C UEJQQN QH PGQ(TGIGCPU JCU CTKUGP ENCKOKPI

RJKNQUQRJKECN DGPGHKVU HQT UWEJ CP CRRTQCEJ VQ VJG HQWPFCVKQPU QH OCVJGOCVKEU

6JG VJQWIJV WPFGTN[KPI VJG RTGUGPV OQPQITCRJ KU VJCV JQYGXGT YQPFGTHWN VJG

RJKNQUQRJKECN DGPGHKVU QH PGQ(TGIGCP TGEQPUVTWEVKQPU QH OCVJGOCVKEU VJG CUUGUUOGPV QH

VJG WNVKOCVG UKIPKHKECPEG QH CP[ PGQ(TGIGCP CRRTQCEJ OWUV CYCKV C FGVGTOKPCVKQP QH LWUV

JQY OWEJ QH OCVJGOCVKEU ECP DG TGEQPUVTWEVGF YKVJQWV TGUQTV VQ CF JQE J[RQVJGUGU QP

VJCV CRRTQCEJ 9JCV KU WPFGTVCMGP KP VJG RCIGU VQ HQNNQY KU CEEQTFKPIN[ C UWTXG[ QH

XCTKQWU PGQ(TGIGCP UVTCVGIKGU CVVGORVKPI VQ FGVGTOKPG VJG UEQRG CPF NKOKVU QH GCEJ 6JG

RTGUGPV YQTM VJQWIJ GPVKTGN[ KPFGRGPFGPV QH $WTIGUU CPF 4QUGP   KU VJWU KP C

UGPUG C EQORCPKQP VQ VJG UWTXG[ QH XCTKQWU PQOKPCNKUV UVTCVGIKGU KP VJG OKFFNG RQTVKQPU QH

VJCV YQTM #U KP VJCV GCTNKGT UWTXG[ UQ KP VJG RTGUGPV QPG HCOKNKCTKV[ YKVJ KPVGTOGFKCVG

NGXGN NQIKE KU CUUWOGF $QQNQU $WTIGUU CPF ,GHHTG[  EQPVCKPU OQTG VJCP GPQWIJ

DCEMITQWPF OCVGTKCN DWV PGKVJGT VJCV PQT CP[ QVJGT URGEKHKE VGZVDQQM KU RTGUWRRQUGF

'XGT[ PGQ(TGIGCP CRRTQCEJ KH KV KU VQ DG EQPUKUVGPV OWUV KPXQNXG UQOG FGITGG QH

FGRCTVWTG HTQO (TGIG DWV UQOG QH VJG CRRTQCEJGU VQ DG UWTXG[GF JGTG UVC[ OWEJ ENQUGT VQ

O
(TGIG U QYP UVTCVGI[ VJCP FQ QVJGTU 0GQ(TGIGCPU UQOGVKOGU UWIIGUV VJCV VJG ENQUGT QPG

UVC[U VQ (TGIG VJG ITGCVGT VJG RJKNQUQRJKECN DGPGHKVU +V KU PQV O[ CKO KP VJG RTGUGPV YQTM
VQ CTIWG HQT QT CICKPUV UWEJ ENCKOU 9JCV + FQ KPUKUV KU VJCV CP[ RJKNQUQRJKECN ICKPU OWUV

DG YGKIJGF CICKPUV OCVJGOCVKECN NQUUGU (QT VJG UWTXG[ VQ HQNNQY UJQYU VJCV UQOG

PGQ(TGIGCP CRRTQCEJGU [KGNF OWEJ OQTG QH OCVJGOCVKEU VJCP QVJGTU CPF KV QHVGP UGGOU

VJCV VJG NGUU QPG MGGRU QH (TGIG VJG OQTG QPG IGVU QH OCVJGOCVKEU 0QPGVJGNGUU GXGP KP

VJG NCUV U[UVGO VQ DG EQPUKFGTGF JGTG YJKEJ [KGNFU CNN QH QTVJQFQZ OCVJGOCVKEU CPF OQTG

CNUQ VJGTG TGOCKPU QPG UOCNN DWV UKIPKHKECPV KPITGFKGPV QH (TGIGCP CPEGUVT[

O
#U C PGEGUUCT[ RTGNKOKPCT[ VQ VJG UWTXG[ QH CVVGORVU VQ TGRCKT (TGIG U U[UVGO VJCV

U[UVGO OWUV KVUGNH DG TGXKGYGF 6JG WPFGTN[KPI NQIKE QH VJG $GITKHHUUEJTKHV VJG

CUUWORVKQP CFFGF VJGTGVQ KP VJG )TWPFIGUGV\G HQT RWTRQUGU QH FGXGNQRKPI OCVJGOCVKEU

VJCV FGXGNQROGPV KVUGNH VJG RCTCFQZ 4WUUGNN HQWPF KP VJG U[UVGO CPF 4WUUGNN U QYP O
CVVGORVU VQ TGRCKT KV OWUV GCEJ DG DTKGHN[ GZCOKPGF CPF VJG OCVJGOCVKECN CPF

RJKNQUQRJKECN IQCNU C PGQ(TGIGCP RTQLGEV QT HQT VJCV OCVVGT CP[ RTGUGPVFC[ HQWPFCVKQPCN

RTQITCO OKIJV UGV KVUGNH DTKGHN[ UWTXG[GF

(TGIGOU.QIKE

9JKNG (TGIG KU JQPQTGF CU C HQWPFGT QH OQFGTP NQIKE JKU U[UVGO YKNN PQV NQQM CV

CNN HCOKNKCT VQ RTGUGPVFC[ UVWFGPVU QH VJG UWDLGEV 6Q DGIKP YKVJ (TGIG WUGU C PQPNKPGCT

PQVCVKQP VJCV PQ UWDUGSWGPV YTKVGT JCU HQWPF KV EQPXGPKGPV VQ CFQRV CPF VJCV YKNN PQV DG

GPEQWPVGTGF KP CP[ OQFGTP VGZVDQQM 5KPEG VJG RTGUGPV YQTM KU CP[VJKPI DWV CP JKUVQTKECN

O
VTGCVKUG VJG PQVCVKQP YKNN DG TWVJNGUUN[ OQFGTPK\GF YJGP (TGIG U U[UVGO KU GZRQWPFGF

JGTG

$WV GXGP YJGP VJG PQVCVKQP KU OQFGTPK\GF (TGIG U O JKIJGTQTFGT NQIKE JCU C

ITCOOCT VJCV VJQWIJ UVKNN UKORNGT D[ HCT VJCP VJG ITCOOCT QH )GTOCP QT 'PINKUJ QT CP[

PCVWTCN NCPIWCIG KU CRRTGEKCDN[ OQTG EQORNGZ VJCP VJG ITCOOCT QH VJG HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE

O
QH RTGUGPVFC[ VGZVDQQMU 0QPGVJGNGUU CHVGT (TGIG U WPHCOKNKCT WPFGTN[KPI ITCOOCVKECN

CPF QPVQNQIKECN CUUWORVKQPU JCXG DGGP GZRQWPFGF QPN[ C HGY HWTVJGT GZRNCPCVKQPU

UJQWNF DG TGSWKTGF VQ GPCDNG VJG TGCFGT HCOKNKCT YKVJ HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE VQ WPFGTUVCPF

JKIJGTQTFGT NQIKE

O
.GV WU DGIKP VJGP YKVJ (TGIG U ITCOOCT (QT (TGIG VJGTG CTG VYQ ITCOOCVKECN

ECVGIQTKGU QT ITCOOCVKECN V[RGU QH YJCV JG ECNNU UCVWTCVGF GZRTGUUKQPU 6JG HKTUV JGTG VQ

DG ECNNGF 0 QT VJG ECVGIQT[ QH PCOGU KPENWFGU RTQRGT PCOGU UWEJ CU Q R

2NCVQ  DWV CNUQ

UKPIWNCT FGHKPKVG FGUETKRVKQPU UWEJ CU Q VJG OQUV HCOQWU UVWFGPV QH 5QETCVGU R VJCV CTG HTGG

HTQO KPFGZKECNU CPF FGUKIPCVG CP QDLGEV YJKEJ OC[ DG C RGTUQP QT RNCEG TCVJGT VJCP C

QVJKPI R KP C EQNNQSWKCN UGPUG  KPFGRGPFGPVN[ QH EQPVGZV 6JG UGEQPF JGTG VQ DG ECNNGF 5

QT VJG ECVGIQT[ QH UGPVGPEGU KPENWFGU FGENCTCVKXG UGPVGPEGU UWEJ CU Q2NCVQ YCU VJG OQUV
HCOQWU UVWFGPV QH 5QETCVGU R VJCV CTG HTGG HTQO KPFGZKECNU CPF JCXG C VTWVJXCNWG VTWG QT

HCNUG KPFGRGPFGPVN[ QH EQPVGZV

+P CFFKVKQP VJGTG CTG OCP[ V[RGU QH WPUCVWTCVGF GZRTGUUKQPU YKVJ QPG QT OQTG

ICRU VJCV KH HKNNGF KP YKVJ CP GZRTGUUKQP QT GZRTGUUKQPU QH CRRTQRTKCVG V[RG U  YQWNF

RTQFWEG CP GZRTGUUKQP QH V[RG 0 QT 5 6JQUG VJCV VJWU HKNNGF KP YQWNF RTQFWEG

GZRTGUUKQPU QH V[RG 5 TCVJGT VJCP V[RG 0 YKNN DG QH OQUV KPVGTGUV JGTG CPF VJGUG OC[ DG

ECNNGF RTGFKECVGU KP C DTQCF UGPUG +P C PQVCVKQP FGTKXGF HTQO VJG OWEJ NCVGT YTKVGTU

-CUKOKGT\ #LFWMKGYKE\ CPF ;GJQUJWC $CT*KNNGN CP GZRTGUUKQP YKVJ DNCPMU KP KV VJCV KH

W
M

HKNNGF KP YKVJ GZRTGUUKQPU QH V[RGU 6  6M YKNN RTQFWEG CP GZRTGUUKQP QH V[RG 5 OC[

DG UCKF VQ DG C RTGFKECVG QH V[RG 56 W 6M 6JG UKORNGUV ECUG KU VJCV QH RTGFKECVGU KP VJG

PCTTQY UGPUG QH GZRTGUUKQPU QH V[RG 50 5QOG QVJGT ECUGU CTG UJQYP KP 6#$.' #

6JG NCDGN TGNCVKQPCN RTGFKECVG YKNN DG WUGF HQT VJG VYQRNCEG VJTGGRNCEG CPF

OCP[RNCEG V[RGU 500 5000 CPF UQ QP YKVJ VJG PWODGT QH RNCEGU DGKPI OGPVKQPGF

GZRNKEKVN[ YJGP KV KU ITGCVGT VJCP VYQ 6JG NCDGN JKIJGT RTGFKECVG YKNN DG WUGF HQT VJG

UGEQPFNGXGN VJKTFNGXGN CPF JKIJGTNGXGN V[RGU 5 50  5 5 50  CPF UQ QP YKVJ VJG

PWODGT QH VJG NGXGN DGKPI OGPVKQPGF GZRNKEKVN[ KH KV KU JKIJGT VJCP VJG UGEQPF 5KOKNCTN[

YKVJ VJG NCDGN JKIJGT TGNCVKQPCN RTGFKECVG YJKEJ GXGP YKVJ LWUV VYQ RNCEGU CPF GXGP CV

LWUV VJG UGEQPF NGXGN EQXGTU C XCTKGV[ QH V[RGU KPENWFKPI PQV QPN[ 5 50 50 CU UJQYP

KP VJG VCDNG DWV CNUQ HQT KPUVCPEG 5 500 500  CPF UWEJ OKZGF V[RGU CU

5 50 500 CPF GXGP 50 50  +V KU CP KPUVTWEVKXG GZGTEKUG VQ NQQM HQT PCVWTCN

NCPIWCIG GZCORNGU KNNWUVTCVKPI UWEJ RQUUKDKNKVKGU

O
+P (TGIG   YJKEJ CHVGT JKU VJTGG DQQMU KU KVU CWVJQT U OQUV HCOQWU YQTM

(TGIG KPVTQFWEGF C FKUVKPEVKQP DGVYGGP VJG UGPUG GZRTGUUGF CPF VJG TGHGTGPV FGPQVGF D[

CP GZRTGUUKQP 6JG TGCFGT YKNN PQV IQ HCT YTQPI YJQ VJKPMU QH YJCV (TGIG ECNNU VJG

QUGPUG R QH CP GZRTGUUKQP QH YJCVGXGT V[RG CU TQWIJN[ GSWKXCNGPV VQ YJCV QVJGT

RJKNQUQRJGTU YQWNF ECNN KVU Q R

OGCPKPI  9JCV VJG Q TGHGTGPV R QH CP GZRTGUUKQP KU VQ DG

WPFGTUVQQF VQ DG XCTKGU HTQO ITCOOCVKECN V[RG VQ ITCOOCVKECN V[RG

+P VJG ECUG QH C RTQRGT PCOG QT UKPIWNCT FGHKPKVG FGUETKRVKQP QH V[RG 0 VJG TGHGTGPV

KU VJG QDLGEV FGUKIPCVGF VJG VJKPI DGCTKPI VJG PCOG QT CPUYGTKPI VQ VJG FGUETKRVKQP

%NGCTN[ VYQ GZRTGUUKQPU QH V[RG 0 HQT KPUVCPEG QVJG OQUV HCOQWU UVWFGPV QH 5QETCVGU R
CPF Q
VJG OQUV HCOQWU VGCEJGT QH #TKUVQVNG R ECP JCXG FKHHGTGPV UGPUGU GXGP VJQWIJ VJG[

JCXG VJG UCOG TGHGTGPV M KP VJKU KPUVCPEG 2NCVQ 'ZRTGUUKQPU YKVJ FKHHGTGPV UGPUGU DWV VJG

UCOG TGHGTGPV RTQXKFG FKHHGTGPV Q OQFGU QH RTGUGPVCVKQP R QH VJG UCOG QDLGEV

6JG UGPUG QH C UGPVGPEG QH V[RG 5 (TGIG ECNNU C VJQWIJV CPF VJG TGCFGT YKNN PQV IQ

HCT YTQPI YJQ VJKPMU QH YJCV (TGIG ECNNU C QVJQWIJV R CU TQWIJN[ GSWKXCNGPV VQ YJCV QVJGT

RJKNQUQRJGTU ECNN C Q R
RTQRQUKVKQP  6JG TGHGTGPV QH C UGPVGPEG QH V[RG 5 (TGIG VCMGU VQ DG
UKORN[ KVU VTWVJXCNWG 1DXKQWUN[ VYQ UGPVGPEGU QH V[RG 5 HQT KPUVCPEG Q 2NCVQ KU VJG OQUV

HCOQWU UVWFGPV QH 5QETCVGU R Q CPF 2NCVQ KU VJG OQUV HCOQWU VGCEJGT QH #TKUVQVNG  QT R Q 2NCVQ

KU C HGCVJGTNGUU DKRGF R Q
CPF R
2NCVQ KU C TCVKQPCN CPKOCN  ECP JCXG FKHHGTGPV UGPUGU VJQWIJ

VJG[ JCXG VJG UCOG TGHGTGPV M KP VJGUG KPUVCPEGU VJG VTWVJXCNWG VTWG

5Q OWEJ HQT VJG TGHGTGPVU QH EQORNGVG QT UCVWTCVGF GZRTGUUKQPU #U HQT VJG

TGHGTGPVU QH KPEQORNGVG QT WPUCVWTCVGF GZRTGUUKQPU QH V[RGU 0 W QT 5 W

 VJG[ CTG

UWRRQUGF VQ DG KPEQORNGVG NKMG VJG GZRTGUUKQPU VJGOUGNXGU EQPVCKPKPI ICRU VJCV YJGP

CRRTQRTKCVGN[ HKNNGF KP YKNN RTQFWEG CP QDLGEV QT C VTWVJXCNWG 6JG TGHGTGPVU QH

GZRTGUUKQPU QH V[RG 0 W (TGIG ECNNU HWPEVKQPU CPF VJG TGHGTGPVU QH GZRTGUUKQPU QH V[RG

5 W
 VJCV KU VJG TGHGTGPVU QH RTGFKECVGU JG ECNNU EQPEGRVU %QTTGURQPFKPI VQ VJG FKHHGTGPV

ITCOOCVKECN V[RGU QH RTGFKECVGU CTG FKHHGTGPV QPVQNQIKECN V[RGU QH EQPEGRVU KPENWFKPI

EQPEGRVU QH VJG PCTTQYGUV HKTUVNGXGN QPGRNCEG MKPF DWV CNUQ TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRVU CPF

JKIJGT EQPEGRVU

(QT C EQPEGRV QH V[RG 50 KH HKNNKPI KV KP YKVJ C EGTVCKP QDLGEV RTQFWEGU VJG

VTWVJXCNWG VTWG VJGP VJG QDLGEV KU UCKF VQ HCNN WPFGT VJG EQPEGRV (QT KPUVCPEG CUUWOKPI

HQT VJG UCMG QH GZCORNG VJCV 2NCVQ OC[ VTWN[ DG ECNNGF YKUG UKPEG VJG EQPEGRV FGPQVGF D[

QW R
KU YKUG  YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ VJG EQPEGRV QH DGKPI YKUG YJGP HKNNGF KP D[ VJG QDLGEV

FGPQVGF D[ Q R
2NCVQ  YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ VJG QDLGEV 2NCVQ RTQFWEGU VJG VTWVJXCNWG FGPQVGF D[

Q R
2NCVQ KU YKUG  YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ VJG VTWVJXCNWG VTWG KV HQNNQYU VJCV VJG QDLGEV 2NCVQ HCNNU

WPFGT VJG EQPEGRV QH DGKPI YKUG 6JG UCOG VGTOKPQNQI[ KU WUGF KP EQPPGEVKQP YKVJ QVJGT

V[RGU QH RTGFKECVGU UKPEG 5QETCVGU VCWIJV 2NCVQ VJG RCKT 5QETCVGU CPF 2NCVQ KP VJCV QTFGT

HCNN WPFGT VJG TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRV QH JCXKPI VCWIJV UKPEG 2NCVQ KU CP GZCORNG QH UQOGQPG

YJQ KU YKUG VJG EQPEGRV QH DGKPI YKUG HCNNU WPFGT VJG JKIJGT EQPEGRV QH DGKPI

GZGORNKHKGF D[ 2NCVQ

6YQ EQPEGRVU CTG ECNNGF EQGZVGPUKXG KH VJG[ CRRN[ VQ VJG UCOG KVGOU QT KP QVJGT

YQTFU KH YJCVGXGT HCNNU WPFGT GKVJGT HCNNU WPFGT VJG QVJGT 0QY VJG ETWEKCN FKHHGTGPEG

DGVYGGP VJG TGHGTGPVU QH RTGFKECVGU YJKEJ KU VQ UC[ EQPEGRVU CPF VJG UGPUGU QH RTGFKECVGU

KU VJCV CEEQTFKPI VQ (TGIG EQGZVGPUKXG EQPEGRVU CTG VJG UCOG 6JWU KH GXGT[ HGCVJGTNGUU

DKRGF KU C TCVKQPCN CPKOCN CPF XKEG XGTUC VJGP VJQWIJ VJG UGPUGU QH QW KU C HGCVJGTNGUU

DKRGF R QW
CPF KU C TCVKQPCN CPKOCN R CTG FKHHGTGPV VJG EQPEGRV QH DGKPI C HGCVJGTNGUU

DKRGF CPF VJG EQPEGRV QH DGKPI C TCVKQPCN CPKOCN CTG VJG UCOG

+V UQWPFU QFF VQ UC[ UQ CPF VJG FGITGG QH QFFKV[ KU C OGCUWTG QH VJG FGITGG QH

O
FGRCTVWTG QH (TGIG U VGEJPKECN WUCIG QH QEQPEGRV R HTQO VJG QTFKPCT[ WUCIG QH QEQPEGRV  R
YJKEJ VGPFU VQ UWIIGUV VJG UGPUG TCVJGT VJCP VJG TGHGTGPV QH C RTGFKECVG 6JG NCDGN

QEQPEGRV R YCU KP HCEV EJQUGP D[ (TGIG YGNN DGHQTG JG TGEQIPK\GF VJG KORQTVCPEG QH

U[UVGOCVKECNN[ FKUVKPIWKUJKPI UGPUG CPF TGHGTGPEG $[ JKPFUKIJV KV UGGOU JG OKIJV JCXG

FQPG YGNN CHVGT TGEQIPK\KPI VJG KORQTVCPEG QH VJCV FKUVKPEVKQP VQ TGXKUG JKU VGTOKPQNQI[

+ YCU VGORVGF VQ UWDUVKVWVG QENCUUKHKECVKQP R Q HQT EQPEGRV R KP VJG HQTGIQKPI UJQTV

GZRQUKVKQP DWV JCXG UVWEM YKVJ QEQPEGRV R DGECWUG KV KU UVKNN WUGF D[ OQUV QH VJG

PGQ(TGIGCPU YKVJ YJQUG XKGYU + YKNN DG EQPEGTPGF

+P (TGIGCP VGTOKPQNQI[ VJGP VQ VJG ITCOOCVKECN ECVGIQTKGU QH PCOGU UGPVGPEGU

CPF RTGFKECVGU VJGTG EQTTGURQPF VJG QPVQNQIKECN ECVGIQTKGU QH QDLGEVU VTWVJXCNWGU CPF

Q R O
EQPEGRVU  6JG HQTOCN NCPIWCIG QH (TGIG U JKIJGTQTFGT NQIKE KU OQTG EQORNGZ VJCP VJG

HQTOCN NCPIWCIGU QH VJG HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE GZRQWPFGF KP RTGUGPVFC[ VGZVDQQMU KP VJCV KV

OCMGU RTQXKUKQP HQT RTGFKECVGU QH CNN V[RGU FGPQVKPI EQPEGRVU QH CNN V[RGU

5Q OWEJ HQT VJG ITCOOCT DGJKPF VJG NQIKE 6WTPKPI VQ NQIKE KVUGNH OQFGTP

VGZVDQQMU KPVTQFWEG VJG UVWFGPV VQ VJG PQVKQPU QH C HKTUVQTFGT NCPIWCIG YKVJ VJG U[ODQN

 HQT KFGPVKV[ CPF WUWCNN[ QVJGT PQPNQIKECN U[ODQNU PRNCEG TGNCVKQP U[ODQNU KPENWFKPI

RNCEG QPGU QT UGPVGPEG U[ODQNU CPF PRNCEG HWPEVKQP U[ODQNU KPENWFKPI RNCEG QPGU

QT EQPUVCPVU  #NUQ KPVTQFWEGF CTG TWNGU QH HQTOCVKQP CPF VJG PQVKQP QH C VGTO DWKNV WR

HTQO XCTKCDNGU CPF EQPUVCPVU WUKPI HWPEVKQP U[ODQNU  CVQOKE HQTOWNC QDVCKPGF D[

RWVVKPI VGTOU KP VJG RNCEGU QH TGNCVKQP U[ODQNU  CPF HQTOWNC DWKNV WR HTQO CVQOKE

HQTOWNCU WUKPI VJG NQIKECN QRGTCVQTU `  ∨ → ↔ ∀ ∃  CNQPI YKVJ VJG CPEKNNCT[

PQVKQPU QH HTGG CPF DQWPF XCTKCDNGU CPF QRGP CPF ENQUGF HQTOWNCU YKVJ UQOG XCTKCDNGU

HTGG CPF YKVJ CNN XCTKCDNGU DQWPF TGURGEVKXGN[ 

#NUQ KPVTQFWEGF EGTVCKP TWNGU QH FGFWEVKQP YJKEJ OC[ VCMG YKFGN[ FKHHGTGPV HQTOU

KP FKHHGTGPV DQQMU M VJG FKHHGTGPV HQTOCVU HQT FGFWEVKQPU WUGF KP FKHHGTGPV DQQMU IQKPI D[

UWEJ PCOGU CU Q*KNDGTVUV[NG R Q

CPF )GPV\GPUV[NG R Q
CPF (KVEJUV[NG RM DWV NGCF KP CNN

DQQMU VQ GSWKXCNGPV PQVKQPU QH YJCV KV KU HQT QPG HQTOWNC VQ DG FGFWEKDNG HTQO QVJGTU CPF

JGPEG VQ GSWKXCNGPV PQVKQPU QH C VJGQT[ EQPUKUVKPI QH CNN VJG HQTOWNCU ECNNGF VJGQTGOU QH

VJG VJGQT[ VJCV CTG FGFWEKDNG HTQO EGTVCKP URGEKHKGF HQTOWNCU ECNNGF VJG PQPNQIKECN

CZKQOU QH VJG VJGQT[

(COKNKCTKV[ YKVJ CNN VJGUG PQVKQPU OWUV DG RTGUWRRQUGF JGTG DWV EGTVCKP

EQPXGPVKQPU VJCV CTG PQV EQXGTGF KP CNN VGZVDQQMU OC[ DG DTKGHN[ TGXKGYGF 6Q DGIKP YKVJ

KV RTQXGU EQPXGPKGPV KP RTCEVKEG YJGP YTKVKPI QWV HQTOWNCU VQ OCMG EGTVCKP FGRCTVWTGU

HTQO YJCV KP RTKPEKRNG QWIJV VQ DG YTKVVGP +P RCTVKEWNCT HQT VJG UCMG QH EQPEKUGPGUU CPF

ENCTKV[ EGTVCKP FGHKPGF U[ODQNU CTG CFFGF VQ VJG RTKOKVKXG QT QHHKEKCN U[ODQNU 6JG

UKORNGUV ECUG KU VJG KPVTQFWEVKQP QH l HQT FKUVKPEVPGUU D[ VJG WUWCN FGHKPKVKQP CU HQNNQYU

 Z l [ ↔`Z[
9JCV KV OGCPU VQ UC[ VJCV l Q KU FGHKPGF R D[  KU VJCV QHHKEKCNN[ l O KUP V RCTV QH VJG

PQVCVKQP CV CNN CPF VJCV VJG NGHV UKFG QH  KU VQ DG VCMGP UKORN[ CU CP WPQHHKEKCN

CDDTGXKCVKQP HQT VJG TKIJV UKFG QH   6JG Q FGHKPKVKQP R  KU VJWU PQV C UWDUVCPVKXG CZKQO

DWV OGTGN[ CP CDDTGXKCVKQP HQT C VCWVQNQI[ QH VJG HQTO R ↔ R 6JG UNCUJ PQVCVKQP HQT
PGICVKQP OC[ CNUQ DG WUGF YKVJ EGTVCKP PQPNQIKECN TGNCVKQP U[ODQNU YJGP VJGKT UJCRG

RGTOKVU

#PQVJGT UNKIJVN[ NGUU UKORNG ECUG QHVGP PQV EQXGTGF KP VGZVDQQMU KU VJCV QH ∃ HQT
WPKSWG GZKUVGPEG YKVJ VYQ QH VJG UGXGTCN GSWKXCNGPV WUWCN FGHKPKVKQPU DGKPI CU HQNNQYU

C ∃Zφ Z ↔ ∃Zφ Z  ∀Z∀Z φ Z  φ Z → Z  Z

D ∃Zφ Z ↔ ∃Z∀[ φ [ ↔[Z

*GTG VJG HKTUV CPF UGEQPF EQPLWPEVU QH VJG EQPLWPEVKQP QP VJG TKIJV KP C CTG ECNNGF VJG

GZKUVGPEG CPF WPKSWGPGUU ENCWUGU TGURGEVKXGN[

;GV CPQVJGT CPF NGUU UKORNG ECUG OC[ CTKUG YJGP QPG JCU CUUWOGF CU CP CZKQO QT

FGFWEGF CU C VJGQTGO UQOGVJKPI QH VJG HQTO ∃φ Z  +V OC[ VJGP DG EQPXGPKGPV VQ Q IKXG C

PCOG VQ R VJKU Z D[ KPVTQFWEKPI C EQPUVCPV E CPF CUUWOKPI φE  6JG CUUWORVKQP φ E KU

VJGP ECNNGF CP KORNKEKV FGHKPKVKQP CPF ∃φ Z VJG RTGUWRRQUKVKQP QH VJCV FGHKPKVKQP #P[

HQTOWNC ψ E ECP VJGP DG TGICTFGF KPFKHHGTGPVN[ CU CDDTGXKCVKPI GKVJGT QH VJG HQNNQYKPI

C ∀Z ∀[ φ [ ↔[Z →ψ Z D ∃Z ∀[ φ [ ↔ [  Z  ψ Z

+ UC[ Q
KPFKHHGTGPVN[ R DGECWUG C ECP DG FGFWEGF HTQO D CPF XKEG XGTUC WUKPI VJG

RTGUWRRQUKVKQP ∃φ φE
Z  0QVG VJCV GZRCPFU KPVQ C NQIKECN EQPUGSWGPEG QH VJCV

RTGUWRRQUKVKQP 0QVG CNUQ VJCV KH ψ E KU QH VJG HQTO `θ E  KV KU TGCNN[ C OCVVGT QH

KPFKHHGTGPEG YJGVJGT QPG HKTUV WPRCEMU VJG CDDTGXKCVKQP KP θ E CPF VJGP CRRNKGU PGICVKQP

QT HKTUV CRRNKGU PGICVKQP CPF VJGP WPRCEMU VJG CDDTGXKCVKQP KP `θ E  (QT VJG VYQ TGUWNVU

YJKEJ TGCF CU HQNNQYU

C `∀Z ∀[ φ [ ↔ [  Z → θ Z D ∀Z ∀[ φ [ ↔ [  Z → `θ Z

CTG FGFWEKDNG HTQO GCEJ QVJGT CU YGTG C CPF D  CPF VJG UCOG JQNFU HQT QVJGT

EQORQWPFU VJCP PGICVKQP

5VKNN [GV CPQVJGT CPF GXGP NGUU UKORNG ECUG KU VJG OCP[RNCEG CPCNQIWG QH VJG

CDDTGXKCVQT[ EQPXGPVKQP LWUV FKUEWUUGF 9JGP QPG JCU CUUWOGF QT FGFWEGF ∀[∃Zψ [ Z 

QPG OC[ Q
IKXG C PCOG VQ R VJKU Z D[ KPVTQFWEKPI C HWPEVKQP U[ODQN H CPF CUUWOKPI
∀[ψ [ H [  6JG WPRCEMKPI VQ GNKOKPCVG H RTQEGGFU CPCNQIQWUN[ VQ VJG WPRCEMKPI VQ

GNKOKPCVG E KP VJG QPGRNCEG ECUG #PF YJCV JCU LWUV DGGP UCKF CDQWV C QPGRNCEG

HWPEVKQPU[ODQN H CRRNKGU CNUQ VQ OCP[RNCEG HWPEVKQPU[ODQNU

O
$GTVTCPF 4WUUGNN U HCOQWU VJGQT[ QH FGUETKRVKQPU RTQXKFGU C IGPGTCN PQVCVKQP

YJKEJ + YKNN YTKVG CU KQVC ι VJCV CVVCEJGU VQ C XCTKCDNG Z CPF C HQTOWNC JCXKPI Z CU C HTGG

XCTKCDNG VQ HQTO C VGTO VJCV DGJCXGU NKMG CP PRNCEG HWPEVKQP U[ODQN YJGTG P KU VJG

PWODGT QH HTGG XCTKCDNGU QVJGT VJCP Z +P VJKU PQVCVKQP QWT EQPUVCPV QT RNCEG HWPEVKQP

U[ODQN E CDQXG YQWNF DG ιZφ Z  YJKNG H [ YQWNF DG ιZψ [ Z  +P DQVJ Z EQWPVU CU C

DQWPF XCTKCDNG %QPVGZVU EQPVCKPKPI ιVGTOU CTG GZRCPFGF CU KPFKECVGF CDQXG

%GTVCKP CDDTGXKCVQT[ EQPXGPVKQPU CRRN[ URGEKHKECNN[ VQ VJG FKURNC[KPI QH NCYU

CZKQOU CPF VJGQTGOU QH C VJGQT[ 6JGUG CICKP OC[ DG KNNWUVTCVGF D[ VJG ECUG QH KFGPVKV[

YJGTG YG JCXG VJG NQIKECN NCY QH KPFKUEGTPKDKNKV[ QH KFGPVKECNU YJKEJ KP OCP[ VGZVDQQM

RTGUGPVCVKQPU KU VCMGP CU C NQIKECN CZKQO CPF KP QVJGTU CRRGCTU CU C NQIKECN VJGQTGO

+PFKUEGTPKDKNKV[ DG UVCVGF CU HQNNQYU

 Z  [ → φ(Z ↔ φ [

1PG QH VJG EQPXGPVKQPU KNNWUVTCVGF D[ VJKU YC[ QH UVCVKPI VJG NCY KU VJCV VJQWIJ YG CNNQY

QWTUGNXGU VQ URGCM KP VJG UKPIWNCT QH Q R VJG CZKQO QT VJGQTGO QH KPFKUEGTPKDKNKV[ YJCV QPG

TGCNN[ JCU JGTG KU CP CZKQO UEJGOG OGCPKPI C TWNG VQ VJG GHHGEV VJCV CNN HQTOWNCU QH C

EGTVCKP HQTO CTG VQ DG EQWPVGF CU CZKQOU QT C VJGQTGO UEJGOG OGCPKPI C TGUWNV VQ VJG

GHHGEV VJCV CNN HQTOWNCU QH C EGTVCKP HQTO CTG VJGQTGOU 9JCV KU FKURNC[GF KP  KU PQV

Q R
VJG NCY DWV VJG IGPGTCN HQTO QH CP KPUVCPEG QH VJG UEJGOG YJGTGKP φ OC[ DG CP[
HQTOWNC

#EVWCNN[  FQGU PQV [GV HWNN[ FKURNC[ VJG IGPGTCN HQTO QH CP KPUVCPEG QH VJG NCY

UKPEG KV KU EQPXGPVKQPCN KP FKURNC[KPI NCYU VQ QOKV KPKVKCN WPKXGTUCN SWCPVKHKGTU 6JWU YJCV

CP KPUVCPEG TGCNN[ NQQMU NKMG KU VJKU

C ∀Z∀[(Z  [ → φ(Z ↔ φ [

#PF CEVWCNN[ GXGP C UVKNN FQGU PQV [GV HWNN[ GZJKDKV VJG IGPGTCN HQTO QH CP KPUVCPEG QH

VJG NCY UKPEG KV KU EQPXGPVKQPCN KP FKURNC[KPI NCYU VQ QOKV RCTCOGVGTU QT CFFKVKQPCN HTGG

XCTKCDNGU VJCV OC[ DG RTGUGPV 6JWU YJCV CP KPUVCPEG TGCNN[ NQQMU NKMG KU VJKU

D ∀W W∀ WM ∀Z∀[(Z  [ → φ(Z W W  WM ↔ φ [ W W  WM

.KMG CNN VJG QVJGT EQPXGPVKQPU VJCV JCXG DGGP FGUETKDGF UQ HCT VJGUG EQPXGPVKQPU CDQWV

FKURNC[KPI CZKQOU CPF VJGQTGOU QH HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE YKNN CRRN[ CNUQ VQ JKIJGTQTFGT NQIKE

6JGUG EQPXGPVKQPU JCXG DGGP DTKGHN[ FGUETKDGF JGTG + UC[ DGECWUG PQV CNN

VGZVDQQMU EQXGT VJGO 6JGTG KU QPG HWTVJGT KORQTVCPV VQRKE VJCV XGT[ HGY VGZVDQQMU EQXGT

VJCV QH OCP[UQTVGF HKTUVQTFGT NCPIWCIGU CPF VJGQTKGU # OCP[UQTVGF NCPIWCIG KU LWUV

NKMG CP QTFKPCT[ QPG GZEGRV VJCV VJGTG KU OQTG VJCP QPG UV[NG QH XCTKCDNGU (QT KPUVCPEG KP

C IGQOGVTKECN VJGQT[ CDQWV RQKPVU CPF NKPGU KV OC[ DG EQPXGPKGPV VQ JCXG QPG UV[NG QH

XCTKCDNG : ; < W HQT RQKPVU CPF CPQVJGT UV[NG QH XCTKCDNG ξ υ ζ W HQT NKPGU %GTVCKP

QDXKQWU EJCPIGU KP VJG TWNGU QH HQTOCVKQP CPF FGFWEVKQP VJGP JCXG VQ DG OCFG

#U VQ HQTOCVKQP TWNGU CPF HQTOWNCU VJG WUWCN TWNGU UC[ VJCV W  X KU CP CVQOKE

HQTOWNC HQT CP[ XCTKCDNGU W CPF X +P OCP[UQTVGF NQIKE QPG JCU C FKHHGTGPV KFGPVKV[

U[ODQN HQT GCEJ UQTV QH XCTKCDNG 5Q KP QWT IGQOGVTKECN GZCORNG YG YQWNF JCXG CVQOKE

HQTOWNCU QH VJG MKPFU : RQKPV ; CPF ξ NKPG υ CPF PQV CVQOKE HQTOWNCU KFGPVKH[KPI C RQKPV
CPF C NKPG 5KOKNCTN[ HQT PQPNQIKECN U[ODQNU VJGTG OC[ DG TGUVTKEVKQPU CU VQ YJKEJ UQTVU

QH XCTKCDNGU ECP IQ KPVQ YJKEJ RNCEGU 6JGUG EJCPIGU CHHGEV QPN[ VJG TWNGU HQT HQTOKPI

VGTOU CPF CVQOKE HQTOWNCU 6JG TWNGU HQT HQTOKPI OQTG EQORNGZ HQTOWNCU HTQO UKORNGT

QPGU D[ NQIKECN QRGTCVKQPU TGOCKP WPEJCPIGF +P RCTVKEWNCT ∀ CPF ∃ OC[ DG CRRNKGF VQ

CP[ UQTV QH XCTKCDNG

#U VQ FGFWEVKQP TWNGU CPF FGFWEKDKNKV[ VJG WUWCN TWNGU HQT SWCPVKHKGTU CNNQY M KP

QPG HQTOCV QT CPQVJGT M VJG KPHGTGPEG HTQO ∀Wφ W VQ φ X CPF HTQO φX VQ ∃Wφ W HQT

CP[ XCTKCDNGU W CPF X $WV KP QWT IGQOGVTKECN GZCORNG YG YQWNF YCPV VQ CNNQY QPN[

KPHGTGPEG HTQO ∀:φ : VQ φ ; CPF HTQO ∀ξψ ξ VQ ψυ  CPF PQV HTQO ∀:φ : VQ φυ QT

HTQO ∀ξψ ξ VQ ψ ;  5KOKNCTN[ HQT ∃ VJGTG CTG TGUVTKEVKQPU CU VQ YJKEJ UQTVU QH XCTKCDNGU
ECP DG UWDUVKVWVGF YJGTG 6JGUG EJCPIGU CHHGEV QPN[ VJG TWNGU QH FGFWEVKQP KPXQNXKPI

SWCPVKHKGTU 6JG TWNGU HQT `  ∨ → ↔ TGOCKP WPEJCPIGF

+P RTKPEKRNG C VYQUQTVGF VJGQT[ ECP CNYC[U DG TGRNCEGF D[ C QPGUQTVGF VJGQT[

YKVJ C UKPING UV[NG QH XCTKCDNGU Z [ \ W D[ KPVTQFWEKPI C QPGRNCEG TGNCVKQP U[ODQN 2

ECNNGF C UQTVCN RTGFKECVG CPF TGRNCEKPI SWCPVKHKECVKQPU ∀: W CPF W∀ξ D[

∀Z 2Z → W CPF ∀Z `2Z → W  CPF ∃: W CPF ∃ξ W D[ ∃Z 2Z W CPF

∃Z `2Z  W  (QT KPUVCPEG C IGQOGVTKE VJGQT[ CDQWV RQKPVU : CPF NKPGU ξ ECP DG TGFWEGF

VQ C QPGUQTVGF VJGQT[ CDQWV RQKPVUQTNKPGU Z D[ KPVTQFWEKPI C RTGFKECVG Q R

KU C RQKPV  CPF

TGRNCEKPI SWCPVKHKECVKQPU Q HQT GXGT[ RQKPV : R Q CPF HQT GXGT[ NKPG ξR Q D[ HQT GXGT[ Z KH Z KU

C RQKPV VJGP R QCPF HQT GXGT[ Z KH Z R

KU PQV C RQKPV VJGP  +H VJGTG KU UC[ C EQPUVCPV % QH

UQTV : KP VJG QTKIKPCN NCPIWCIG YG PGGF VQ CFF GZRNKEKVN[ CU CP CZKQO UKPEG KV KU PQ NQPIGT

KORNKEKV KP VJG PQVCVKQP VJCV % KU C RQKPV 2% +H VJGTG KU UC[ C HWPEVKQP U[ODQN T KP VJG
QTKIKPCN VYQUQTVGF NCPIWCIG VJCV VCMGU CTIWOGPVU QH UQTV ξ CPF IKXGU XCNWGU QH UQTV : YG
PGGF VQ CFF GZRNKEKVN[ CU CP CZKQO UKPEG KV KU PQ NQPIGT KORNKEKV KP VJG ITCOOCT VJCV T
CRRNKGF VQ C NKPG IKXGU C RQKPV `2Z →2 T
Z #PF UKOKNCTN[ HQT HWPEVKQPU[ODQNU QH OQTG

RNCEGU # UKOKNCT TGFWEVKQP ECP DG ECTTKGF QWV HQT VJTGGUQTVGF VJGQTKGU WUKPI VYQ UQTVCN

RTGFKECVGU 2 CPF 3 CPF URGCMKPI QH VJG KVGOU QH VJG VJKTF UQTV CU VJG Z UWEJ VJCV

`2Z  `3Z  $WV TGVCKPKPI VJG OCP[UQTVGF HQTOWNCVKQP KU QHVGP KP RTCEVKEG OQTG

EQPXGPKGPV CPF OQTG KNNWOKPCVKPI

(QT VJG TGCFGT EQOHQTVCDNG YKVJ HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE KPENWFKPI KVU OCP[UQTVGF XCTKCPV

XGTUKQP LWUV FGUETKDGF JKIJGTQTFGT NQIKE OC[ DG KPVTQFWEGF CU UKORN[ QPG URGEKCN

OCP[UQTVGF HKTUVQTFGT VJGQT[ YKVJ EGTVCKP FKUVKPEVKXG HQTOWNCU CU CZKQOU KP QPG URGEKCN

OCP[UQTVGF HKTUVQTFGT NCPIWCIG YKVJ EGTVCKP FKUVKPEVKXG TGNCVKQP U[ODQNU CU RTKOKVKXGU

(TQO VJG RGTURGEVKXG QH HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE VJGUG FKUVKPEVKXG RTKOKVKXGU CPF CZKQOU CTG

EQPUKFGTGF PQPNQIKECN HTQO VJG RGTURGEVKXG QH JKIJGTQTFGT NQIKE VJG[ CTG EQPUKFGTGF

NQIKECN 9JGVJGT VJG[ CTG QT CTG PQV Q

NQIKECN R KP C RJKNQUQRJKECNN[ KPVGTGUVKPI UGPUG KU

QDXKQWUN[ TGNGXCPV VQ CUUGUUKPI VJG RJKNQUQRJKECN UKIPKHKECPEG QH VJG FGXGNQROGPV QH

OCVJGOCVKEU YKVJKP C U[UVGO DCUGF QP JKIJGTQTFGT NQIKE $WV VJKU RJKNQUQRJKECN KUUWG KU

KTTGNGXCPV VQ VJG VGEJPKECN FGHKPKVKQPU QH JKIJGTQTFGT HQTOWNC CPF JKIJGTQTFGT

FGFWEKDKNKV[ YJKEJ CU CNTGCF[ KPFKECVGF CTG VJG UCOG CU HQT OCP[UQTVGF HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE

YJKEJ KP VWTP CTG CRCTV HTQO UQOG QDXKQWU TGUVTKEVKQPU QP YJKEJ UQTVU QH XCTKCDNGU ECP

VWTP WR KP YJKEJ RQUKVKQPU VJG UCOG CU HQT QTFKPCT[ VGZVDQQM HKTUVQTFGT NQIKE YKVJ

YJKEJ KV KU CUUWOGF VJG TGCFGT KU HCOKNKCT

9JCV VJG FKUVKPEVKXG RTKOKVKXGU CPF CZKQOU QH JKIJGTQTFGT NQIKE CTG ECP CNOQUV DG

IWGUUGF HTQO VJG GCTNKGT FKUEWUUKQP QH (TGIGCP QPVQNQI[ #U VQ RTKOKVKXGU VJGTG CTG

XCTKCDNGU QH XCTKQWU V[RGU 6 YKVJ VJG EQTTGURQPFKPI KFGPVKV[ U[ODQNU 6 IKXKPI TKUG VQ

UWEJ CVQOKE HQTOWNCU CU VJG HQNNQYKPI

Z 0 [ : 50 ; 4 500 5 : 5 50 ;

$GUKFGU VJGUG YG YKNN YCPV HQT GCEJ V[RG 6  56 W 6M C M  RNCEG TGNCVKQPU[ODQN

∇6 VQ GZRTGUU VJCV C IKXGP EQPEGRV QH V[RG 6 JCU IKXGP KVGOU QH V[RGU 6 W  6M HCNNKPI

WPFGT KV 6JGUG U[ODQNU YKNN IKXG TKUG VQ UWEJ CVQOKE HQTOWNCU CU VJG HQNNQYKPI

∇50:Z ∇5004Z[ ∇5 50 ::

 5WEJ KU VJG NCPIWCIG QH HWNN JKIJGTQTFGT NQIKE +H YG FTQR GXGT[VJKPI CDQXG

UGEQPFNGXGN EQPEGRVU VJG TGUWNV KU VJG NCPIWCIG QH RQN[CFKE VJKTFQTFGT NQIKE +H YG

FTQR GXGT[VJKPI CDQXG HKTUVNGXGN EQPEGRVU VJG TGUWNV KU VJG NCPIWCIG QH RQN[CFKE

UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE +H YG FTQR CNN TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRVU QH OQTG VJCP VYQ RNCEGU VJG TGUWNV

KU VJG NCPIWCIG QH F[CFKE JKIJGTQTFGT NQIKE +H YG FTQR CNN TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRVU

YJCVUQGXGT VJG TGUWNV KU VJG NCPIWCIG QH OQPCFKE JKIJGTQTFGT NQIKE

6JKU KU CNN VJCV PGGFU VQ DG UCKF CDQWV VJG QHHKEKCN PQVKQP QH HQTOWNC HQT JKIJGT

QTFGT NQIKE 7PQHHKEKCNN[ 0 KU EQPXGPVKQPCNN[ LWUV YTKVVGP CU  YJKNG CNN QVJGT 6 CTG

YTKVVGP CU ≡. #U HQT ∇ PQV QPN[ CTG UWDUETKRVU FTQRRGF DWV VJG XGT[ U[ODQN KVUGNH KU PQV
YTKVVGP UQ VJCV KP RTCEVKEG Q Z HCNNU WPFGT : RQ Z CPF [ KP VJCV QTFGT HCNN WPFGT 4 RQ
 : HCNNU

WPFGT :R CTG YTKVVGP LWUV :Z CPF 4Z[ CPF : : QT UQOGVKOGU HQT GZVTC GORJCUKU : Z CPF

4 Z [ CPF :  :

6WTPKPI HTQO RTKOKVKXGU VQ CZKQOU VJGTG CTG LWUV VYQ QH VJGUG ECNNGF

EQORTGJGPUKQP CPF GZVGPUKQPCNKV[

 ∃:∀Z :Z ↔ φ Z
 : ≡ ; ↔ ∀\ :\ ↔ ;\

6JG WUWCN EQPXGPVKQPU HQT UVCVKPI CZKQOU CRRN[ JGTG TGCNN[  KU CP CZKQO UEJGOG VJG

HQTOWNCU FKURNC[GF CTG VQ DG RTGHKZGF YKVJ WPKXGTUCN SWCPVKHKGTU CPF VJGTG OC[ DG

RCTCOGVGTU # HWTVJGT EQPXGPVKQP KU VJCV YJGP C HQTOWNC KU UVCVGF CU CP CZKQO QH

OQPCFKE UGEQPFQTFGT NQIKE WPNGUU GZRNKEKVN[ KPFKECVGF QVJGTYKUG VJG CPCNQIQWU RQN[CFKE

CPF JKIJGTQTFGT HQTOWNCU CTG CNUQ VQ DG VCMGP CU CZKQOU 6JWU KP CFFKVKQP VQ  CPF 

VJG HQNNQYKPI CTG CNUQ EQORTGJGPUKQP CPF GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ CZKQOU

C ∃4∀Z∀[ 4Z[ ↔ψ Z [ D ∃:∀: : : ↔θ :

C 4 ≡ 5 ↔ ∀Z∀[ 4Z[ ↔ 5Z[ D :≡;↔∀ : < < ↔ ;<

5QOG EQPUGSWGPEGU KOOGFKCVGN[ FGFWEKDNG HTQO VJGUG CZKQOU OC[ DG PQVGF  KORNKGU

VJCV VJG : KP  KU WPKSWG CPF YG OC[ IKXG C PCOG VQ KV ECNNKPI KV nZ φ Z € TGCF QVJG

EQPEGRV QH DGKPI CP Z UWEJ VJCV φ Z R

 +P 4WUUGNNKCP PQVCVKQP nZ φ Z € ι:∀Z :Z ↔φ Z 

9G UKOKNCTN[ WUG VJG PQVCVKQP nZ [ ψ Z [ € CPF n: θ : €

'ZVGPUKQPCNKV[ CFOKVU QH UGXGTCN GSWKXCNGPV HQTOWNCVKQPU #U HQTOWNCVGF KP 

CDQXG VQIGVJGT YKVJ VJG KPFKUEGTPKDKNKV[ QH KFGPVKECNU KV [KGNFU VJG HQNNQYKPI

 ∀\ :\ ↔ ;\ → φ : ↔ φ ;
+P OQUV PGQ(TGIGCP U[UVGOU ≡ KU PQV GXGP KPENWFGF COQPI VJG QHHKEKCN RTKOKVKXGU DWV
TCVJGT KU TGICTFGF CU CP WPQHHKEKCN CDDTGXKCVKQP KP YJKEJ ECUG  KU PQV KPENWFGF COQPI

VJG QHHKEKCN CZKQOU DWV TCVJGT KU TGICTFGF CU VJG FGHKPKVKQP QH ≡ + YKNN JGPEGHQTVJ HCNN KP
YKVJ VJKU RTCEVKEG 9JGP ≡ KU VJWU VCMGP CU FGHKPGF TCVJGT VJCP RTKOKVKXG KV KU GKVJGT 

VJCV KU ECNNGF VJG CZKQO QH GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ QT GNUG VJG HQNNQYKPI KPUVCPEG QH   YJKEJ

VQIGVJGT YKVJ D  CEVWCNN[ [KGNFU VJG IGPGTCN UEJGOG  

 ∀\ :\ ↔ ;\ → : : ↔ :;

(QT TGCUQPU VJCV YKNN DG GZRNCKPGF NCVGT KP VJKU EJCRVGT (TGIG FKF PQV PGGF GZVGPUKQPCNKV[

KP CP[ HQTOWNCVKQP CU CP CZKQO HQT VJG FGXGNQROGPV QH OCVJGOCVKEU YKVJKP JKU U[UVGO

'ZVGPUKQPCNKV[ KU PGGFGF JQYGXGT VQ GZRTGUU HWNN[ JKU PQVKQP QH YJCV C EQPEGRV KU

$GHQTG ENQUKPI VJKU UGEVKQP KV YKNN DG YGNN VQ KNNWUVTCVG YKVJ CP GZCORNG VJCV RNC[U

O
CP KORQTVCPV TQNG KP (TGIG U CVVGORV VQ FGXGNQR OCVJGOCVKEU QP C RWTGN[ NQIKECN

HQWPFCVKQP 6Q DGIKP YKVJ EQPUKFGT VJTGG EQPFKVKQPU GCEJ QH YJKEJ OC[ QT OC[ PQV JQNF

HQT C IKXGP TGNCVKQPCN EQPEGRV 4

4GHNGZKXKV[ ∀Z4ZZ
5[OOGVT[ ∀Z∀[ 4Z[ → 4[Z
6TCPUKVKXKV[ ∀Z∀[∀\ 4Z[  4[\ → 4Z\

%QORTGJGPUKQP VJGP IKXGU VJG GZKUVGPEG CPF GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ VJG WPKSWGPGUU EQPFKVKQPU KP

GCEJ QH VJG HQNNQYKPI

∃5∀Z∀[ 5Z[ ↔ Z[ ∨ 4Z[

∃5∀Z∀[ 5Z[ ↔ 4Z[ ∨ 4[Z
∃5∀Z∀[ 5Z[ ↔ ∀< ∀W 4ZW → <W ∧ ∀W∀X <W  4WX → <X → <[

9G OC[ IKXG 5 C PCOG KP GCEJ ECUG YTKVKPI ρ4 QT σ4 QT τ4 HQT VJG 5 KP VJG VJTGG ECUGU +V
KU GCUKN[ UGGP VJCV ρ4 KU TGHNGZKXG CPF VJCV σ4 KU U[OOGVTKE +V KU NGUU GCUKN[ UGGP DWV CNUQ
VTWG M VJKU TGUWNV JCXKPI DGGP CDQWV VJG HKTUV PQPVTKXKCN VJGQTGO QH FKUVKPEVKXGN[

JKIJGTQTFGT NQIKE RTQXGF KP VJG $GITKHHUUEJTKHV M VJCV τ4 KU VTCPUKVKXG ρ4 CPF σ4 CPF τ4

CTG ECNNGF VJG TGHNGZKXG CPF U[OOGVTKE CPF VTCPUKVKXG ENQUWTGU QH 4 TGURGEVKXGN[ +H 4Z[ KU

VJG KPVTCPUKVKXG Q
Z KU C RCTGPV QH [ R  VJGP τ4 COQWPVU VQ VJG VTCPUKVKXG QZ KU CP CPEGUVQT QH
[R  1P CEEQWPV QH VJKU GZCORNG VJG VTCPUKVKXG ENQUWTG KU CNUQ ECNNGF VJG CPEGUVTCN 6JG

PQVKQP QH CPEGUVTCN YCU GURGEKCNN[ KORQTVCPV VQ (TGIG KP JKU CVVGORVGF FGXGNQROGPV QH

OCVJGOCVKEU YKVJKP JKU U[UVGO

+P JKU )TWPFNCIGP (TGIG CVVGORVGF VQ UKVWCVG JKU RJKNQUQRJKECN RQUKVKQP COQPI

O
QVJGTU D[ WUKPI -CPV U VJTGGHQNF FKXKUKQP QH MPQYNGFIG KPVQ VJG CPCN[VKE VJG U[PVJGVKE C

RTKQTK CPF VJG C RQUVGTKQTK +P VJGUG VGTOU (TGIG CITGGF YKVJ VJG EQPENWUKQP QH .GKDPK\

VJCV CTKVJOGVKE KU CPCN[VKE YJKNG GZRQUKPI VJG HCNNCE[ KP VJG CTIWOGPV .GKDPK\ QHHGTGF KP

CP CVVGORV VQ GUVCDNKUJ VJCV EQPENWUKQP (TGIG TGURGEVHWNN[ FKUCITGGF YKVJ -CPV U ENCKO O
VJCV CTKVJOGVKE KU U[PVJGVKE C RTKQTK YJKNG CITGGKPI YKVJ VJG EQTTGURQPFKPI ENCKO HQT

IGQOGVT[ M C UWTRTKUKPIN[ QNFHCUJKQPGF RQUKVKQP KP VJG GTC QH PQP'WENKFGCP IGQOGVT[

O
(TGIG TKFKEWNGF /KNN U ENCKO VJCV CTKVJOGVKE KU C RQUVGTKQTK

O
9JCV YCU CV KUUWG KP (TGIG U FKUCITGGOGPVU YKVJ JKU RTGFGEGUUQTU CPF

EQPVGORQTCTKGU YCU PQV VJG ENCUUKHKECVKQP QH CEVWCN MPQYNGFIG (TGIG YCU PQV KPVGTGUVGF

KP JQY [QWPI EJKNFTGP NGCTP VJG DCUKE NCYU QH CTKVJOGVKE QT JQY QWT TGOQVG CPEGUVQTU

NGCTPGF VJGO *G FKF PQV ENCKO CP[QPG DGHQTG JKOUGNH GXGT JCF RTQXGF VJG DCUKE NCYU QH

CTKVJOGVKE HTQO RTKPEKRNGU QH RWTG NQIKE RNWU CRRTQRTKCVG FGHKPKVKQPU QH CTKVJOGVKECN VGTOU

KP NQIKECN VGTOU YKVJQWV CRRGCN VQ CP[ FKUVKPEVKXGN[ CTKVJOGVKECN Q R

KPVWKVKQP  (TGIG U O
ENCKO YCU TCVJGT VJCV VJKU ECP DG FQPG VJQWIJ PQ QPG DGHQTG JKO JCU FQPG KV CPF VJCV

DGECWUG KV ECP DG FQPG CTKVJOGVKE TCPMU CU CPCN[VKE

# UQWTEG QH FQWDV KU VJG RTKPEKRNG QH OCVJGOCVKECN KPFWEVKQP YJKEJ OKIJV DG CPF

D[ UQOG YCU EKVGF CU CP CTKVJOGVKECN NCY VJCV EQWNF QPN[ DG GUVCDNKUJGF D[ Q KPVWKVKQP R
#EEQTFKPI VQ VJKU RTKPEKRNG KH C EQPFKVKQP KU HWNHKNNGF D[ \GTQ CPF KU HWNHKNNGF D[ VJG

UWEEGUUQT QH CP[ PCVWTCN PWODGT HWNHKNNKPI KV VJGP KV KU HWNHKNNGF D[ CNN PCVWTCN PWODGTU

(TGIG CNTGCF[ CV VJG VKOG QH VJG $GITKHHUUEJTKHV JCF CP KFGC QH JQY VJG ENCKO VJCV

QKPVWKVKQP R KU KPFKURGPUCDNG HQT OCVJGOCVKECN KPFWEVKQP EQWNF DG TGHWVGF

6JG (TGIGCP UVTCVGI[ YQWNF DG VQ FGHKPG HKTUV VJG PQVKQPU QH \GTQ CPF UWEEGUUQT

CPF VJGP VQ FGHKPG VJG ITGCVGTVJCP TGNCVKQP CU VJG CPEGUVTCN QH VJG UWEEGUUQT TGNCVKQP 9G

ECP VJGP FGHKPG VJG PCVWTCN PWODGTU CU \GTQ VQIGVJGT YKVJ VJQUG QDLGEVU VJCV CTG ITGCVGT

VJCP \GTQ +H YG ECNN C EQPEGRV KPFWEVKXG KH \GTQ HCNNU WPFGT KV CPF VJG UWEEGUUQT QH GXGT[

PWODGT HCNNKPI WPFGT KV HCNNU WPFGT KV VJGP VJG (TGIGCP FGHKPKVKQP KU OQTG QT NGUU

GSWKXCNGPV VQ FGHKPKPI PCVWTCN PWODGTU CU VJQUG QDLGEVU VJCV HCNN WPFGT CNN KPFWEVKXG

EQPEGRVU 'ZEGRV HQT VJG UWDUVKVWVKQP QH VCNM QH C PWODGT HCNNKPI WPFGT C EQPEGRV HQT VCNM

QH C EQPFKVKQP DGKPI HWNHKNNGF D[ C PWODGT M CPF VJG VYQ YC[U QH URGCMKPI CTG GSWKXCNGPV

D[ VJG EQORTGJGPUKQP CZKQO M VJKU FGHKPKVKQP OCMGU VJG RTKPEKRNG QH OCVJGOCVKECN

KPFWEVKQP VTWG CNOQUV D[ FGHKPKVKQP

 (TGIGOU/CVJGOCVKEU

9JGP KV ECOG VQ YQTMKPI QWV VJG FGTKXCVKQP QH CTKVJOGVKE HTQO NQIKE KP FGVCKN KP

JKU )TWPFIGUGV\G (TGIG HQWPF JG PGGFGF QPG HWTVJGT CZKQO DG[QPF CP[VJKPI KP JKU

$GITKHHUUEJTKHV 9JCV PGGF VQ DG GZRNCKPGF PGZV CTG HKTUV YJCV VJKU CFFKVKQPCN CUUWORVKQP

M YJKEJ (TGIG PWODGTGF CU CZKQO QT DCUKE NCY 8 M COQWPVGF VQ UGEQPF JQY (TGIG

RTQRQUGF VQ QDVCKP VJG OQUV DCUKE NCYU QH CTKVJOGVKE M VJG UQECNNGF 2GCPQ RQUVWNCVGU M
HTQO KV CPF VJKTF JQY QPG OKIJV RTQEGGF VJGTGCHVGT VQ DWKNF WR JKIJGT OCVJGOCVKEU

6JG PGY CUUWORVKQP KP (TGIG U O )TWPFIGUGV\G KU VJCV VQ GXGT[ EQPEGRV VJGTG OC[

DG CUUQEKCVGF CP QDLGEV ECNNGF KVU GZVGPUKQP KP UWEJ C YC[ VJCV VJG GZVGPUKQPU QH VYQ

EQPEGRVU YKNN DG KFGPVKECN QDLGEVU KH CPF QPN[ KH VJG VYQ EQPEGRVU CTG EQGZVGPUKXG 6JG

OQUV UVTCKIJVHQTYCTF YC[ VQ TGRTGUGPV VJKU CUUWORVKQP YQWNF DG CU HQNNQYU .GV WU YTKVG

] Z: HQT Q
Z KU VJG GZVGPUKQP QH :R O
 6JGP (TGIG U CUUWORVKQPU ECP DG GZRTGUUGF CU HQNNQYU

 ∃Z ] Z:

 ] Z:  ] [; → Z  [ ↔:≡;

+V KU CNOQUV KOOGFKCVGN[ FGFWEKDNG HTQO  CPF  VJCV YG JCXG ∃Z ] Z: .GV WU

IKXG VJKU Z YJKEJ KP 4WUUGNNKCP PQVCVKQP YQWNF DG ιZ ] Z: VJG PCOG U: 6JGP VJG

HQNNQYKPI KU CNOQUV KOOGFKCVG COQWPVKPI CU KV FQGU VQ NKVVNG OQTG VJCP C TGUVCVGOGPV QH

 KP VJKU PGY PQVCVKQP

 U U :  ; ↔:≡;

#NVGTPCVKXGN[ KV YQWNF DG RQUUKDNG VQ UVCTV YKVJ U KP RNCEG ] QH CU RTKOKVKXG CPF

 KP RNCEG QH  CPF  CU CZKQOCVKE 6JGP ] Z: EQWNF DG FGHKPGF CU Z  : CPF  CPF

 FGFWEGF HTQO   6JKU RTQEGFWTG JQYGXGT JCU VJG UGTKQWU FKUCFXCPVCIG VJCV KV JKFGU

VJG ETWEKCN GZKUVGPEG CUUWORVKQP KP VJG PQVCVKQP VJWU OCMKPI KV CNOQUV KPCEEGUUKDNG VQ

ETKVKECN GZCOKPCVKQP CPF RQUUKDNG TGXKUKQP UKPEG VCMKPI C HWPEVKQP U[ODQN CU RTKOKVKXG

VCEKVN[ RTGUWRRQUGU VJCV YG JCXG ∀:∃Z  U 

Q R
Z :

(TGIG WUWCNN[ LWUV ECNNGF GZVGPUKQPU QH EQPEGRVU GZVGPUKQPU QH EQPEGRVU  FGURKVG

VJG UQOGYJCV WPYKGNF[ NGPIVJ QH VJKU RJTCUG *G FKF QPEG TGOCTM VJCV YJCV NQIKEKCPU CPF

OCVJGOCVKEKCPU JCXG ECNNGF Q ENCUUGU R Q R CPF UGVU CTG UWEJ GZVGPUKQPU #PF JG FKF

UQOGVKOGU HQT DTGXKV[ ECNN JKU GZVGPUKQPU Q R ENCUUGU  *GTG VJG[ YKNN KPUVGCF DG ECNNGF

Q R
UGVU  VJG TGCUQP DGKPI VJCV WPHQTVWPCVGN[ C PWODGT QH NCVGT YTKVGTU JCXG WUGF Q
ENCUUGU R
KP C UGPUG OWEJ ENQUGT VQ VJCV QH (TGIG U OQ R
EQPEGRVU VJCP VQ JKU Q GZVGPUKQPU QH EQPEGRVU  R
#U VJG YQTF Q OGODGT R WUWCNN[ IQGU YKVJ Q R ENCUU  UQ VJG YQTF Q GNGOGPV R WUWCNN[ IQGU

YKVJ Q R
UGV  CPF YKNN CNUQ DG WUGF JGTG # UGTKGU QH CDDTGXKCVKQPU YKNN PQY GPCDNG WU VQ

KPVTQFWEG C PQVCVKQP ²[ HQT Q [ R

KU C UGV  CU YGNN CU VJG WUWCN PQVCVKQPU ∈ [ HQT Z KU CP
Z Q
GNGOGPV QH [ R CPF ]Z φ Z _ HQT Q VJG UGV QH Z UWEJ VJCV φZ R
 (QT ² CPF ∈ YG JCXG VJG

HQNNQYKPI GSWKXCNGPV FGHKPKVKQPU

C ²[ ↔ ∃; [  ; U D ²[ ↔ ∃; [; ]
C Z ∈ [ ↔ ∃; [  U ;  ;Z D Z ∈ [ ↔ ∃; ] [;  ;Z

6JGP VJG HQNNQYKPI CTG CNOQUV KOOGFKCVG COQWPVKPI CU VJG[ FQ VQ NKVVNG OQTG VJCP C

TGUVCVGOGPV QH  CPF  KP VJKU PGY PQVCVKQP

 ∃[ ²[  ∀Z Z ∈[↔φ Z

 ∀[∀\ ²[  ²\  ∀Z Z ∈[↔Z∈\ →[\

*GTG  CPF  CTG ECNNGF EQORTGJGPUKQP CPF GZVGPUKQPCNKV[ HQT UGVU PQV VQ DG EQPHWUGF

YKVJ VJG CZKQOU QH VJG UCOG PCOGU HQT EQPEGRVU 

#NVGTPCVKXGN[ QPG EQWNF HCNN KP YKVJ VJG RTCEVKEG QH OQUV EQPXGPVKQPCN CZKQOCVKE

UGV VJGQTKGU VQFC[ YJKEJ UVCTV YKVJ CP GNGOGPVJQQF RTKOKVKXG ∈ CPF KH NKMG (TGIG VJG[
CNNQY QDLGEVU VJCV CTG PQV UGVU JCXG C UGVJQQF RTKOKVKXG ² CNUQ 5VCTVKPI YKVJ UWEJ

RTKOKVKXGU CPF  CPF  CU CZKQOU QPG ECP FGHKPG ] [: VQ CDDTGXKCVG VJG EQPLWPEVKQP QH

²[ CPF ∀Z ∈ [ ↔ :Z  CPF FGHKPG U KP VGTOU QH ]  CPF VJGP FGFWEG ² U CPF ∀Z

U O
Z : Z

∈ : ↔ :Z CPF   6JKU RTQEGFWTG JQYGXGT FGRCTVU HTQO (TGIG U RTKPEKRNG QH

UWDQTFKPCVKQP VJCV VJG TGNCVKQPUJKR QH CP GNGOGPV VQ C UGV KU FGTKXCVKXG HTQO VJG

TGNCVKQPUJKRU QH CP GNGOGPV VQ C EQPEGRV WPFGT YJKEJ KV HCNNU CPF QH C EQPEGRV VQ VJG UGV

VJCV KU KVU GZVGPUKQP 6JG XKQNCVKQP KU GURGEKCNN[ UGTKQWU KH QPG GXGT EQPVGORNCVGU

TGUVTKEVKPI EQORTGJGPUKQP HQT EQPEGRVU UKPEG KH φZ KU C HQTOWNC VJCV FQGU PQV FGVGTOKPG

C EQPEGRV QPG OC[ JCXG D[  C UGV VJCV KU VJG GZVGPUKQP QH C PQPEQPEGRV

+V KU CNOQUV KOOGFKCVG HTQO  CPF  VJCV YG JCXG VJG HQNNQYKPI

∃[ ²[  ∀Z Z ∈[↔φ Z

9G OC[ IKXG C PCOG VQ VJKU [ ECNNKPI KV ]Z φ Z _ #NVGTPCVKXGN[ CPF GSWKXCNGPVN[ YG OC[

FGHKPG ]Z φ Z _ U nZ φZ € +P GKVJGT ECUG YG JCXG VJG HQNNQYKPI

Other documents randomly have
different content
 "Oh, good, good! Do it, father, and then give him to us to play
with," cried Gialp and Greip, dancing up and down till the hills
trembled and all the frightened sheep ran home to their folds
thinking that there must be an earthquake; for Gialp was as tall as a
pine-tree and many times as thick, while Greip, her little sister, was
as large around as a haystack and high as a flagstaff. They both
hoped some day to be as huge as their father, whose legs were so
long that he could step across the river valleys from one hilltop to
another, just as we human folk cross a brook on stepping-stones;
and his arms were so stout that he could lift a yoke of oxen in each
fist, as if they were red-painted toys.
Geirröd shook his head at his two playful daughters and sighed.
"We must catch Master Thor first, my girls, before we do these fine
things to him. We must catch him without his mighty hammer, that
never fails him, and without his belt, that doubles his strength
whenever he puts it on, or even I cannot chew and break and smash
him as he deserves; for with these his weapons he is the mightiest
creature in the whole world, and I would rather meddle with thunder
and lightning than with him. Let us wait, children."
Then Gialp and Greip pouted and sulked like two great babies
who cannot have the new plaything which they want; and very ugly
they were to see, with tears as big as oranges rolling down their
cheeks.
Sooner than they expected they came very near to having their
heart's desire fulfilled. And if it had happened as they wished, and if
Asgard had lost its goodliest hero, its strongest defense, that would
have been red Loki's fault, all Loki's evil planning; for you are now to
hear of the wickedest thing that up to this time Loki had ever done.
As you know, it was Loki who was Thor's bitterest enemy; and for
many months he had been awaiting the chance to repay the
Thunder Lord for the dole which Thor had brought upon him at the
time of the dwarf's gifts to Asgard.
This is how it came about: Loki had long remembered the fun of
skimming as a great bird in Freia's falcon feathers. He had longed to
borrow the wings once again and to fly away over the round world
to see what he could see; for he thought that so he could learn
many secrets which he was not meant to know, and plan wonderful
mischief without being found out. But Freia would not again loan her
feather dress to Loki. She owed him a grudge for naming her as
Thrym's bride; and besides, she remembered his treatment of Idun,
and she did not trust his oily tongue and fine promises. So Loki saw
no way but to borrow the feathers without leave; and this he did one
day when Freia was gone to ride in her chariot drawn by white cats.
Loki put on the feather dress, as he had done twice before,—once
when he went to Jotunheim to bring back stolen Idun and her magic
apples, once when he went to find out about Thor's hammer.
Away he flew from Asgard as birdlike as you please, chuckling to
himself with wicked thoughts. It did not make any particular
difference to him where he went. It was such fun to flap and fly,
skim and wheel, looking and feeling for all the world like a big brown
falcon. He swooped low, thinking, "I wonder what Freia would say to
see me now! Whee-e-e! How angry she would be!" Just then he
spied the high wall of a palace on the mountains.
"Oho!" said Loki. "I never saw that place before. It may be a
giant's dwelling. I think this must be Jotunheim, from the bigness of
things. I must just peep to see." Loki was the most inquisitive of
creatures, as wily minded folk are apt to be.
Loki the falcon alighted and hopped to the wall, then giving a
flap of his wings he flew up and up to the window ledge, where he
perched and peered into the hall. And there within he saw the giant
Geirröd with his daughters eating their dinner. They looked so ugly
and so greedy, as they sat there gobbling their food in giant
mouthfuls, that Loki on the window-sill could not help snickering to
himself. Now at that sound Geirröd looked up and saw the big brown
bird peeping in at the window.
"Heigha!" cried the giant to one of his servants. "Go you and
fetch me the big brown bird up yonder in the window."
 Then the servant ran to the wall and tried to climb up to get at
Loki; but the window was so high that he could not reach. He
jumped and slipped, scrambled and slipped, again and again, while
Loki sat just above his clutching fingers, and chuckled so that he
nearly fell from his perch. "Te-he! te-he!" chattered Loki in the falcon
tongue. It was such fun to see the fellow grow black in the face with
trying to reach him that Loki thought he would wait until the giant's
fingers almost touched him, before flying away.
But Loki waited too long. At last, with a quick spring, the giant
gained a hold upon the window ledge, and Loki was within reach.
When Loki flapped his wings to fly, he found that his feet were
tangled in the vine that grew upon the wall. He struggled and
twisted with all his might,—but in vain. There he was, caught fast.
Then the servant grasped him by the legs, and so brought him to
Geirröd, where he sat at table. Now Loki in his feather dress looked
exactly like a falcon—except for his eyes. There was no hiding the
wise and crafty look of Loki's eyes. As soon as Geirröd looked at him,
he suspected that this was no ordinary bird.
"You are no falcon, you!" he cried. "You are spying about my
palace in disguise. Speak, and tell me who you are." Loki was afraid
to tell, because he knew the giants were angry with him for his part
in Thrym's death,—small though his part had really been in that
great deed. So he kept his beak closed tight, and refused to speak.
The giant stormed and raged and threatened to kill him; but still Loki
was silent.
Then Geirröd locked the falcon up in a chest for three long
months without food or water, to see how that would suit his bird-
ship. You can imagine how hungry and thirsty Loki was at the end of
that time,—ready to tell anything he knew, and more also, for the
sake of a crumb of bread and a drop of water.
So then Geirröd called through the keyhole, "Well, Sir Falcon,
now will you tell me who you are?" And this time Loki piped feebly,
"I am Loki of Asgard; give me something to eat!"
 "Oho!" quoth the giant fiercely. "You are that Loki who went with
Thor to kill my brother Thrym! Oho! Well, you shall die for that, my
feathered friend!"
"No, no!" screamed Loki. "Thor is no friend of mine. I love the
giants far better! One of them is my wife!"—which was indeed true,
as were few of Loki's words.
"Then if Thor is no friend of yours, to save your life will you
bring him into my power?" asked Geirröd.
Loki's eyes gleamed wickedly among the feathers. Here all at
once was his chance to be free, and to have his revenge upon Thor,
his worst enemy. "Ay, that I will!" he cried eagerly. "I will bring Thor
into your power."
So Geirröd made him give a solemn promise to do that wrong;
and upon this he loosed Loki from the chest and gave him food.
Then they formed the wicked plan together, while Gialp and Greip,
the giant's ugly daughters, listened and smacked their lips.
Loki was to persuade Thor to come with him to Geirrödsgard.
More; he must come without his mighty hammer, and without the
iron gloves of power, and without the belt of strength; for so only
could the giant have Thor at his mercy.
After their wicked plans were made, Loki bade a friendly farewell
to Geirröd and his daughters and flew back to Asgard as quickly as
he could. You may be sure he had a sound scolding from Freia for
stealing her feather dress and for keeping it so long. But he told
such a pitiful story of being kept prisoner by a cruel giant, and he
looked in truth so pale and thin from his long fast, that the gods
were fain to pity him and to believe his story, in spite of the many
times that he had deceived them. Indeed, most of his tale was true,
but he told only half of the truth; for he spoke no word of his
promise to the giant. This he kept hidden in his breast.
Now, one day not long after this, Loki invited Thor to go on a
journey with him to visit a new friend who, he said, was anxious to
know the Thunder Lord. Loki was so pleasant in his manner and
seemed so frank in his speech that Thor, whose heart was simple
and unsuspicious, never dreamed of any wrong, not even when Loki
added,—"And by the bye, my Thor, you must leave behind your
hammer, your belt, and your gloves; for it would show little courtesy
to wear such weapons in the home of a new friend."
Thor carelessly agreed; for he was pleased with the idea of a
new adventure, and with the thought of making a new friend.
Besides, on their last journey together, Loki had behaved so well that
Thor believed him to have changed his evil ways and to have
become his friend. So together they set off in Thor's goat chariot,
without weapons of any kind except those which Loki secretly
carried. Loki chuckled as they rattled over the clouds, and if Thor
had seen the look in his eyes, he would have turned the chariot back
to Asgard and to safety, where he had left gentle Sif his wife. But
Thor did not notice, and so they rumbled on.
Soon they came to the gate of Giant Land. Thor thought this
strange, for he knew they were like to find few friends of his
dwelling among the Big Folk. For the first time he began to suspect
Loki of some treacherous scheme. However, he said nothing, and
pretended to be as gay and careless as before. But he thought of a
plan to find out the truth.
Close by the entrance was the cave of Grid, a good giantess,
who alone of all her race was a friend of Thor and of the folk in
Asgard.
"I will alight here for a moment, Loki," said Thor carelessly. "I
long for a draught of water. Hold you the goats tightly by the reins
until I return."
So he went into the cave and got his draught of water. But while
he was drinking, he questioned good mother Grid to some purpose.
"Who is this friend Geirröd whom I go to see?" he asked her.
"Geirröd your friend! You go to see Geirröd!" she exclaimed. "He
is the wickedest giant of us all, and no friend to you. Why do you go,
dear Thor?"
 "H'm!" muttered Thor. "Red Loki's mischief again!" He told her of
the visit that Loki had proposed, and how he had left at home the
belt, the gloves, and the hammer which made him stronger than any
giant. Then Grid was frightened.
"Go not, go not, Thor!" she begged. "Geirröd will kill you, and
those ugly girls, Gialp and Greip, will have the pleasure of crunching
your bones. Oh, I know them well, the hussies!"
But Thor declared that he would go, whether or no. "I have
promised Loki that I will go," he said, "and go I will; for I always
keep my word."
"Then you shall have three little gifts of me," quoth she. "Here is
my belt of power—for I also have one like your own." And she
buckled about his waist a great belt, at whose touch he felt his
strength redoubled. "This is my iron glove," she said, as she put one
on his mighty hand, "and with it, as with your own, you can handle
lightning and touch unharmed the hottest of red-hot metal. And
here, last of all," she added, "is Gridarvöll, my good staff, which you
may find useful. Take them, all three; and may Sif see you safe at
home again by their aid."
Thor thanked her and went out once more to join Loki, who
never suspected what had happened in the cave. For the belt and
the glove were hidden under Thor's cloak. And as for the staff, it was
quite ordinary looking, as if Thor might have picked it up anywhere
along the road.
On they journeyed until they came to the river Vimer, the
greatest of all rivers, which roared and tossed in a terrible way
between them and the shore which they wanted to reach. It seemed
impossible to cross. But Thor drew his belt a little tighter, and
planting Grid's staff firmly on the bottom, stepped out into the
stream. Loki clung behind to his cloak, frightened out of his wits. But
Thor waded on bravely, his strength doubled by Grid's belt, and his
steps supported by her magic staff. Higher and higher the waves
washed over his knees, his waist, his shoulders, as if they were
fierce to drown him. And Thor said,—
"Ho there, river Vimer! Do not grow any larger, I pray. It is of no
use. The more you crowd upon me, the mightier I grow with my belt
and my staff!"
But lo! as he nearly reached the other side, Thor spied some one
hiding close down by the bank of the river. It was Gialp of the red
eyes, the big elder daughter of Geirröd. She was splashing the water
upon Thor, making the great waves that rolled up and threatened to
drown him.
"Oho!" cried he. "So it is you who are making the river rise, big
little girl. We must see to that;" and seizing a huge boulder, he
hurled it at her. It hit her with a thud, for Thor's aim never missed.
Giving a scream as loud as a steam-whistle, Gialp limped home as
best she could to tell her father, and to prepare a warm reception for
the stranger who bore Loki at his back.
When Thor had pulled himself out of the river by some bushes,
he soon came to the palace which Loki had first sighted in his falcon
dress. And there he found everything most courteously made ready
for him. He and Loki were received like dear old friends, with shouts
of rejoicing and ringing of bells. Geirröd himself came out to meet
them, and would have embraced his new friend Thor; but the
Thunder Lord merely seized him by the hand and gave him so hearty
a squeeze with the iron glove that the giant howled with pain. Yet he
could say nothing, for Thor looked pleased and gentle. And Geirröd
said to himself, "Ho, ho, my fine little Thor! I will soon pay you for
that handshake, and for many things beside."
All this time Gialp and Greip did not appear, and Loki also had
taken himself away, to be out of danger when the hour of Thor's
death should come. For he feared that dreadful things might happen
before Thor died; and he did not want to be remembered by the big
fist of the companion whom he had betrayed. Loki, having kept his
promise to the giant, was even now far on the road back to Asgard,
where he meant with a sad face to tell the gods that Thor had been
slain by a horrible giant; but never to tell them how.
So Thor was all alone when the servants led him to the chamber
which Geirröd had made ready for his dear friend. It was a
wonderfully fine chamber, to be sure; but the strange thing about it
was that among the furnishings there was but one chair, a giant
chair, with a drapery all about the legs. Now Thor was very weary
with his long journey, and he sat down in the chair to rest. Then,
wonderful to tell!—if elevators had been invented in those days, he
might have thought he was in one. For instantly the seat of the chair
shot up towards the roof, and against this he was in danger of being
crushed as Geirröd had longed to see him. But quick as a flash Thor
raised the staff which good old Grid had given him, and pushed it
against the rafters with all his might to stop his upward journey. It
was a tremendous push that he gave. Something cracked;
something crashed; the chair fell to the ground as Thor leaped off
the seat, and there were two terrible screams.
Then Thor found—what do you think? Why, that Gialp and Greip,
the giant's daughters, had hidden under the seat of the chair, and
had lifted it up on their backs to crush Thor against the roof! But
instead of that, it was Thor who had broken their backs, so that they
lay dead upon the floor like limp rag dolls.
Now this little exercise had only given Thor an excellent appetite
for supper. So that when word came bidding him to the banquet, he
was very glad.
"First," said big Geirröd, grinning horribly, for he did not know
what had happened to his daughters,—"first we will see some
games, friend Thor."
Then Thor came into the hall, where fires were burning in great
chimney places along the walls. "It is here that we play our little
games," cried Geirröd. And on the moment, seizing a pair of tongs,
he snatched a red-hot wedge of iron from one of the fires and
hurled it straight at Thor's head. But Thor was quicker than he. Swift
as a flash he caught the flying spark in his iron glove, and calling
forth all the might of Grid's belt, he cast the wedge back at the
giant. Geirröd dodged behind an iron pillar, but it was in vain. Thor's
might was such as no iron could meet. Like a bolt of lightning the
wedge passed through the pillar, through Geirröd himself, through
the thick wall of the palace, and buried itself deep in the ground,
where it lodges to this day, unless some one has dug it up to sell for
old iron.
So perished Geirröd and his children, one of the wickedest
families of giants that ever lived in Jotunheim. And so Thor escaped
from the snares of Loki, who had never done deed worse than this.
When Thor returned home to Asgard, where from Loki's lying
tale he found all the gods mourning him as dead, you can fancy
what a joyful reception he had. But for Loki, the false-hearted, false-
tongued traitor to them all, there was only hatred. He no longer had
any friends among the good folk. The wicked giants and the
monsters of Utgard were now his only friends, for he had grown to
be like them, and even these did not trust him overmuch.
 BALDER AND THE MISTLETOE

L
oki had given up trying to revenge himself upon Thor. The
Thunder Lord seemed proof against his tricks. And indeed
nowadays Loki hated him no more than he did the other
gods. He hated some because they always frowned at him;
he hated others because they only laughed and jeered. Some he
hated for their distrust and some for their fear. But he hated them all
because they were happy and good and mighty, while he was
wretched, bad, and of little might. Yet it was all his own fault that
this was so. He might have been an equal with the best of them, if
he had not chosen to set himself against everything that was good.
He had made them all his enemies, and the more he did to injure
them, the more he hated them,—which is always the way with evil-
doers. Loki longed to see them all unhappy. He slunk about in
Asgard with a glum face and wrinkled forehead. He dared not meet
the eyes of any one, lest they should read his heart. For he was
plotting evil, the greatest of evils, which should bring sorrow to all
his enemies at once and turn Asgard into a land of mourning. The
Æsir did not guess the whole truth, yet they felt the bitterness of the
thoughts which Loki bore; and whenever in the dark he passed
unseen, the gods shuddered as if a breath of evil had blown upon
them, and even the flowers drooped before his steps.

Now at this time Balder the beautiful had a strange dream. He

dreamed that a cloud came before the sun, and all Asgard was dark.
He waited for the cloud to drift away, and for the sun to smile again.
But no; the sun was gone forever, he thought; and Balder awoke
feeling very sad. The next night Balder had another dream. This
time he dreamed that it was still dark as before; the flowers were
withered and the gods were growing old; even Idun's magic apples
could not make them young again. And all were weeping and
wringing their hands as though some dreadful thing had happened.
Balder awoke feeling strangely frightened, yet he said no word to
Nanna his wife, for he did not want to trouble her.
When it came night again Balder slept and dreamed a third
dream, a still more terrible one than the other two had been. He
thought that in the dark, lonely world there was nothing but a sad
voice, which cried, "The sun is gone! The spring is gone! Joy is
gone! For Balder the beautiful is dead, dead, dead!"
This time Balder awoke with a cry, and Nanna asked him what
was the matter. So he had to tell her of his dream, and he was sadly
frightened; for in those days dreams were often sent to folk as
messages, and what the gods dreamed usually came true. Nanna
ran sobbing to Queen Frigg, who was Balder's mother, and told her
all the dreadful dream, asking what could be done to prevent it from
coming true.
Now Balder was Queen Frigg's dearest son. Thor was older and
stronger, and more famous for his great deeds; but Frigg loved far
better gold-haired Balder. And indeed he was the best-beloved of all
the Æsir; for he was gentle, fair, and wise, and wherever he went
folk grew happy and light-hearted at the very sight of him, just as
we do when we first catch a glimpse of spring peeping over the
hilltop into Winterland. So when Frigg heard of Balder's woeful
dream, she was frightened almost out of her wits.
"He must not die! He shall not die!" she cried. "He is so dear to
all the world, how could there be anything which would hurt him?"
And then a wonderful thought came to Frigg. "I will travel over
the world and make all things promise not to injure my boy," she
said. "Nothing shall pass my notice. I will get the word of
everything."
 So first she went to the gods themselves, gathered on Ida Plain
for their morning exercise; and telling them of Balder's dream, she
begged them to give the promise. Oh, what a shout arose when
they heard her words!
"Hurt Balder!—our Balder! Not for the world, we promise! The
dream is wrong,—there is nothing so cruel as to wish harm to Balder
the beautiful!" they cried. But deep in their hearts they felt a secret
fear which would linger until they should hear that all things had
given their promise. What if harm were indeed to come to Balder!
The thought was too dreadful.
Then Frigg went to see all the beasts who live in field or forest
or rocky den. Willingly they gave their promise never to harm hair of
gentle Balder. "For he is ever kind to us," they said, "and we love
him as if he were one of ourselves. Not with claws or teeth or hoofs
or horns will any beast hurt Balder."
Next Frigg spoke to the birds and fishes, reptiles and insects.
And all—even the venomous serpents—cried that Balder was their
friend, and that they would never do aught to hurt his dear body.
"Not with beak or talon, bite or sting or poison fang, will one of us
hurt Balder," they promised.
After doing this, the anxious mother traveled over the whole
round world, step by step; and from all the things that are she got
the same ready promise never to harm Balder the beautiful. All the
trees and plants promised; all the stones and metals; earth, air, fire,
and water; sun, snow, wind, and rain, and all diseases that men
know,—each gave to Frigg the word of promise which she wanted.
So at last, footsore and weary, she came back to Asgard with the
joyful news that Balder must be safe, for that there was nothing in
the world but had promised to be his harmless friend.
Then there was rejoicing in Asgard, as if the gods had won one
of their great victories over the giants. The noble Æsir and the
heroes who had died in battle upon the earth, and who had come to
Valhalla to live happily ever after, gathered on Ida Plain to celebrate
the love of all nature for Balder.
There they invented a famous game, which was to prove how
safe he was from the bite of death. They stationed Balder in the
midst of them, his face glowing like the sun with the bright light
which ever shone from him. And as he stood there all unarmed and
smiling, by turns they tried all sorts of weapons against him; they
made as if to beat him with sticks, they stoned him with stones, they
shot at him with arrows and hurled mighty spears straight at his
heart.
It was a merry game, and a shout of laughter went up as each
stone fell harmless at Balder's feet, each stick broke before it
touched his shoulders, each arrow overshot his head, and each
spear turned aside. For neither stone nor wood nor flinty arrow-point
nor barb of iron would break the promise which each had given.
Balder was safe with them, just as if he were bewitched. He
remained unhurt among the missiles which whizzed about his head,
and which piled up in a great heap around the charmed spot
whereon he stood.
Now among the crowd that watched these games with such
enthusiasm, there was one face that did not smile, one voice that
did not rasp itself hoarse with cheering. Loki saw how every one and
every thing loved Balder, and he was jealous. He was the only
creature in all the world that hated Balder and wished for his death.
Yet Balder had never done harm to him. But the wicked plan that
Loki had been cherishing was almost ripe, and in this poison fruit
was the seed of the greatest sorrow that Asgard had ever known.
 EACH ARROW OVERSHOT HIS
HEAD

While the others were enjoying their game of love, Loki stole
away unperceived from Ida Plain, and with a wig of gray hair, a long
gown, and a staff, disguised himself as an old woman. Then he
hobbled down Asgard streets till he came to the palace of Queen
Frigg, the mother of Balder.
"Good-day, my lady," quoth the old woman, in a cracked voice.
"What is that noisy crowd doing yonder in the green meadow? I am
so deafened by their shouts that I can hardly hear myself think."
"Who are you, good mother, that you have not heard?" said
Queen Frigg in surprise. "They are shooting at my son Balder. They
are proving the word which all things have given me,—the promise
not to injure my dear son. And that promise will be kept."
The old crone pretended to be full of wonder. "So, now!" she
cried. "Do you mean to say that every single thing in the whole
world has promised not to hurt your son? I can scarce believe it;
though, to be sure, he is as fine a fellow as I ever saw." Of course
this flattery pleased Frigg.
"You say true, mother," she answered proudly, "he is a noble
son. Yes, everything has promised,—that is, everything except one
tiny little plant that is not worth mentioning."
The old woman's eyes twinkled wickedly. "And what is that
foolish little plant, my dear?" she asked coaxingly.
"It is the mistletoe that grows in the meadow west of Valhalla. It
was too young to promise, and too harmless to bother with,"
answered Frigg carelessly.
After this her questioner hobbled painfully away. But as soon as
she was out of sight from the Queen's palace, she picked up the
skirts of her gown and ran as fast as she could to the meadow west
of Valhalla. And there sure enough, as Frigg had said, was a tiny
sprig of mistletoe growing on a gnarled oak-tree. The false Loki took
out a knife which she carried in some hidden pocket and cut off the
mistletoe very carefully. Then she trimmed and shaped it so that it
was like a little green arrow, pointed at one end, but very slender.
"Ho, ho!" chuckled the old woman. "So you are the only thing in
all the world that is too young to make a promise, my little mistletoe.
Well, young as you are, you must go on an errand for me to-day.
And maybe you shall bear a message of my love to Balder the
beautiful."
 Then she hobbled back to Ida Plain, where the merry game was
still going on around Balder. Loki quietly passed unnoticed through
the crowd, and came close to the elbow of a big dark fellow who
was standing lonely outside the circle of weapon-throwers. He
seemed sad and forgotten, and he hung his head in a pitiful way. It
was Höd, the blind brother of Balder.
The old woman touched his arm. "Why do you not join the game
with the others?" she asked, in her cracked voice. "Are you the only
one to do your brother no honor? Surely, you are big and strong
enough to toss a spear with the best of them yonder."
Höd touched his sightless eyes madly. "I am blind," he said.
"Strength I have, greater than belongs to most of the Æsir. But I
cannot see to aim a weapon. Besides, I have no spear to test upon
him. Yet how gladly would I do honor to dear Balder!" and he sighed
deeply.
"It were a pity if I could not find you at least a little stick to
throw," said Loki sympathetically. "I am only a poor old woman, and
of course I have no weapon. But ah,—here is a green twig which
you can use as an arrow, and I will guide your arm, poor fellow."
Höd's dark face lighted up, for he was eager to take his turn in
the game. So he thanked her, and grasped eagerly the little arrow
which she put into his hand. Loki held him by the arm, and together
they stepped into the circle which surrounded Balder. And when it
was Höd's turn to throw his weapon, the old woman stood at his
elbow and guided his big arm as it hurled the twig of mistletoe
towards where Balder stood.
Oh, the sad thing that befell! Straight through the air flew the
little arrow, straight as magic and Loki's arm could direct it. Straight
to Balder's heart it sped, piercing through jerkin and shirt and all, to
give its bitter message of "Loki's love," as he had said. With a cry
Balder fell forward on the grass. And that was the end of sunshine
and spring and joy in Asgard, for the dream had come true, and
Balder the beautiful was dead.
 When the Æsir saw what had happened, there was a great shout
of fear and horror, and they rushed upon Höd, who had thrown the
fatal arrow.
"What is it? What have I done?" asked the poor blind brother,
trembling at the tumult which had followed his shot.
"You have slain Balder!" cried the Æsir. "Wretched Höd, how
could you do it?"
"It was the old woman—the evil old woman, who stood at my
elbow and gave me a little twig to throw," gasped Höd. "She must
be a witch."
Then the Æsir scattered over Ida Plain to look for the old woman
who had done the evil deed; but she had mysteriously disappeared.
"It must be Loki," said wise Heimdal. "It is Loki's last and vilest
trick."
"Oh, my Balder, my beautiful Balder!" wailed Queen Frigg,
throwing herself on the body of her son. "If I had only made the
mistletoe give me the promise, you would have been saved. It was I
who told Loki of the mistletoe,—so it is I who have killed you. Oh,
my son, my son!"
But Father Odin was speechless with grief. His sorrow was
greater than that of all the others, for he best understood the
dreadful misfortune which had befallen Asgard. Already a cloud had
come before the sun, so that it would never be bright day again.
Already the flowers had begun to fade and the birds had ceased to
sing. And already the Æsir had begun to grow old and joyless,—all
because the little mistletoe had been too young to give a promise to
Queen Frigg.
"Balder the beautiful is dead!" the cry went echoing through all
the world, and everything that was sorrowed at the sound of the
Æsir's weeping.
Balder's brothers lifted up his beautiful body upon their great
war shields and bore him on their shoulders down to the seashore.
For, as was the custom in those days, they were going to send him
to Hela, the Queen of Death, with all the things he best had loved in
Asgard. And these were,—after Nanna his wife,—his beautiful horse,
and his ship Hringhorni. So that they would place Balder's body upon
the ship with his horse beside him, and set fire to this wonderful
funeral pile. For by fire was the quickest passage to Hela's kingdom.
But when they reached the shore, they found that all the
strength of all the Æsir was unable to move Hringhorni, Balder's
ship, into the water. For it was the largest ship in the world, and it
was stranded far up the beach.
"Even the giants bore no ill-will to Balder," said Father Odin. "I
heard the thunder of their grief but now shaking the hills. Let us for
this once bury our hatred of that race and send to Jotunheim for
help to move the ship."
So they sent a messenger to the giantess Hyrrockin, the hugest
of all the Frost People. She was weeping for Balder when the
message came.
"I will go, for Balder's sake," she said. Soon she came riding fast
upon a giant wolf, with a serpent for the bridle; and mighty she was,
with the strength of forty Æsir. She dismounted from her wolf-steed,
and tossed the wriggling reins to one of the men-heroes who had
followed Balder and the Æsir from Valhalla. But he could not hold
the beast, and it took four heroes to keep him quiet, which they
could only do by throwing him upon the ground and sitting upon him
in a row. And this mortified them greatly.
Then Hyrrockin the giantess strode up to the great ship and
seized it by the prow. Easily she gave a little pull and presto! it
leaped forward on its rollers with such force that sparks flew from
the flint stones underneath and the whole earth trembled. The boat
shot into the waves and out toward open sea so swiftly that the Æsir
were likely to have lost it entirely, had not Hyrrockin waded out up to
her waist and caught it by the stern just in time.
 Thor was angry at her clumsiness, and raised his hammer to
punish her. But the other Æsir held his arm.
"She cannot help being so strong," they whispered. "She meant
to do well. She did not realize how hard she was pulling. This is no
time for anger, brother Thor." So Thor spared her life, as indeed he
ought, for her kindness.
Then Balder's body was borne out to the ship and laid upon a
pile of beautiful silks, and furs, and cloth-of-gold, and woven
sunbeams which the dwarfs had wrought. So that his funeral pyre
was more grand than anything which had ever been seen. But when
Nanna, Balder's gentle wife, saw them ready to kindle the flames
under this gorgeous bed, she could bear her grief no longer. Her
loving heart broke, and they laid her beside him, that they might
comfort each other on their journey to Hela. Thor touched the pile
gently with his hammer that makes the lightning, and the flames
burst forth, lighting up the faces of Balder and Nanna with a glory.
Then they cast upon the fire Balder's war-horse, to serve his master
in the dark country to which he was about to go. The horse was
decked with a harness all of gold, with jewels studding the bridle
and headstall. Last of all Odin laid upon the pyre his gift to Balder,
Draupnir, the precious ring of gold which the dwarf had made, from
which every ninth night there dropped eight other rings as large and
brightly golden.
"Take this with you, dear son, to Hela's palace," said Odin. "And
do not forget the friends you leave behind in the now lonely halls of
Asgard."
Then Hyrrockin pushed the great boat out to sea, with its bonfire
of precious things. And on the beach stood all the Æsir watching it
out of sight, all the Æsir and many besides. For there came to
Balder's funeral great crowds of little dwarfs and multitudes of huge
frost giants, all mourning for Balder the beautiful. For this one time
they were all friends together, forgetting their quarrels of so many
centuries. All of them loved Balder, and were united to do him honor.
 The great ship moved slowly out to sea, sending up a red fire to
color all the heavens. At last it slid below the horizon softly, as you
have often seen the sun set upon the water, leaving a brightness
behind to lighten the dark world for a little while.
This indeed was the sunset for Asgard. The darkness of sorrow
came in earnest after the passing of Balder the beautiful.
But the punishment of Loki was a terrible thing. And that came
soon and sore.
 THE PUNISHMENT OF LOKI

A
fter the death of Balder the world grew so dreary that no one
had any heart left for work or play. The Æsir sat about
moping and miserable. They were growing old,—there
was no doubt about that. There was no longer any
gladness in Valhalla, where the Valkyries waited on table and poured
the foaming mead. There was no longer any mirth on Ida Plain,
when every morning the bravest of earth-heroes fought their battles
over again. Odin no longer had any pleasure in the daily news
brought by his wise ravens, Thought and Memory, nor did Freia
enjoy her falcon dress. Frey forgot to sail in his ship Skidbladnir, and
even Thor had almost wearied of his hammer, except as he hoped
that it would help him to catch Loki. For the one thought of all of
them now was to find and punish Loki.

Yet they waited; for Queen Frigg had sent a messenger to

Queen Hela to find if they might not even yet win Balder back from
the kingdom of death.
Odin shook his head. "Queen Hela is Loki's daughter," he said,
"and she will not let Balder return." But Frigg was hopeful; she had
employed a trusty messenger, whose silver tongue had won many
hearts against their will.
It was Hermod, Balder's brother, who galloped down the steep
road to Hela's kingdom, on Sleipnir, the eight-legged horse of Father
Odin. For nine nights and nine days he rode, through valleys dark
and chill, until he came to the bridge which is paved with gold. And
here the maiden Modgard told him that Balder had passed that way,
and showed him the path northward to Hela's city. So he rode, down
and down, until he came to the high wall which surrounded the grim
palace where Hela reigned. Hermod dismounted and tightened the
saddle-girths of gray Sleipnir, whose eight legs were as frisky as
ever, despite the long journey. And when he had mounted once
more, the wonderful horse leaped with him over the wall, twenty
feet at least!
Then Hermod rode straight into the palace of Hela, straight up
to the throne where she sat surrounded by gray shadows and spirit
people. She was a dreadful creature to see, was this daughter of
Loki,—half white like other folk, but half black, which was not
sunburn, for there was no sunshine in this dark and dismal land. Yet
she was not so bad as she looked; for even Hela felt kindly towards
Balder, whom her father had slain, and was sorry that the world had
lost so dear a friend. So when Hermod begged of her to let his
brother return with him to Asgard, she said very gently,—
"Freely would I let him go, brave Hermod, if I might. But a
queen cannot always do as she likes, even in her own kingdom. His
life must be bought; the price must be paid in tears. If everything
upon earth will weep for Balder's death, then may he return,
bringing light and happiness to the upper world. Should one creature
fail to weep, Balder must remain with me."
Then Hermod was glad, for he felt sure that this price was easily
paid. He thanked Hela, and made ready to depart with the hopeful
message. Before he went away he saw and spoke with Balder
himself, who sat with Nanna upon a throne of honor, talking of the
good times that used to be. And Balder gave him the ring Draupnir
to give back to Father Odin, as a remembrance from his dear son;
while Nanna sent to mother Frigg her silver veil with other rich
presents. It was hard for Hermod to part with Balder once again,
and Balder also wept to see him go. But Hermod was in duty bound
to bear the message back to Asgard as swiftly as might be.
Now when the Æsir heard from Hermod this news, they sent
messengers forth over the whole world to bid every creature weep
for Balder's death. Heimdal galloped off upon Goldtop and Frey upon
Goldbristle, his famous hog; Thor rumbled away in his goat chariot,
and Freia drove her team of cats,—all spreading the message in one
direction and another. There really seemed little need for them to do
this, for already there was mourning in every land and clime. Even
the sky was weeping, and the flower eyes were filled with dewy
tears.
So it seemed likely that Balder would be ransomed after all, and
the Æsir began to hope more strongly. For they had not found one
creature who refused to weep. Even the giants of Jotunheim were
sorry to lose the gentle fellow who had never done them any harm,
and freely added their giant tears to the salt rivers that were
coursing over all the world into the sea, making it still more salt.
It was not until the messengers had nearly reached home, joyful
in the surety that Balder was safe, that they found an ugly old
giantess named Thökt hidden in a black cavern among the
mountains.
"Weep, mother, weep for Balder!" they cried. "Balder the
beautiful is dead, but your tears will buy him back to life. Weep,
mother, weep!"
But the sulky old woman refused to weep.
"Balder is nothing to me," she said. "I care not whether he lives
or dies. Let him bide with Hela—he is out of mischief there. I weep
dry tears for Balder's death."
So all the work of the messengers was in vain, because of this
one obstinate old woman. So all the tears of the sorrowing world
were shed in vain. Because there were lacking two salty drops from
the eyes of Thökt, they could not buy back Balder from the prison of
death.
When the messengers returned and told Odin their sad news, he
was wrathful.
"Do you not guess who the old woman was?" he cried. "It was
Loki—Loki himself, disguised as a giantess. He has tricked us once
more, and for a second time has slain Balder for us; for it is now too
late,—Balder can never return to us after this. But it shall be the last
of Loki's mischief. It is now time that we put an end to his deeds of
shame."
"Come, my brothers!" shouted Thor, flourishing his hammer. "We
have wept and mourned long enough. It is now time to punish. Let
us hasten back to Thökt's cave, and seize Loki as quickly as may
be."
So they hurried back into the mountains where they had left the
giantess who would not weep. But when they came to the place, the
cave was empty. Loki was too sharp a fellow to sit still and wait for
punishment to overtake him. He knew very well that the Æsir would
soon discover who Thökt really was. And he had taken himself off to
a safer place, to escape the questions which a whole world of not
too gentle folk were anxious to ask him.
The one desire of the Æsir was now to seize and punish Loki. So
when they were unable to find him as easily as they expected, they
were wroth indeed. Why had he left the cave? Whither had he gone?
In what new disguise even now was he lurking, perhaps close by?
The truth was that when Loki found himself at war with the
whole world which he had injured, he fled away into the mountains,
where he had built a strong castle of rocks. This castle had four
doors, one looking into the north, one to the south, one to the east,
and one to the west; so that Loki could keep watch in all directions
and see any enemy who might approach. Besides this, he had for his
protection the many disguises which he knew so well how to don.
Near the castle was a river and a waterfall, and it was Loki's favorite
game to change himself into a spotted pink salmon and splash about
in the pool below the fall.
"Ho, ho! Let them try to catch me here, if they can!" he would
chuckle to himself. And indeed, it seemed as if he were safe enough.
One day Loki was sitting before the fire in his castle twisting
together threads of flax and yarn into a great fish-net which was his
own invention. For no one had ever before thought of catching fish
with a net. Loki was a clever fellow; and with all his faults, for this
one thing at least the fishermen of to-day ought to be grateful to
him. As Loki sat busily knotting the meshes of the net, he happened
to glance out of the south door,—and there were the Æsir coming in
a body up the hill towards his castle.
Now this is what had happened: from his lookout throne in
Asgard, Odin's keen sight had spied Loki's retreat. This throne, you
remember, was in the house with a silver roof which Odin had built
in the very beginning of time; and whenever he wanted to see what
was going on in the remotest corner of Asgard, or to spy into some
secret place beyond the sight of gods or men, he would mount this
magic throne, whence his eye could pierce thick mountains and
sound the deepest sea. So it was that the Æsir had found out Loki's
castle, well-hidden though it was among the furthest mountains of
the world. They had come to catch him, and there was nothing left
for him but to run.
Loki jumped up and threw his half-mended net into the fire, for
he did not want the Æsir to discover his invention; then he ran down
to the river and leaped in with a great splash. When he was well
under water, he changed himself into a salmon, and flickered away
to bask in his shady pool and think how safe he was.
By this time the Æsir had entered his castle and were poking
among the ashes which they found smouldering on the hearth.
"What is this?" asked Thor, holding up a piece of knotted flax
which was not quite burned. "The knave has been making
something with little cords."
"Let me see it," said Heimdal, the wisest of the Æsir,—he who
once upon a time had suggested Thor's clever disguise for winning
back his hammer from the giant Thrym. He took now the little scrap
of fish-net and studied it carefully, picking out all the knots and
twists of it.
 "It is a net," said Heimdal at last. "He has been making a net,
and—pfaugh!—it smells of fish. The fellow must have used it to trap
fish for his dinner, though I never before heard of such a device."
"I saw a big splash in the river just as we came up," said Thor
the keen-eyed,—"a very big splash indeed. It seemed too large for
any fish."
"It was Loki," declared Heimdal. "He must have been here but a
moment since, for this fire has just gone out, and the net is still
smouldering. That shows he did not wish us to find this new-fangled
idea of his. Why was that? Let me think. Aha! I have it. Loki has
changed himself into a fish, and did not wish us to discover the
means of catching him."
"Oho!" cried the Æsir regretfully. "If only we had another net!"
"We can make one," said wise Heimdal. "I know how it is done,
for I have studied out this little sample. Let us make a net to catch
the slyest of all fish."
"Let us make a net for Loki," echoed the Æsir. And they all sat
down cross-legged on the floor to have a lesson in net-weaving from
Heimdal. He found hemp cord in a cupboard, and soon they had
contrived a goodly net, big enough to catch several Lokis, if they
should have good fisherman's luck.
They dragged the net to the river and cast it in. Thor, being the
strongest, held one end of the net, and all the rest drew the other
end up and down the stream. They were clumsy and awkward, for
they had never used a net before, and did not know how to make
the best of it. But presently Thor exclaimed, "Ha! I felt some live
thing touch the meshes!"
"So did we!" cried the others. "It must be Loki!" And Loki it was,
sure enough; for the Æsir had happened upon the very pool where
the great salmon lay basking so peacefully. But when he felt the net
touch him, he darted away and hid in a cleft between two rocks. So
that, although they dragged the net to and fro again and again, they
could not catch Loki in its meshes; for the net was so light that it
floated over his head.
"We must weight the net," said Heimdal wisely; "then nothing
can pass beneath it." So they tied heavy stones all along the under
edge, and again they cast the net, a little below the waterfall. Now
Loki had seized the chance to swim further down the stream. But
ugh! suddenly he tasted salt water. He was being swept out to sea!
That would never do, for he could not live an hour in the sea. So he
swam back and leaped straight over the net up into the waterfall,
hoping that no one had noticed him. But Thor's sharp eyes had
spied the flash of pink and silver, and Thor came running to the
place.
"He is here!" he shouted. "Cast in the net above the fall! We
have him now!"
When Loki saw the net cast again, so that there was no choice
for him but to be swept back over the falls and out to sea, or to leap
the net once more still further up the river, he hesitated. He saw
Thor in the middle of the stream wading towards him; but behind
him was sure death. So he set his teeth and once more he leaped
the net. There was a huge splash, a scuffle, a scramble, and the
water was churned into froth all about Thor's feet. He was struggling
with the mighty fish. He caught him once, but the salmon slipped
through his fingers. He caught him again, and this time Thor gripped
hard. The salmon almost escaped, but Thor's big fingers kept hold of
the end of his tail, and he flapped and flopped in vain. It was the
grip of Thor's iron glove; and that is why to this day the salmon has
so pointed a tail. The next time you see a salmon you must notice
this, and remember that he may be a great-great-great-grand-
descendant of Loki.
So Loki was captured and changed back into his own shape,
sullen and fierce. But he had no word of sorrow for his evil deeds;
nor did he ask for mercy, for he knew that it would be in vain. He
kept silent while the Æsir led him all the weary way back to Asgard.
 Now the whole world was noisy with the triumph of his capture.
As the procession passed along it was joined by all the creatures
who had mourned for Balder,—all the creatures who longed to see
Loki punished. There were the men of Midgard, the place of human
folk, shouting, "Kill him! kill him!" at the top of their lungs; there
were armies of little mountain dwarfs in their brown peaked caps,
who hobbled along, prodding Loki with their picks; there were
beasts growling and showing their teeth as if they longed to tear
Loki in pieces; there were birds who tried to peck his eyes, insects
who came in clouds to sting him, and serpents that sprang up
hissing at his feet to poison him with their deadly bite.
But to all these Thor said, "Do not kill the fellow. We are keeping
him for a worse punishment than you can give." So the creatures
merely followed and jostled Loki into Asgard, shouting, screaming,
howling, growling, barking, roaring, spitting, squeaking, hissing,
croaking, and buzzing, according to their different ways of showing
hatred and horror.
 "KILL HIM! KILL HIM!"

The Æsir met on Ida Plain to decide what should be done with
Loki. There were Idun whom he had cheated, and Sif whose hair he
had cut off. There were Freia whose falcon dress he had stolen and
Thor whom he had tried to kill. There were Höd whom he had made
a murderer; Frigg and Odin whose son he had slain. There was not
one of them whom Loki had not injured in some way; and besides,
there was the whole world into which he had brought sorrow and
darkness; for the sake of all these Loki must be punished. But it was
hard to think of any doom heavy enough for him. At last, however,
they agreed upon a punishment which they thought suited to so
wicked a wretch.
The long procession formed again and escorted Loki down,
down into a damp cavern underground. Here sunlight never came,
but the cave was full of ugly toads, snakes, and insects that love the
dark. These were Loki's evil thoughts, who were to live with him
henceforth and torment him always. In this prison chamber side by
side they placed three sharp stones, not far apart, to make an
uneasy bed. And these were for Loki's three worst deeds, against
Thor and Höd and Balder. Upon these rocks they bound Loki with
stout thongs of leather. But as soon as the cords were fastened they
turned into iron bands, so that no one, though he had the strength
of a hundred giants, could loosen them. For these were Loki's evil
passions, and the more he strained against them, the more they cut
into him and wounded him until he howled with pain.
Over his head Skadi, whose father he had helped to slay, hung a
venomous, wriggling serpent, from whose mouth dropped poison
into Loki's face, which burned and stung him like fire. And this was
the deceit which all his life Loki had spoken to draw folk into trouble
and danger. At last it had turned about to torture him, as deceit
always will do to him who utters it. Yet from this one torment Loki
had some relief; for alone of all the world Sigyn, his wife, was
faithful and forgiving. She stood by the head of the painful bed upon
which the Red One was stretched, and held a bowl to catch the
poison which dropped from the serpent's jaws, so that some of it did
not reach Loki's face. But as often as the bowl became full, Sigyn
had to go out and empty it; and then the bitter drops fell and
burned till Loki made the cavern ring with his cries.
So this was Loki's punishment, and bad enough it was,—but not
too bad for such a monster. Under the caverns he lies there still,
struggling to be free. And when his great strength shakes the hills so
that the whole ground trembles, men call it an earthquake.
Sometimes they even see his poisonous breath blowing from the top
of a mountain-chimney, and amid it the red flame of wickedness
which burns in Loki's heart. Then all cry, "The volcano, the volcano!"
and run away as fast as they can. For Loki, poisoned though he is, is
still dangerous and full of mischief, and it is not good to venture near
him in his torment.
But there for his sins he must bide and suffer, suffer and bide,
until the end of all sorrow and suffering and sin shall come, with
Ragnarök, the ending of the world.
 Transcriber's Notes
Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when
a predominant preference was found in this book;
otherwise they were not changed.
Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were
retained.
Page 176: "You shall hide" was misprinted as "You
shall bide". Corrected here based on the use of "hiding-
place" later in the same sentence.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK IN THE DAYS OF
GIANTS: A BOOK OF NORSE TALES ***

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions

will be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S.

copyright law means that no one owns a United States
copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy
and distribute it in the United States without permission and
without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth in the
General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to copying and
distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the
PROJECT GUTENBERG™ concept and trademark. Project
Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if
you charge for an eBook, except by following the terms of the
trademark license, including paying royalties for use of the
Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is
very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such
as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
research. Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and
printed and given away—you may do practically ANYTHING in
the United States with eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright
law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark license, especially
commercial redistribution.

START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
Welcome to our website – the perfect destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. We believe that every book holds a new world,
offering opportunities for learning, discovery, and personal growth.
That’s why we are dedicated to bringing you a diverse collection of
books, ranging from classic literature and specialized publications to
self-development guides and children's books.

More than just a book-buying platform, we strive to be a bridge

connecting you with timeless cultural and intellectual values. With an
elegant, user-friendly interface and a smart search system, you can
quickly find the books that best suit your interests. Additionally,
our special promotions and home delivery services help you save time
and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Join us on a journey of knowledge exploration, passion nurturing, and

personal growth every day!

ebookbell.com