Chapter – 8

Forest Management

A forest management system is a process in which forests are tended, harvested and regenerated.
Forest management is a branch of forestry concerned with overall administrative, legal,
economic, social, scientific and technical aspects such as silviculture, protection, and forest
regulation. This includes management of forest for timber, aesthetics, recreation, water, wildlife,
inland & near shore fisheries, wood products, plant genetic resources, and other forest resources
& urban values.

The forest can be viewed in two ways: firstly as a natural ecosystem, and secondly as an area
with many socio-economic functions and where a large number of activities are performed. The
rigorous and traditional approach of emphasizing timber production is now days non-viable in
almost all countries because of the steep population growth in most of the countries resulted in
pressures on the lands and deforestation. As well as there is relentless increase of demand for
forest products (particularly wood). This depletion of forest resources has inevitably made the
rural communities that depend on them to become increasingly vulnerable. The government has
not been able to meet the needs of the rural people. Hence forest management must be
sustainable not just limited to forestry aspects where very often management is done with a
single-issue focus, such as timber production.

Management of forests broadly involves three main tasks -:

(i) Control of composition and structure of the growing stock-: It involves Site adaptation,
Choice of species, Manipulation of stands, harvesting the produce, Regeneration &
Protection activities.
(ii) Harvesting and marketing of forest produce-: This process involve transportation and
communication, logging Plan, Marketing data, Sale of product & Revenue etc.
(iii) Administration of forest property and personnel-: It involves management of Personnel ,
Monitoring and control of works, Labour management and welfare, Financial control
and economy efficiency, Fulfillment of social obligations and Record for present and
future reference.

Forest are managed for a multiplicity of purpose – productive, protective, climatic, wildlife,
recreational and aesthetic, with one use dominant, i.e. most often the production of wood.
Though the forest land can be managed simultaneously for several uses, however, in some cases,
uses are incompatible with one another; e.g., grazing is not compatible with timber production,
environmental conservation and recreational use. In each case, priorities are laid down by the
owner (In India most of the forests are State-owned (95.8%). Productive and protective functions
of the forests cannot be bifurcated. As a matter of fact, scientifically managed forests perform
both these, simultaneously;

Productive forests do protect and protective forests do produce – the distinction between the two
is of degree rather of kind - a matter of emphasis of the primary function of the forest that the
management aims at. Management of Forests, as that of any other enterprise, involves a process
of making and implementing policy decisions to achieve the objectives of the owner. These
decisions involve, in turn, a plan of action. Detailed plans are prepared by Forest Managers at the
professional level, and executed by the technician level staff.

The forest management plan includes:

1. Objectives - Explains the desired outcome

2. Description - Describes plant communities, soil conditions, wetlands on site, and other
forest characteristics

3. Plan of Action - Management practices that will occur to reach the objective

4. Maps - Gives the general layout of the site to be forested

Applying forest management practices to increase forest productivity is called silviculture. The
following described practices are utilized in the field of forest management:

❖ Timber stand Improvement

❖ Timber harvesting
❖ Regenreation

Timber Stand Improvement -: Controlling undesirable trees to remove unwanted competition

in the forest is called timber stand improvement (TSI). Tree farming involves a degree of
undesirable tree control to allow for maximum timber production, just as agricultural operations
involve weed control for maximum crop growth. In forestry, the weeds may be undesirable tree
species or they may be trees of desirable species that are deformed, forked, or less vigorous than
the crop trees.

Methods of TSI include thinning, prescribed burning, mechanical treatment, and chemical
treatment.

Thinning-: A typical forest that is naturally established contains thousands of young seedlings
per acre. As the forest ages, the trees compete with each other for growing space. Faster-
growing, superior trees crowd out the less competitive trees, which eventually die. Thinning
mimics this natural development process of a forest. A given tract of forestland is capable of
growing a limited volume of wood. This wood growth can be scattered among thousands of
small trees, or it can be concentrated on a select number of superior trees through thinning.
Thinning results in faster growth for the remaining crop of trees, and they reach a marketable
size at an earlier age.

Figure-: Thinned pine Forest

The following are things to consider when determining whether a stand needs thinning:

Growth rate -: Core samples taken from a tree’s trunk reveal growth rings in the wood.
Declining growth rate over several years usually indicates the need for thinning or a timber stand
improvement operation.

Tree condition -: a stand needs thinning when a tree crowns appear small in size, and they are
closely packed together.

Precommercial thinning -: uses the concepts of thinning mentioned previously, except that the
trees removed are un-merchantable, and therefore no money is recovered. Precommercial
thinning is a labor-intensive and high-cost operation. Its application is usually confined to areas
naturally reseeded, where there are too many stems per acre to allow good early growth. It can be
accomplished by cutting, mowing, chopping, or herbicide application.

Controlled or Prescribed Burning-: Prescribed burning may be defined as fire applied in a

knowledgeable manner to a specific land area under selected weather conditions to accomplish
predetermined, well-defined management objectives. There are many potential benefits to be
gained from using prescribed burning as a tool in forest resource management. A single
prescribed burn can achieve multiple benefits. For example, a well-planned burn can reduce fire
hazard and also improve wildlife habitat. Prescribed fires are not always beneficial, however.
When conditions are wrong, prescribed fire can severely damage the very resource it was
intended to benefit. Prescribed fire is a complex management tool, and should be used only with
care under controlled conditions.
Prescription burning objectives are numerous and varied, such as

• Reducing hazardous fuel buildup (forest fuels include such as leaves, grasses, shrubs, and small
trees)
• Improving wildlife habitat
• Controlling undesirable competitive plant species
• Preparing sites for regeneration
• Improving forage for livestock

Figure-: Controlled burning reduces height of forest fuel & increases forage for animals.

Mechanical Treatment-: Mechanical TSI involves either hand labor or machinery such as a
heavy disk, double drum chopper, or bush hog. These methods are very expensive. Other
drawbacks include restricted equipment, possible damage to desirable trees in the stand, and
unreliable kill of hardwoods since they sprout back from the cut stumps. Mechanical TSI is being
replaced gradually by chemical TSI methods, but is still justified on small tracts of forestland.
 Figure-: Thinning by double drum chopper

Chemical Treatment-: Chemical TSI involves the application of plant-killing chemicals called
herbicides. Most herbicides used in forestry are designed to kill broadleaf vegetation. Herbicides
can be sprayed onto the leaf, injected into or painted on the trunk, or broadcast as granules on the
ground.

A combination of TSI methods can be utilized within the same year.

Timber Harvesting

Clear Cut-: Clear-cutting is the practice of removing all timber from a stand in one cutting. It is
a commonly used method of harvesting timber because it offers several advantages. It is the most
economical method of harvest. It allows replanting of genetically improved trees. It allows the
growing of trees that require full sunlight, and it can be used to check forest insects and diseases
by removing the infested trees. But clear-cutting also has its drawbacks in that wildlife habitat is
damaged or severely altered, soil erosion may be accelerated, and the clear-cut areas are left with
a marked, if temporary, appearance of devastation.

Select Cutting-: Select cutting or selection cuts involve the select removal of timber as single
trees, scattered trees or trees in small groups at short intervals. Successful selection cutting
depends upon the ability of reproducing trees to become established and to survive in the
openings left by harvested timber.

Seed Tree Cutting-: In seed tree cutting, the site is clear cut except for a few desirable “seed”
trees. Approximately 10-15 seed trees per acre are left to cast seed over the entire area. The
number of seed trees left depends on size, species, site conditions, and seed-bearing
characteristics.

Shelter wood Cutting-: Shelter wood cutting employs the same technique as seed tree cutting
except that more seed trees are left per acre (approximately 20-40). All seed trees are harvested
once natural regeneration is complete.

Diameter-limit cutting -: this method widely used in the past, is no longer recommended. It
involves removing trees of a certain diameter and larger. This system has fallen into disuse
because it leads to best stand - removing and leaving the poorest trees.

Regeneration-: is the establishment or reestablishment of a forest. Management activities for

regeneration usually follow a timber harvest or a natural disaster such as fire, hurricane, or insect
attack. Regeneration can occur naturally, or it can occur artificially through tree planting or
direct seeding.

Natural regeneration is defined as the renewal of a forest crop by self-sown seeds or by coppice
or root suckers. Natural regeneration may thus be obtained from the following two sources.
 • From seed – called ‘high forest’ or ‘seedling crop’. This is the sexual method of regeneration
in which the new plant exhibits the characters of both the parents.

• From vegetative parts – This is asexual method of regeneration and the new plant exhibits the
characters of the parent plant only. When regeneration is obtained from coppice, it is called
coppice crop, and the latter develops into a forest called coppice forest

Artificial regeneration is defined as the renewal of forest crop by sowing, planting or other
artificial methods. In common parlance such a crop is called ‘plantation’. It is interesting to note
that while the practice of sowing or planting has been in use in agriculture and horticulture crops
since long, such practices have been adopted in forestry recently, and still more recently on a
large scale.

Sowing in artificial regeneration refers to direct sowing. It means sowing of seed directly on an
area where a crop is to be raised, and not sowing in nursery. Planting refers to transferring of
seedlings or plants in the area to be regenerated after they have successfully passed the critical
phase of germination and initial development. The planting stock is generally raised in a nursery.

Artificial regeneration is carried out for the following two objects.

(1) Reforestation – It means restocking by artificial means of felled or otherwise cleared

woodland.
(2) Afforestation – It means establishment of a forest by artificial means on an area from
which forest vegetation has always or long been absent.

The choice between natural and artificial regeneration is governed by the following
considerations.

➢ Risk of deterioration of soil – The points to be considered are that natural regeneration
involves minimum exposure of soil, while artificial regeneration exposes the soil for a
longer period. Long exposure of soil may invite soil erosion, particularly in slopes, and
affect fertility of soil.
➢ Crop composition – Natural regeneration does not give the desired proportion of valuable
species, whereas in artificial regeneration one can manipulate the crop composition.
Artificial regeneration has become the standard practice to enrich the crop with larger
proportion of valuable species and increase the productivity.
➢ Crop quality – In natural regeneration despite exercising the best control, one is never
sure that regeneration comes from only genetically superior trees. But in artificial
regeneration one has the option to use seeds and clones from genetically superior trees
and produce a quality crop.
 ➢ Risk of damage by pests – In general, mixed crops resulting from natural regeneration are
far more resistant to attack by insect pests than those resulting from artificial
regeneration. Physical separation of food plants in mixed natural forests inhibits the
spread of insect pests.
➢ Time factor – Time is the factor that overrides, most of the time, other factors in deciding
between natural and artificial regeneration. Natural regeneration is a long, and at times,
uncertain process. In a delayed process, the gaps may be invaded by weeds, or the sites
while remaining exposed may undergo serious deterioration through intensive leaching,
erosion and desiccation. On the other hand, artificial regeneration can bring vegetal cover
quickly in open barren areas. One great advantage of artificial regeneration is that it is
independent of occurrence of good seed years and can continue every year if there is
good stock of seeds.
➢ Cost – This is definitely an important factor of consideration. Artificial regeneration is
apparently a costly method, as it involves elaborate operations like procurement of seeds,
creation of planting stock, maintenance of nursery, carriage of seedlings, fencing,
planting , tending etc. all of which require spending on account of material and/or labour.
In contrast, natural regeneration does not involve any initial cost of formation except
slash disposal and fencing, where necessary. Artificial regeneration allows removal of
mature trees without any loss in the value of timber. Besides, logging and extraction
becomes short and simple operation without any chance of damage to young
reproduction.

Benefits of Forest Management-:

• Forest management brings back forests.

• It helps water quality
• It offsets air pollution.
• It helps reduce catastrophic wildfires.
• It helps wildlife.
• It provides great places to recreate
• It benefits urban environments.
• It provides renewable and energy-efficient building products.
• Forest management is good for soils.

Some practices of forestry are-:

Social Forestry-: The National Commission on Agriculture of the Indian government used the
term “social forestry” for the first time in 1973. Social Forestry means the management and
protection of forests as well as afforestation of barren lands with purpose of helping in the
environmental, Social and rural development. Social forestry is forestry for community
development. The basic objective of social forestry is to raising plantations by the common man
so as to meet the growing demand for timber, fuel wood, fodder, etc. thereby reducing the
pressure on the traditional forest area. Thus, it is people oriented, value based management of
forests with a major objective of satisfying the needs, wants and aspirations of both the people
and the government.

Objectives of social forestry are -:

• Improve the environment for protecting agriculture from adverse climatic factors
• Increase the supply of fuel wood for domestic use, small timber for rural housing, fodder
for livestock, and minor forest product for local industries.
• Increase the natural beauty of the landscape; create recreational forests for the benefit of
rural and urban populations.
• Provide jobs for unskilled workers.
• Raise the standard of living and quality of life of rural and urban people.

Components of Social Forestry according to National Commission on Agriculture

Urban Forestry-: It aimed bringing trees to the door of the urban people. It advocates on the
beautification of house, roads and vacant lands as also creation of tree reserves, in town and
cities. Moreover, it stress on the aesthetic development of urban areas.

Agro Forestry-: It is a combination of agriculture and tree growing activity with an objective of
producing agricultural products and tree products on a commercial basis. This method of forestry
helps in increasing the productivity, economic benefits, social outcomes and the ecological goods
and services.

Extension Forestry-: This type of forestry helps in increasing the boundaries of the forests.
Planting of trees on the government wastelands, panchayat lands, village common lands.

Farm Forestry-: In farm forestry farmers are given incentives by the government and
encouraged to plant trees on their own farms. A farmer needs fire wood for cooking and
agricultural implements, fodder for cattle and manure for his fields. By planting suitable species
of trees on his land, the farmer can, to a large extent be self-sufficient with regard to these
essential needs and there can even be surplus for sale.
 Chapter – 9

Wildlife Management

Wildlife resources constitute a vital link in the survival of the human species. Today, when
wildlife habitats are under severe pressure and a large number of species of wild fauna have
become endangered, the effective conservation & management of wild animals is of great
significance.

Definition of wildlife -: According to the Wildlife Protection Act (1972), wildlife includes “any
animal, aquatic or land vegetation which forms part of any habitat”. The ‘habitat’ referred to here
is the natural home of any wild animal. Wildlife consists of all forms of animal life that are not
domesticated. It also includes farmed wild species.

Wildlife management -: Wildlife management has been defined as a science and art of
maintaining/changing the characteristics and interactions of habitats, wild animal populations
and activities of people in order to achieve specific goals of conservation. Wildlife management
is interdisciplinary that deals with protecting endangered and threatened species and subspecies
and their habitats, as well as the non-threatened agricultural animals and game species. It takes
into consideration the ecological principles such as carrying capacity of the habitat, preservation
and control of habitat, reforestation, predator control, re-introduction of extinct species, capture
and reallocation of abundant species and management of “desirable” or “undesirable” species. It
may be noted that wild animals and plants are living indicators of the characteristics of their
environment or habitat; and thus wildlife management is all about how to deal with these
environment characteristics to the best interest of wildlife.
The Wildlife Management program focuses on the following:

• Predator-prey relationship
• Urban and suburban wildlife
• Migratory wildlife species
• Wildlife-human interaction
• International wildlife

There are two general types of wildlife management:

Manipulative management-: Manipulative management means we act upon a population to

change its numbers. It involves regulating numbers of animals directly by harvesting or by
influencing numbers by altering food supply, habitat, density of predators etc. This type of
management is appropriate when a species population slides to an unacceptably low density or
increases to an unacceptably high level. Such densities are inevitably the subjective view of the
land owner, and may be disputed by animal welfare interests. Methods of manipulative
management are-:
 • Hunting/fishing for a sustainable yield and stable population
• Species protection and predator control to allow a population to increase
• Artificial replenishment of animals (e.g. fish hatcheries)

Custodial management-: is preventive or protective type. It minimizes external influences on

the population and its habitat. It is done by setting up national parks where ecological conditions
are protected and threatened species are conserved by law. This type of management is
appropriate when goal of management is-:

1. Managing wildlife in a national park or similar setting where the park goals are to protect
ecological processes (i.e. keeping the ecosystem as natural as possible, minimizing human
impacts).
2. The conservation of threatened/endangered species where the threat is external (over-hunting
fishing, invasive predators, habitat loss, etc.)
Methods of custodial management are-:
• Restore wildlife habitat
• Protect wildlife habitat

The conservation practices in Custodial management are In- situ conservation. In-Situ or on site
conservation is conservation of wild animals and plants in their natural habitat. The aim of
in-situ conservation is to allow the population to maintain or perpetuate itself within the
community environment, to which it is adapted. In-situ conservation is the ideal method of
conserving wild plant genetic resources. In-situ conservation includes followings-:

Protected Area-: Areas of natural habitats/ecosystem under in situ conservation are called
protected areas. A protected area is defined as an area of land or sea specially dedicated to the
protection and maintenance of biological diversity and of natural and associated cultural
resources and managed through legal or other effective means. There are many types of
protected areas with differing degrees of protection, permanency and purpose. India has over 600
protected areas, which includes 104 national parks, 566 wildlife sanctuaries and 18 biosphere
reserves.

National Park-: A national park is a reserve of land, usually owned by a National Government.
It is a tract of land, which is declared public property to preserve and develop for the purpose of
recreation and culture. It is protected from human development activities and pollution. The first
national park in India was Hailey National Park, now known as Jim Corbett National Park,
established in the year 1935. In national park all private rights are non - existent and all forestry
operations and other usages such as grazing of domesticated animals are prohibited.

Wildlife Sanctuaries-: A sanctuary is a reserved area for the protection of wildlife. Collection of
forest products, cutting trees for timber are allowed provided they do not affect the animals.
There are 448 existing wildlife sanctuaries in India. Another 217 sanctuaries are proposed in the
Protected Area Network report. A wild life sanctuary is dedicated to protect the wild life mainly
endangered species. In the sanctuary killing, hunting or capturing of any species is prohibited
except by or under the control of highest authority in the department responsible for management
of sanctuary.

Biosphere Reserve-: Biosphere reserves are the protected areas meant for the conservation of
plants and animals. It also restores the traditional life of the tribals living in that vicinity. They
conserve the biodiversity of that area. There are three biosphere reserve zones i.e. core, buffer &
transition zone.

Forms of Wildlife Management

1. Habitat Restoration & Management- Habitat management is a primary tool for wildlife
biologists to manage, protect, and enhance wildlife populations. Increased wildlife
diversity in an area may be a wildlife management goal. It is difficult to develop
strategies for managing each species separately. Several wildlife species can benefit when
a complete ecosystem is improved or preserved intact to meet the needs of threatened or
endangered species or groups of species.
Managers may enhance grassland areas by clearing bush (prescribed burning, cutting, herbicides)
and removing trees, as well as over-planting them with native prairie species. This helps
grassland animals and result in reduced cover used by their edge predators (skunks, raccoons,
red-tailed hawks) and improves the quality of the habitat for grassland animals.
2. Endangered Species Management -: Endangered or threatened species require intensive
management. Critical habitat and locations of existing populations must be identified so
they can be managed successfully. An animal species is considered endangered when its
numbers become so low that experts think it may become extinct unless action is taken to
save it.
Threatened species’ populations are showing signs of unnatural decline or they are vulnerable to
becoming endangered. Many endangered or threatened species are specialists that have very
restrictive habitat needs and eat specialized foods. The leading cause for a species becoming
endangered or threatened is habitat loss.
3. Species Reintroduction -: Another wildlife management objective may be to re-establish
species in appropriate habitats. The lost species can be reintroduced from other locations
once again in reintroduction programs and management efforts. The research study of the
biology and environmental requirements of the species that is to be reintroduced is
essential before the introduction.
4. Game keeping -: Game keeping is the management or control of wildlife for the
wellbeing of the game and might consist of eliminating other animals which share the
exact same specific niche or predators to maintain a high population of the more
successful species, such as pheasants presented into woodland.
 5. Harvest-: Managers may strive to reduce or maintain populations so animals conflict less
with human activities. Monkey population in urban India can be controlled by capture
and release in wild areas.

Tools of wildlife management-: Wildlife manager needs some tools for keeping wildlife with in
the carrying capacity of habitat. These tools are-

Laws-: There must be wildlife laws for control & management of wildlife. Wildlife laws must
be flexible, based on biological facts, and used in combination with other management tools.

Wildlife protected area-: These are land which is set aside for the purpose of increasing wildlife
number by protecting wildlife& their key habitat. It includes biosphere reserve, national park,
sanctuaries, zoological park, botanical garden etc.

Hunting & trapping -: Valuable tools for maintaining wildlife populations at or below carrying
capacity of a habitat. Goal is regulate hunting so only excess animals in a population are
removed.

Research & harvest Survey -: In order to proper manage any wildlife species, biologist and
managers must have a good understanding of all the animals. This includes habitat need,
population dynamics, social & economic value of species. It also includes release of wildlife
species in areas that have suitable habitat but no animal population.

Elements Of wildlife management-: Management of wildlife depend upon certain elements.

These are discussed below.

Public Participation & awareness -: It is necessary to make local people realize and accept the
idea and importance of wildlife protection. Public awareness can help in making local people
responsible and cooperate in enforcement of wildlife management laws and regulations. The
wildlife managers and other responsible persons should held public discussions, shows, and talks
and should also take help of other media like newspapers, magazines, radio and television to
make people aware about the basic concepts behind wildlife management. Their feedback should
also be taken for effective functioning of wildlife management. This can stop people from
exploiting natural resources, which is the major threat to wildlife and their habitats.

Education: The role of education in public awareness programs is very important. There should
be environmental subjects based on wildlife conservation in school and college curricula. The
well-educated and trained specialists on environmental and forest issues should participate in
public training and interact with people and solve their queries to make them more responsible
towards their wildlife management duties.
Nature Interpretation Centers: Nature interpretation centers may include setting up of
educational camps or exhibition in nearby regions of protected areas such as zoological parks
and wildlife sanctuaries. It is usually taken up by the concerned forest departments. The
interpretation centers should be handled by qualified and trained staff in order to explain and
motivate the concepts of wildlife management to the tourists and people of the nearby-protected
areas.

Coordination: Wildlife management is operated at four basic levels – local, state, national and
international. Government agencies plan the policies of protecting, conserving and managing
wildlife. All the management levels participate in passing wildlife management tools and many a
time, conflicts arise.
Chapter – 10

Desertification

Desertification is land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas, collectively
known as dry lands, resulting from many factors, including human activities and climatic
variations. It is the process by which the biological productivity of dry lands (arid and semiarid
lands) is reduced due to natural or manmade factors. It does not mean the expansion of existing
deserts. This is an emerging problem faced by almost every country of the world. This is threat
for ecological system and human survival. Desertification not only causes deterioration of
environment, but also increase poverty among the local people. According to the Desertification
and Land Degradation Atlas of India, 2016 (released by ISRO), 96 million hectares or close to 29
percent of India's area is undergoing degradation. Dry lands cover a very huge area from the
boarder in the north- west through the Peninsular to the southern side of India. Major parts of
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana and Southern Punjab and small portion of Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka and Maharashtra come under hot arid regions. One third of world land is arid or semi-
arid and affects the 250 million people. It has been predicted that due to increase in global
warming, the area under desert will increase up to 17% by end of this century.

Types of Desert

There are various factors like location; climate, ground cover etc. are responsible for the
desertification. If talk about the deserts, the main idea comes in mind is that the deserts are hot
but this not true. There are also cold, coastal and semiarid deserts. The deserts of world are
divided into 4 main types.

• Hot Deserts
• Coastal Deserts
• Semi-arid Deserts
• Cold Deserts

Indicators of desertification

1. Physical indicators
• Drying of ground and surface water
• Soil crust formation/compaction and decrease in soil depth
• Decrease in soil organic matter and fertility
• Formation of sandstorms/dune
• Soil salinization or alkalinisation
 • Alteration in albedo (relative reflectance) of land

2. Biological indicators
• Decrease in above-ground biomass/forest cover
• Decrease in crop yield or decrease in crops
• Alteration of key plant and animal species
• Changes in distribution and frequency of flora and fauna
3. Animal indicators
• Change in population of domestic animals which leads to change in key species
distribution and frequency
• Decline in livestock production and herd composition
4. Social/economic indicators
• Change in population density
• Increased resource competition due to change in land use/water use
• Change in demographic parameters
• Change in social indicators like increased poverty, decreased education, food
habits, migration, dependence on cash crops

Causes of desertification-: these can be divided into man-made & natural causes.

Man- made cause

1. Overgrazing-: The regions most seriously affected by desertification are the cattle
producing areas of the world. This is because the increasing cattle population heavily
graze in grasslands or forests and as a result denude the land area. When the earth is
denuded, the microclimate near the ground becomes inhospitable to seed germination.
The dry barren land becomes loose and more prone to soil erosion. The top fertile layer is
also lost and thus plant growth is badly hampered in such soils. The dry barren land
reflects more of the sun’s heat, changing wind patterns, driving away moisture laden
clouds leading to further desertification.
2. Deforestation-: The process of denuding and degrading a forested land initiates a desert
producing cycle that feeds on itself. Since there is no vegetation to hold back the surface
run-off, water drains off quickly before it can soak into the soil to nourish the plants or to
replenish the groundwater. This increases soil erosion, loss of fertility and loss of water.
3. Unsustainable Agrarian Practices -: These practices comprise of unnecessary and
excessive use of fertilizers, pesticides, improper irrigation techniques, cropping patterns,
unfit technologies etc. are responsible for desertification.
4. Mining & quarrying-: These activities are also responsible for loss of vegetal cover and
denudation of extensive land areas leading to desertification. During the last 50 years
 about 900 million hectares of land have undergone desertification over the world. This
problem is especially severe in Sahel region, just south of the Sahara in Africa.
5. Unsustainable Water Management Practices -: Inefficient irrigation practices, over
pumping of ground water particularly in the coastal regions resulting in saline incursion
into aquifers, are some of major unsustainable water management practices which lead to
desertification in such regions.
6. Unchecked discharge of Industrial effluents into water bodies and soil-: Industrial
effluents and mining are also gradually emerging as important causes of desertification.
In most cases in the core of the problem is the mismanagement by land users and poor
execution of pollution control regulations. Industrial effluents and their discharge into
nearby water bodies and irrigation with poor quality water in many parts of the world are
rendering stretches of land getting degraded.
7. Land Use variation-: With the rapid urbanization and industrialization, alteration of land
from forestry and agriculture to other land uses has been one of the primary causes of
land degradation.
8. Population Pressure-: The general problem of arid areas with large populations is
essentially one of human ecology. The intrinsically limited resources within arid and
semi-arid regions set the critical limit of production are finally dependent.
9. Lack of knowledge and awareness-: There is inadequate quantitative data on current
land use in arid and semi-arid regions of the country. Whatever information is available is
scattered across many agencies and institutions and is not readily accessible to
researchers, planners, and policy makers. Similarly, there is very little knowledge of land
degradation and desertification issues among the general public, planners and policy
makers and even among those who are directly responsible for the management of land
resources.
10. Climate Change-: It has great impact on desertification. The increase in global
temperature and frequent conditions of drought escalates desertification.

Natural Causes -:

1. Natural Disasters-: like Floods, Droughts, landslides results into Water Erosion,
Displacement of fertile soil.
2. Water erosion-: It effects topography of an area which is the initial stage of
desertification.
3. Wind erosion-: Sand encroachment by wind reduces fertility of the soil making the land
susceptible to desertification.

Impact of desertification-:

• Destruction of Vegetation
• Soil infertility
• Increased soil erosion
 • Increased vulnerability to natural disasters
• Land degradation
• Water pollution
• Loss of biodiversity & extinction of species

Remedial Measures-:

1. Agro- forestry-: Agroforestry is the interaction of agriculture and trees, including

the agricultural use of trees. This comprises trees on farms and in agricultural
landscapes, farming in forests and along forest margins and tree-crop production. this is
mainly of two type-
• Agrisilvicultural systems are a combination of crops and trees, such as alley
cropping or home gardens.
• Silvopastoral systems combine forestry and grazing of domesticated animals on
pastures, rangelands or on-farm.

2. Shelter Belt Plantation-: It is a technique in which tree and shrubs are planted in the
rows to provide shelter from wind to reduce soil erosion.
3. Minimum Tillage-: It is an ideal tool to protect the agricultural lands from the
desertification. Minimum tillage is contrary to intensive tillage and soil conservation
system like strip till with the goal of minimum disturbance with soil structure.
4. Sand Dune Stabilization-: It is the best way to control the desertification by planting the
vegetation on prone area to reduce the impact of the water and soil erosion
5. Education-: Environmental education may impart the values of protecting our
surroundings from damage. Awareness among farmers and society about sustainable
methods of agriculture and land use may reduce desertification.
Chapter – 11

Reclamation of Degraded Land

Land is a finite and valuable resource upon which we depend for our food, fiber and fuel wood,
the basic amenities of life. With increasing population growth the demands for arable land for
producing food, fiber and fuel wood is also increasing. Hence there is more and more pressure on
the limited land resources which are getting degraded due to over-exploitation. Land degradation
refers to the deterioration of the land’s quality and productivity due to various factors,
which reduce its ability to support vegetation and agricultural activities.

Land degradation may occur by different physical, chemical, biological process which directly or
indirectly induced by human activities. Soil erosion, water-logging, salinization (salty soil),
depletion of nutrient, depletion in cation exchange capacity, acid deposition in soil and
contamination of the soil with industrial wastes like fly-ash, heavy metals , urbanization all cause
degradation of land.. Land degradation result in expanding of desert area, reduction in food
production, dry up of water sources and populations are pressured to move to more hospitable
areas. According to a recently released State of India’s Environment 2017 report, nearly 30 per
cent of India is degraded or facing desertification. In eight states—Rajasthan, Delhi, Goa,
Maharashtra, Jharkhand, Nagaland, Tripura, and Himachal Pradesh—approximately 40
to 70 per cent of the land has experienced desertification.

The key aspects of the land degradation includes:

• Soil Erosion – The removal of the topsoil layer by wind or water leads to soil fertility and
productivity loss. The increase in soil erosion to date is strongly linked with the clearance
of natural vegetation, to enable land to be used for arable agriculture, and the use of
farming practices unsuited to the land on which they are practiced.

• Soil Salinization – The accumulation of salts in the soil, often due to irrigation practices,
can make the land less fertile and unsuitable for crops. Saline soils contain excessive
concentrations of soluble carbonate, chloride and sulfate salts that cause EC (electrical
conductivity) levels to exceed 4 dS/m. Although relatively insoluble salts such as Ca and
Mg carbonates do not cause high EC levels, they are often present in saline soils and may
result in the formation of a white crust on the soil surface. Excess salts in the root zone
reduce the amount of water available to plants and cause the plant to expend more energy
to exclude salts and take up pure water.

• Soil Acidification- Soil acidity is defined as the increase of hydrogen and aluminium ions
in the soil leading to low pH value. Soil becomes acidic because the basic cations
 (calcium, magnesium and potassium) in the soil are replaced by hydrogen and
aluminium. Ammonium containing fertilizers such as urea and ammonium sulphate
contribute to soil acidification. A soils in the range of 5.6 to 5.0 are moderately acidic and
below 5.5 is strongly acidic.

• Desertification – The process of fertile land becoming desert, typically due to prolonged
drought and deforestation and overgrazing.

• Soil fertility decline - Soil fertility decline is used as a short term to refer to deterioration
in soil physical, chemical and biological properties. Soil fertility decline include reduced
soil organic matter accompanied by decreased soil biological activity, micronutrient
deficiencies and nutrient imbalance.

• Loss of Vegetation – Removing plant cover due to deforestation or overgrazing reduces

soil stability and increases erosion.

• Pollution – Contamination of soil and water resources by chemicals and waste products,
affecting soil health and productivity.

Land Reclamation-: It is a process of making an uncultivable land fit for cultivation which is
then said to have been reclaimed. Reclamation objectives are-

• To improve the physical structure and quality of the marginal soils.

• To improve the availability of good quality water for irrigating these lands.
• To prevent soil erosion, flooding and landslides.
• To conserve the biological resources of the land for sustainable use.

Land reclamation method can be temporary or permanent measures.

Temporary Control Includes -:

1. Ploughing of salt-’surface crust deeply into the soil.

2. Removing surface accumulation from the soil.
3. Neutralizing the effects of certain salts by use of other salts or acids.

Permanent Control Includes -:

1. Adequate lowering of water table.

2. Satisfactory water infiltration.
3. Leaching excess salts out of the soil.
4. Intelligent management of soil.

Reclamation of Saline Soil

The main characteristic of saline soils is that they contain sufficient neutral soluble salts to
adversely affect the growth of most crop plants. Most commonly Soluble salts are the chlorides
and sulphates of sodium, calcium and magnesium. The amount of crop yield reduction depends
on such factors as crop growth, the salt content of the soil, climatic conditions, etc. In extreme
cases where the concentration of salts in the root zone is very high, crop growth may be entirely
prevented. To improve crop growth in such soils the excess salts must be removed from the root
zone. The term reclamation of saline soils refers to the methods used to remove soluble salts
from the root zone. Methods commonly adopted or proposed to accomplish this include the
following:

Scraping: The removing of salts that have accumulated on the soil surface by mechanical
means is known as scraping. Although this method might temporarily improve crop growth, the
ultimate disposal of salts still poses a major problem.

Flushing: Washing away the surface accumulated salts by flushing water over the surface is
sometimes used to desalinize soils having surface salt crusts. Because the amount of salts that
can be flushed from a soil is rather small, this method does not have much practical significance.

Leaching-: In this method, agricultural land is flooded with water up to a depth of 20-30 cm. A
large quantity water is applied which dissolves the salts and as water percolate deeper into the
soil, salts are also washed away from root zone. This process requires proper drainage for
removal of saline water and prevention of water logging. Disadvantage of leaching is that it may
cause losses of many important plant nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus and manganese.

Application of Organic Amendments-: Farmyard manure, sugar factory pressmud, green

manures and crop residues are used for treatment of saline soil. Green manuring are crops like
dhaicha or Jantar (Sesbania aculeata), Sunnhemps (Crotalaria juncea) barseem (Trifolium
alexandrieutn) sengi (.Melioletus parviflora) and cowpea (Vigna sinensis) etc. After
decomposition they serve as solubilizing agent for calcium and neutralizing high pH of alkali
soils. They also improve soil permeability and also increases biological activity.

Selection of tolerant crops and crop rotations: Tolerance of crops to salts is found to range
from sensitive, semi-tolerant, tolerant to highly tolerant. Barley, sugar beet and date-palm are
highly tolerant crops which do not suffer from any reduction in crop yield even at a high salinity
with electrical conductivity (EC) of 10 dS/m. Wheat, sorghum, pearl millet, soyabean, mustard
and coconut are salt-tolerant crops. Rice, millets, maize, pulses, sunflower, sugarcane and many
vegetables like bottle gourd, brinjal etc. are semi-tolerant. These different crop combinations can
be grown on saline soil.
Gypsum amendment: Amendment of sodic ( having high amount of exchangeable sodium ion)
soils with gypsum is recommended for reducing soil sodicity as calcium of gypsum replaces
sodium from the exchangeable sites.

Reclamation of Waterlogged Saline Soil

Agricultural land is said to be water logged when its fertility is affected by the height of water
table, due to flooding of root zone of plants and ill-aeration of root occur. They can be made
productive by providing efficient surface drainage and sub-surface drainage. (Drainage means
removal of excess of water and along with salts from lands. In general drainage can be of two
types)

Surface drainage: This is used in areas where water stands on the fields after heavy rains by
providing ditches to runoff the excess water. Usually 30-45 cm deep ditches lying parallel to
each other at 20-60 m distance are able to remove 5 cm of water within 24 hours.

Sub-surface drainage: Horizontal sub-surface drainage is provided in the form of perforated

corrugated PVC pipes or open-jointed pipes with an envelope of gravel 2-3 m below the land
surface. Chances of evaporation of water leading to accumulation of salts almost become nil in
this method.

Figure-: Sub- Surface Drainage System

The World Bank has funded sub-surface drainage system at Sampla, Rohtak (Haryana) for
reducing soil salinity by this method.

Irrigation Practices: Surface irrigation with precise land leveling, smoothening and efficient
hydraulic design help to reduce water logging and salinity. High frequency irrigation with
controlled amount of water helps to maintain better water availability in the upper root zone.
Thin and frequent irrigations have been found to be more useful for better crop yield when the
irrigation water is saline as compared to few heavy irrigations.

Mined Land Reclamation & Control of Soil Erosion

Restoring land degraded by mining activities includes process of reshaping the land, replacing
topsoil, and replanting vegetation to stabilize the soil and restore the ecosystem. Mixture of
grasses rather than woody perennials is preferred in case of mined degraded land.

Reforestation-: It is the replantation in previously planted land. Trees play a crucial role in
erosion control by stabilizing soil with their root systems and reducing surface runoff. When
selecting trees for erosion control, it's important to choose species with strong, deep root systems
that can bind the soil together effectively.
 Chapter - 12

Human Intervention on Wetlands

A wetland is a distinct ecosystem that is flooded by water, either permanently or seasonally. In

simple terms, a wetland is a land area that is saturated with water, either permanently or
seasonally. This definition brings ponds, lakes, estuaries, reservoirs, creeks, mangroves and
many more water bodies under the ambit of wetlands. The primary factor that distinguishes
wetlands from other land forms or water bodies is the characteristic vegetation of aquatic
plants, adapted to the unique hydric soil. A patch of land that develops pools of water after a rain
storm would not necessarily be considered a "wetland", even though the land is wet. Wetlands
have unique characteristics: they are generally distinguished from other water
bodies or landforms based on their water level and on the types of plants that live within them.
Specifically, wetlands are characterized as having a water table that stands at or near the land
surface for a long enough period each year to support aquatic plants.

Definition-: Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of 1971 defines wetlands as - “Areas of marsh,

fen, peat land or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is
static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at
low tide does not exceed six metres.” wetlands can be categorized into following types based
on their hydrological, ecological and geological characteristics.

Marine (coastal wetlands),

Estuarine (including deltas, tidal marshes, and mangrove swamps)
Lacustarine (lakes)
Riverine (along rivers and streams)
Palustarine (‘marshy’– marshes, swamps and bogs)

Importance of wetlands-: Wetlands are considered to have unique ecological features which
provide numerous products and services to humanity. They regulate water quantity,
groundwater recharge, and can contribute to regulating floods and the impacts of storms.
Wetlands also help in erosion control and sediment transport, thereby contributing to land
formation and increasing resilience to storms. All these ecosystem services improve water
security, including security from natural hazards and climate change adaptation. Some of
important functions are-

Wetlands are the major habitat for most of the world’s water birds and key habitat for
migratory species-: Almost all of the world’s water birds use wetlands as feeding and breeding
grounds. Migratory water birds use wetlands throughout their range which can sometimes
literally be from pole to pole. Wetlands are also important breeding areas for domestic and
migrating bird species. In many such wetland areas of India, like Bharatpur wild life sanctuary
in Rajasthan, and little Rann of Kutch and coastal areas of Saurashtra in Gujarat, many migratory
species of birds, including Siberian crane, from western and European countries come during
winter.

Pollution abatement: Wetlands act as a sink for contaminants in many agricultural and urban
landscapes. In India too, wetlands are polluted through agricultural runoff and discharge of
untreated sewage and other waste from urban areas.

Carbon sequestration: Swamps, mangroves, peat lands, mires and marshes play an important
role in carbon cycle. Wetland soils may contain as much as 200 times more carbon than its
vegetation.

Flood control: Wetlands play an important role in flood control. Wetlands help to lessen the
impacts of flooding by absorbing water and reducing the speed at which flood water flows.
Further, during periods of flooding, they trap suspended solids and nutrient load.

Biodiversity hotspots: Wetlands are important in supporting species diversity. Because

wetlands provide an environment where photosynthesis can occur and where the recycling of
nutrients can take place, they play a significant role in the support of food chains.

A wetland – Runn of kutch A east Kolkata wetland

 Human Intervention on wetlands

The values of wetland ecosystem services are uncountable. Therefore, it is one of the important
and productive ecosystems. Since most of the services provided by wetland ecosystems have not
been traded in the economic market, the value of wetland ecosystems continues to be neglected
or underestimated by stakeholders, government, and public. In past centuries, instead of
attaching importance on wetlands, humans regarded wetlands as a harbor of mosquitoes, carriers
of disease. Due to the dual effects of human activities and natural factors, the wetland area in the
world has been decreasing, and the wetland quality has been deteriorating. Some of the activity
causing threats to wetlands is-:

Hydrologic Alterations-: A wetland’s characteristics evolve when hydrologic conditions cause

the water table to saturate or inundate the soil for a certain amount of time each year. Any
change in hydrology can significantly alter the soil chemistry and plant and animal communities.
Common hydrologic alterations in wetland areas include:

1. Dumping: Dumping fill material buries hydric soils and effectively lowers the water
table so hydrophytic (water loving) plants cannot compete with upland plants.

2. Dredging: The removal of material from a wetland or river bed. Dredging of streams
lowers the surrounding water table and dries up adjacent wetlands.

3. Draining: drainage is done for development, farming, and mosquito control. Water is
drained from wetlands by cutting ditches into the ground which collect and transport water out of
the wetland. This lowers the water table and dries out the wetland.

4. Diverting flow: Water is diverted around wetlands, lowering the water table.

5. Devegetation: Vegetation plays an important role in wetland ecology by removing

water through evapotranspiration, altering water and soil chemistry, providing habitat for
wildlife, and reducing erosion. Removal of vegetation can drastically and sometimes irreversibly
alter wetland function.

6. Damming flow: Many ponds and reservoirs are constructed on wetlands. A flooded
wetland cannot provide the same habitats and functions.

7. Development of springs: Pumping large quantities of water from springs lowers

nearby groundwater and can result in the loss of wetland vegetation. Compaction of springs by
cattle can cause springs to cease to flow.

Pollution Inputs-: Although wetlands are capable of absorbing pollutants from the surface
water, there is a limit to their capacity to do so. The primary pollutants causing wet-land
degradation are sediment, fertilizer, human sewage, animal waste, road salts, pesticides, heavy
metals, and selenium. Pollutants can originate from many sources, including:

• Runoff from municipal, Industrial & mining sites-: Less than 31 percent of the
domestic wastewater from Indian urban centers is treated, compared to 80 percent in the
developed world, which is largely discharged in the natural water bodies. As well as
untreated industrial effluents has become a major threat to the survival of wetlands. For
instance, the Bellandur Lake in Bengaluru city was ‘on fire’ in May 2015 due to the
discharge of effluents (especially nutrient rich foams) by the surrounding industries.

• Runoff from agricultural activities-: As a result of intensification of agricultural

activities over the past four decades, fertilizer consumption in India has increased from
about 2.8 million tonne in 1973–1974 to 28.3 million tonne in 2010–2011.As per
estimates, 10–15 percent of the nutrients added to the soils through fertilizers eventually
find their way to the surface water system. High nutrient contents stimulate algal growth,
leading to eutrophication of surface water bodies.
• Pollutant from old landfills and dumps that leak toxic substances.

• Marinas, where boats increase turbidity and release pollutants.

Urbanization and land use changes-: During the 90 year period from 1901 to 1991, the number
of urban centres doubled while urban population has increased eightfold. This magnitude of
growth exerted tremendous pressure on wetlands and flood plain areas for meeting water and
food demand of growing population. For example, the Kanwar lake in Bihar, Asia’s largest
freshwater oxbow lake, has shrunk to one-third of its size due to encroachment, much like
Jammu and Kashmir’s Dal lake. And, about 34000 hectares of the water spread area of the
Kolleru lake (Andhra Pradesh) have been reclaimed for agriculture in recent years.

Climate Change: In 2007, the UNESCO estimated that Global climate change is expected to
become an important driver of loss and change in wet-land ecosystem. These findings are
important for India which has been experiencing the flood-drought-flood cycle for the last 2
decades.
• As per a study, wetlands located in high altitude as well as coastal areas, like mangroves
and coral reefs, are some of the most sensitive classes that will be affected by climate
change.
• For example, climate change caused rise in level of Tsomoriri Lake in Ladakh, a glacial
fed high altitude lake, thereby causing submerged important breeding islands in the lake
where endangered migratory birds like the Black-necked Crane and Bar-headed Goose
would breed.
• As per an estimate, India will lose about 84 percent of coastal wetlands and 13
percent of saline wetlands with climate change induced sea water rise of 1 metre.

Road Building: Most river valleys have roads and/or railroads. These structures squeeze rivers
and streams by narrowing the floodplain. The roads and railroads also affect drainage from
uplands onto the floodplains, and many are built on top of areas that once were wetlands. Such
roads often create long, low-quality wetlands upslope of the road by interrupting surface and
groundwater flows. These wetlands can attract wildlife dangerously close to roads. Wetland
loss caused by roads is mitigated through the restoration of other impacted wetlands although the
replacement wetlands are not always of the same type and quality as those lost.

Agricultural activities: These are big threats to wetland since farmers convert the wetland into
cultivable land due to its fertility and availability of water. Hundreds of thousands of hectares of
wetlands have been drained for agriculture.

Vegetation Damage-: Wetland plants are susceptible to degradation if subjected to hydrological

changes and pollution inputs. Other activities that can impair wetland vegetation include:
• Grazing by domestic animals-: Wetlands offer some of the best forage for livestock as
well as a water source and cover, so livestock tends to spend a disproportionately large
time in wetlands. Overgrazing harms wetlands through soil compaction, removal of
vegetation, and stream bank destabilization.
• Introduction of nonnative plants that compete with natives-: While most foreign
species aren’t harmful to native species, some can be extremely damaging. These are
termed as invasive non-native species. The introduction of invasive species like the
common water hyacinth and animals like the killer shrimp have had a devastating impact
on wetlands. Wetland wildlife is particularly vulnerable to non- native species.
• Removal of vegetation for mining.
Tourism & immersion of idols and religious ritual waste: Many tourist activities taking place
in wetlands have led to draining of these wetlands so as to establish tourist facilities like hotels or
camping sites. Immersion of idols and religious ritual waste also degrade wetlands.
 Chapter – 13

Siltation & Eutrophication

Siltation is the accumulation of silt & clay (fine particles of sand, mud, and other materials) in
water body. Silt is a granular material of a grain size derived from soil or rock sized between
sand and clay. Silt comes in several forms. It might be found in the soil underwater or as
sediment suspended in river water. It may occur as a soil or as suspended sediment in a surface
"water body". Siltation is undesirable increase in concentration and or of deposition of water-
borne silt in a body of water. It refers both to the increased concentration of suspended sediments
and to the increased accumulation (temporary or permanent) of fine sediments on bottoms.
Siltation is an old phenomenon as mankind. It is either caused by natural agents or induced by
anthropogenic activities. Water flowing in streams or rivers has the ability to scour channel bed,
to carry particles and to deposit materials. But Human activities like agricultural production,
construction and urbanization has increased this process by many folds. Any water containing
silt is turbid in nature and hence requires treatment before usage.

A water body showing siltation

Siltation in River-: All rivers contain slit. Most mineral sediment comes from erosion and
weathering while organic sediment is typically detritus and decomposing material such as algae.
Sand and silt can be carried in suspension in the river water and on the way, this gets deposited
by sedimentation. It is transported based on the strength of the river flow that carries it as well as
its own size, volume, density, and shape.
Siltation in Dam-: siltation in dam is known as sedimentation. Most reservoirs are designed and
operated on the concept of a finite life with considering the effect of siltation. Reservoir
sedimentation is a process of erosion, transportation, deposition and compaction of sediment
carried into reservoirs formed and contained by dams. Siltation increases loads on the dam and
gates, damages mechanical equipment and creates a wide range of environmental impacts.

Cause of Siltation-: The main causes are

1. Soil Erosion due to deforestation, heavy run-off, overgrazing, modern agricultural

practices
2. Land runoff & sewage -: construction activities, offshore dumping, sewage sludge from
house hold & industrial units from waste water treatment facilities & septic tanks all
these contribute to siltation.
3. Bank & shore erosion
4. Bank & slop sliding -: landslide due to earthquake or heavy rainfall on bank of rivers.

Bank erosion of a River

Incidence of Siltation-: The incidence of silting is high when the flow of water is slow and
when there is a large amount of material suspended in the water. The flow of water may be
reduced by weeds, whose growth has been stimulated by the excess of nutrients presents in the
water. The reduced flow allows increased sedimentation, which further stimulates weed growth.
Silting may be part of the complete eutrophication of a water system.

Impact of Siltation
Impact on Aquatic Life-: Increases in sediment concentration can create turbid waters with a
smaller euphotic zone. This decreases plant productivity, negatively impacting fish and bird
species.

• Oxygen-filled cavities between gravel on the riverbed are essential for many
microorganisms. But siltation fills this gap & no space is left for oxygen. It results in
decrease in no. of microorganism.
• Fish also uses the cavities to lay their eggs. Siltation affects their egg lying process
resulting in reduced rate of egg survival. Also Spawning gravels become compacted due
to siltation.
• Benthic organisms such as coral, oysters, shrimps, and mussels are especially affected by
silt, as they are filter feeders that may literally become "choked up" by silt-laden waters.

Increases Frequency of Flood-: The silt causes the level of riverbed to rise. As a result, the
natural longitudinal (straight) course of the river is disturbed. Therefore, the river searches for a
lateral path (left or right). As a result, it changes its course and breaches the embankments on the
new path it has created. The breach of embankments causes floods. Study entitled 'Scoping
Study of Siltation in Kosi river of Bihar' by IIT Kanpur indicate in river Kosi 1,082
million tonnes of silt has been deposited. This is main reason for frequent flood in river
kosi.

Blockage of water Flow-: By the deposition of fine material carried by the water, water systems
may be blocked, or the flow of water seriously gets reduced. This may curtail the use of water
systems for transport, for fishing, as reservoirs, for irrigation, or for drainage. Siltation in
reservoirs may block the intakes of the turbines used to generate hydroelectric power.

If drainage and irrigation channels are blocked by siltation, it can flood the land, or the water-
table may rise, leading to the waterlogging of productive (Agricultural) land, may result in
creation of marshland or saline or alkaline soils.

Effect of siltation on reservoirs -: Reservoir siltation affects the safety of old reservoir in
several ways. The sediment in the reservoirs increases the load on the wall of the dam (A
reservoir is a man-made lake or large freshwater body of water used for water supply,
power generation, flood control ). It reduces the water storage capacity of the reservoir. The
reduction in storage capacity reduces the potential of flood control. Impact of siltation on
reservoir are-

• Storage loss
• Turbine abrasion
• Impact on downstream flow
• Effect on reservoir life
 Remedial measures to Siltation

Desiltation-: Desilting is the removal of fine silt and sediment that has collected in a river in
order to restore its natural capacity, without widening or deepening of the river. It can be done
by-

• Sediments Trap & detention basin-: construction of small dam upstream to trap
sediment. Sediment traps and basins help in keeping soil from washing away into
nearby water during rain. They work by catching and holding rainwater runoff, giving
the soil particles time to settle at the bottom before the water flows out.

Figure- Small Sediment Trap

• Vegetative screen-: "vegetation screen" for silt control refers to using a barrier of dense
vegetation to filter and trap sediment from runoff water, preventing it from entering
nearby water bodies. This method is a cost-effective and environmentally friendly way to
manage erosion and sedimentation
• Dredging-: Dredging is the removal of sediments and debris from the bottom of lakes,
rivers, harbors, and other water bodies. It is a routine necessity in waterways around the
world. It is mainly focused on increasing depth.
• Bypassing-: diverting sediment laden around reservoir through weir (low head dam)

However, if Desilting is not done in a planned way, creates isolated pits of considerable size in
the submergence area which may have lower bottom levels than the main storage.
 Chapter-

Eutrophication

The term 'Eutrophication' is derived from the Greek word 'eutrophos' which means nourished or
enriched. Eutrophication is characterized by excessive plant and algal growth due to the
increased availability of one or more limiting growth factors needed for photosynthesis. In
context with the environment, the Eutrophication can be defined as the addition of artificial or
non-artificial substances such as nitrates and phosphate, through fertilizers or sewage, to a fresh
water system. “Eutrophication is an enrichment of water by nutrient salts that causes structural
changes to the ecosystem such as: increased production of algae and aquatic plants, depletion of
fish species, general deterioration of water quality and other effects that reduce and preclude
use”. This is one of the first definitions given to the eutrophic process by the OECD
(Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) in the 70s. It leads to increase in the
primary productivity of the water body or 'bloom' of phytoplankton. The phrase like ‘excess of
anything is bad’ is very much justified here when the aquatic system has an overabundance of
nutrients. Eutrophication occurs naturally over centuries as lakes age and are filled in with
sediments. However, human activities have accelerated the rate and extent of eutrophication
through both point-source discharges and non-point loadings of limiting nutrients, such as
nitrogen and phosphorus, into aquatic ecosystems, resulting into dramatic consequences on
drinking water sources, fisheries, and recreational water bodies.

Types of Eutrophication-: There are two types of eutrophication which are explained below

Natural Eutrophication: In this eutrophication, water body like the lake is characterized by
nutrient enrichment. During this process, oligotrophic lake is converted into a eutrophic lake. It
permits the production of phytoplankton, algal blooms and aquatic vegetation that in turn provide
ample food for herbivorous zooplankton and fish.

Cultural or Anthropogenic Eutrophication: The cultural eutrophication process consists of a

continuous increase in the contribution of nutrients, mainly nitrogen and phosphorus (organic
load) until it exceeds the capacity of the water body (i.e. the capacity of a lake, river or sea to
purify itself), triggering structural changes in the water. Sewage pipes and industrial wastes are
when directed to water bodies, the nutrients present in the sewage and other wastes increase the
rate at which eutrophication occurs. Human activities are responsible for the addition of 80%
nitrogen and 75% phosphorous in lake and stream. These structural changes in a water body
mainly depend on three factors:

1. Use of fertilizer’s-: Agricultural practices and the use of fertilizers in the soil contribute
to the accumulation of nutrients. When these nutrients reach high concentration levels
 and the ground is no longer able to assimilate them, they are carried by rain into rivers
and groundwater that flow into lakes or seas.
2. Discharge of waste water into water bodies: In various parts of the world, and
particularly in developing countries, waste water containing high organic content &
phosphorus in sewage water is discharged directly into water bodies such as rivers, lakes
and seas. The result of this is the release of a high quantity of nutrients which stimulates
the disproportionate growth of algae.
3. Concentrated animal feeding operations are also a major source of polluting nutrients.

Eutrophication Formation Mechanism-: An aquatic environment with a limited availability of

phosphorus and nitrogen is described as "oligotrophic" while one with high availability of these
elements is called "eutrophic"; a lake with intermediate availability is called "mesotrophic".
Eutrophication happens in hot climate, especially with high concentrations of nutrients. When
the eutrophication phenomenon becomes particularly intense, undesirable effects and
environmental imbalances are generated. Land practices such as agriculture, animal feedlots,
factories and urban areas contain very concentrated amounts of nutrients (phosphorus &
nitrogen). These nutrients wash into lakes during heavy rains or through direct storm
sewers. These additional nutrients cause algal blooms, additional plant growth and overall poor
water quality. Phytoplanktons are photosynthetic during day time adding oxygen to the aquatic
ecosystem. But during nights, they consume far more oxygen as they respire aggressively.
Algal blooms accentuate the rate of oxygen depletion as the population of phytoplankton is very
high. When algae start to grow in an uncontrolled manner, an increasingly large biomass is
formed which is destined to degrade. In deep water, a large amount of organic substance
accumulates, represented by the algae having reached the end of their life cycle. To destroy all
the dead algae, an excessive consumption of oxygen is required, in some cases almost total, by
microorganisms. An anoxic (oxygen-free) environment is thus created on the lake bottom, with
the growth of organisms capable of living in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic), responsible for
the degradation of the biomass.
 Figure-: Eutrophication process in a water body

The microorganisms, decomposing the organic substance in the absence of oxygen, free
compounds that are toxic, such as ammonia and hydrogen sulphide (H2S). The absence of
oxygen reduces biodiversity causing, in certain cases, even the death of animal and plant species.

Effects of Eutrophication-: Primarily, the adverse effects of eutrophication on aquatic bodies

include a decrease in biodiversity, increase in toxicity of the water body, and change in species
dominance. Some other important effects of this process are listed below.

1. Abundance of particulate substances (phytoplankton, zooplankton, bacteria, fungi and

debris) that determine the turbidity and colouration of the water. Phytoplankton grows
much faster in such situations. These phytoplankton species are toxic and are
inedible. Gelatinous zooplankton blooms fast in these waters.
2. The water loses its transparency and develops a bad smell and colour. The water
acquires disagreeable odours or tastes (of earth, of rotten fish, of cloves, of
watermelon, etc.) due to the presence of particular algae.
3. The treatment of this water becomes difficult. Abundance of organic substances gives
the water disagreeable odours or tastes, barely masked by chlorination in the case of
drinking water. These substances, moreover, form complex chemical compounds that
prevent normal purification processes and are deposited on the walls of the water
purifier inlet tubes, accelerating corrosion and limiting the flow rate.
4. Increased biomass of epiphytic and benthic algae can be observed in eutrophic
waters.
 Figure-: Algal bloom & Fish Mortality in eutrophic lake

5. Significant changes arise in the species composition of macrophytes and the biomass.
6. Depletion of dissolved oxygen in the water body. Frequent fish kill incidents occur
and many desirable fish species are removed from the water body.
7. The populations of shellfish and harvestable fish are lowered.
8. The aesthetic value of the water body diminishes significantly. Prohibition of touristic
use of the lake and bathing, due to both the foul odour on the shores caused by the
presence of certain algae, as well as the turbidity. Bathing is dangerous because
certain algae cause skin irritation.
9. In eutrophication, Abundance of inorganic chemicals such ammonia, nitrites,
hydrogen sulphide etc. occur, that in the drinking water treatment plants induce the
formation of harmful substances such as nitrosamines suspected of mutagenicity.

Ecological Effect of Eutrophication -: eutrophication also affects the vertical structure of lakes
with further implications for the biology of freshwater organisms. The transition from eutrophic
to hypertrophic status is usually the result of human activities, and ultimately affects the whole
ecological balance of the freshwater system. Some major effect are:

Decrease in Biodiversity -: When an aquatic ecosystem is enriched with nutrients by either

natural or artificial means, the conditions become extremely beneficial to primary producers.
Commonly, algae and other similar species utilize these nutrients and a huge increase in their
population (algal bloom) is observed. These algal blooms hinder the flow of sunlight to the
bottom of the aquatic body and also cause wide swings in the dissolved oxygen levels in the
water. When the dissolved oxygen in the water reduces to an amount below the hypoxic level,
many marine animals suffocate and die. This reduces the effective biodiversity of the water
body.
Increase in water Toxicity-: A few algae are toxic to many plants and animals. When these
algae bloom in eutrophic waters, they release neurotoxins and hepatotoxins. These toxins can
also move up the food chain via shellfish or other marine animals and lead to the death of many
animals. Toxic algal blooms can also be harmful to humans and are the root cause of many cases
of neurotoxic, paralytic, and diarrhoetic shellfish poisoning.
Invasion of new species -: Eutrophication process, leads to a shift in the species composition of
the aquatic body and the ecosystem surrounding it. If a nitrogen deficient water body is suddenly
enriched with it, many other competitive species might relocate to the water body and out-
compete the original inhabitants of the ecosystem. One such example of a new species invading
eutrophic conditions is the common carp, which has adapted to these conditions.

Preventive measures of Eutrophication

• Industrial and domestic waste water must be treated before its discharge into water
bodies.
• Recycling of nutrients through harvesting &removal of algal bloom.
• Increase in efficiency of nitrogen & phosphorous fertilisers and using them in adequate
levels.
• Precipitants like alum, lime, iron and sodium aluminate may use. Physicochemical
methods can be applied to remove nutrients. For Example- Phosphorous can be removed
by precipitation and nitrogen by nitrification or denitrification.
 Chapter – 14

Reclamation of Wetlands

Reclamation is the restoration of something to its original condition. It is an act of returning to

better state. Wetland reclamation is the reestablishment of pre-disturbance physical, chemical,
and biological characteristics of wetlands with self-regulating system that is integrated
ecologically with the landscape and the functions the wetlands perform. Restoring a wetland is a
long process that requires an understanding of an area. However it is not possible to recreate
ecosystems exactly, as change is a part of nature. Learning about the history of wetland and its
succession through time, will help determine how to restore a wetland.

The goals for any reclamation program should be realistic. Reclamation goal should be tailored
to individual regions, specific to the problems of degradation, considering all aspects of the
ecosystems, including habitat restoration, elimination of undesirable species, and restoration of
native species, with a holistic approach. There are different types of wetlands that require
different strategies as well as deterioration condition of wetland are also of different levels.
These categories are:

• Wetlands that could recover without any intervention.

• Wetlands that could be reclaimed close to their former condition to serve their earlier
functions, considering cost involved, and based on the goals and objectives set.
• Wetlands those are not restorable to any agreeable viably.

Reclamation strategies are made based on type & degree of degradation of wetland. The ultimate
goal of reclamation should be a self-sustaining wetland ecosystem. Much like a surgical
procedure, wetland restoration requires time for recovery.

Main objectives of the wetland reclamation are listed below-:

• Restore hydrology -: Wetland hydrology refers to the timing and extent of flooding,
levels of soil saturation and various "driving force" in wetland formation. Restoring of
hydrology involves-: Diverting water to site or away from site depending on the impact
(drainage or flooding), Improving water retention condition, removing drainage
structures etc.
• Restore elevations & structural alteration (including micro- topography) -: Many
wetlands are in need of restoration for the problems that are originated with alteration of
water channel or other physical characteristics. Alteration in elevation & micro-
topography may lead to habitat degradation, changes in flow regimes and siltation.
Stream channelization, ditching in wetlands, disconnection from adjacent ecosystems and
 shoreline modifications are examples of structural alterations that may need to be
addressed in a reclamation project. In such cases, restoring the original site physical
attributes is essential to the success of other aspects of the project, such as improving
water quality and bringing back native biota. It also include Putting back natural contours
and micro - relief (e.g., mounds and pools)
• Restore substrate characteristics -: Reestablishing subsurface hydrology is an essential
step in wetland restoration. Wetlands are characterized by hydric soils, which develop as
a result of an area being saturated, flooded, or ponded long enough during the growing
season to develop anaerobic (oxygen-deficient) conditions. Most of the chemical
reactions in wetlands take place in the soils, where most chemicals are stored. There may
be need of removal of materials from filled wetlands and replacement of materials in
dredged wetlands. Restoration of substrate characteristics activity mainly involves -:
Removing fill and expose hydric soils, removing accumulated sediments, Adding hydric
soil etc.
• Re-establish native biota & avoid non- native species -: Wetlands are thought of as
"biological supermarkets." They provide great volumes of food that attract many animal
species. Hence reestablishment of native species of a wetland is most important to
become a self - sustaining ecosystem. Wetlands are experiencing significant problems
with invasive, non-native (exotic) species due to change in water quality & land use
change. Many invasive species out-compete natives because they are expert colonizers of
disturbed areas and lack natural controls. Invasive, non-native species should not be used
in a restoration project, and special attention should be given to avoiding the
unintentional introduction of such species at the restoration site when the site is most
vulnerable to invasion. In some cases, removal of non-native species may be the primary
goal of the restoration project. Restoration of native species can be done by-: Eliminate
grazing or mowing, Controlling exotics and invasive species, planting or otherwise
enhance colonization and survival of native species.
• Restore chemical integrity-: Chemical attributes of a wetland can be altered by nutrient,
organic matter, metals, pathogen, and other water pollutant loading from both storm
water runoff (non-point source) and wastewater discharges (point source). Atmospheric
deposition of pollutant into wetland also changes water quality. Changes in chemical
integrity affect ecosystem of wetland and it can be restored by-: Removing contaminant
inflow, removing contaminated substrates, establishing buffer around wetland etc.
Methods of Wetland Reclamation-:

Re-establishment -: It is the rebuilding a former wetland. This method is also called passive
approach. Passive approaches are most appropriate when the degraded site still retains basic
wetland characteristics and the source of the degradation is an action that can be stopped. Re –
establishment methods allow natural regeneration of wetland plant communities, natural
recolonization by animals, and re-establishment of wetland hydrology and soil. The success of
passive methods usually depends on an accessible source of water, the close proximity of
wetland plants and animals, and a mechanism for bringing species to the restoration site. For
example, if wetland vegetation and water quality are degraded primarily as a result of cattle
grazing, then removing the cows may be the only activity needed to restore the wetland system
(however, animal grazing is not always bad for wetlands). The benefits of passive methods
include low cost and a high degree of certainty that the resulting wetland will be compatible with
the surrounding landscape.

Rehabilitation-: It is repairing the functions of a degraded wetland. It is process of improving

the conditions to an existing wetland that is degraded or altered in some way. It is also called an
active approach. The active approach is most appropriate when a wetland is severely degraded or
when goals cannot be achieved in any other way. Rehabilitation method involves physical
intervention in which humans directly control site processes to restore, create, or enhance
wetland systems. This method include re-contouring a site to the desired topography, changing
the water flow with water control structures (i.e., weirs or culverts), intensive planting and
seeding, intensive non-native species control, and bringing soils to the site to provide the proper
substrate for native species. However the design, engineering, construction, and costs for such
work can be significant.

Figure-: Rehabilitation of a partly drained wetland

Process of wetland Reclamation-: process of wetland reclamation is divided into 4 parts

• Planning
• Setting of goals & objectives
• Implementation or Execution
• Monitoring & maintenance

Planning-: Planning requires collecting information about the local area, potential of
restoration, historical trends, and other topics information such as hydrology, topography and
geology, soils, biotic diversity etc. This information will help in understanding the need of
project. Objectives and target criteria established during planning also direct the type of
monitoring that will be needed.

Setting of goals & objectives-: The next step is to develop objectives that provide specific
targets focused on hydrology, soils, topography, and biological factors that must be changed on
the project site to restore, reclaim or enhance a wetland. Goals & objectives provide an overall
framework.

Implementation-: Implementation is the physical process of actually doing the reclamation

according to the design developed in the planning stage. This phase of the process is the most
visible phase to the public. Implementation may require a series of steps depending on the
wetland type, project goals and objectives, and the extent of the degradation. Steps in
implementation phase typically include site preparation, plant preparation, installation or
construction.

Monitoring & maintenance -: Once reclamation is complete, there is typically a period of time
where monitoring of the wetland is required. Periodic maintenance is needed for well function
of wetland ecosystem. Maintenance may requires -: controlling herbivores, repairing structures,
replacing exotic (invasive plants who are growing in place of native) plants, reducing or
preventing human intrusion and controlling local pollutants.
 Chapter – 15

Mining and Environment

Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth.
Mining is required to obtain any material that cannot be grown or artificially created in a
laboratory or factory or through agricultural processes. It may be from an ore body, vein, seam,
reef or placer deposits. Mining in a wider sense includes extraction of any non-renewable
resource such as petroleum, natural gas, metals, coal, oil shale, gemstones, calcareous stone,
chalk, rocksalt, potash, gravel and clay. Mining is a significant economic activity in India, and
we produce roughly 100 minerals - metallic (ferrous and non-ferrous), non-metallic and fuels/
energy minerals. Our metal and mining industry comprises of over 3100 mines.

Stages in life of a mine-: Today, mining is one of the essential industries which involve both
exploration and processing removal of minerals from the earth. Mining is necessary for nations
to have adequate and dependable supplies of minerals and materials to meet their economic and
defense needs. The life cycle of mining begins with exploration, continues through production,
and ends with closure and post mining land use. New technologies can benefit the mining
industry and consumers in all stages of this life cycle.
The overall sequence of activities in modern mining is often compared with the five stages in the
life of a mine. They are: Prospecting, Exploration, Development, Exploitation, and Reclamation.
The three major components of mining (exploration, mining, and processing) overlap somewhat.
After a mineral deposit has been identified through exploration, the industry must make a
considerable investment in mine development before production begins. Further exploration near
the deposit and further development drilling within the deposit are done while the mining is
ongoing.

Types of Mining-: Exploitation, the fourth stage of mining, is associated with the actual
recovery of minerals from the earth in quantity. Traditional exploitation methods fall into the
following broad categories-:

• Underground-: Underground mines are more expensive and are often used to reach
deeper deposits.
• Open surface (pit)-: Surface mines are typically used for more shallow and less valuable
deposits.
• Placer mining-: Placer mining is used to sift out valuable metals from sediments in river
channels, beach sands, or other environments.
• In-situ mining, which is primarily used in mining uranium, involves dissolving the
mineral resource in place then processing it at the surface without moving rock from the
ground.

Environmental Impact of mining

Mining operation in general has adverse environmental impact wherever mining is carried out.
The magnitude & significance of environmental pollution caused by mining depends upon type
of mineral mined, method of mining adopted and beneficiation carried out, emission of smoke &
gases from beneficiation plant, processing plants, scale & area of mining activity, geological &
geomorphological setting of the area, nature of mineral deposits, land use pattern etc. some
major environmental impact is listed below-:

1. Impact on water resources-: Perhaps the most significant impact of a mining project is
its effects on water quality and availability of water resources within the project area. The
acidic water from mine is detrimental to many forms of aquatic life. Sometimes radio-
active substances like uranium also contaminate the water bodies through mine wastes
and kill aquatic animals. Heavy metal pollution of water bodies near the mining areas is a
common feature creating health hazards.

The water of streams and rivers of all three regions (Jaintia, Khasi and Garo) in
Meghalaya have been found affected by coal mining. The adverse effects are severe in
Jaintia Hills as most of the streams in coal mining areas have become highly acidic. People
face real difficulty in fetching clean drinking water.

Water pollution by mining can occur mainly by

• Acid Mine Drainage

• Mine Impoundment& heap, dump leach facilities
• Sedimentation & Fouling of water resouces

Acid Mine Drainage-: Acid mine drainage is considered one of mining’s most serious threats to
water resources. A mine with acid mine drainage has the potential for long-term devastating
impacts on rivers, streams and aquatic life. It occurs when sulfide-bearing minerals, such as
pyrite or pyrrhotite, are exposed to oxygen or water, producing sulfuric acid. The presence of
acid-ingesting bacteria often speeds the process. Metals such as gold, copper, silver and
molybdenum, are often found in rock with sulfide minerals. When the sulfides in the rock are
excavated and exposed to water and air during mining, they form sulfuric acid. This acidic water
can dissolve other harmful metals in the surrounding rock. If uncontrolled, the acid mine
drainage may runoff into streams or rivers or leach into groundwater. Acid mine drainage may be
released from any part of the mine where sulfides are exposed to air and water, including waste
rock piles, tailings, open pits, underground tunnels, and leach pads.

Acid mine Drainage

Acid mine drainage also dissolves toxic metals, such as copper, aluminum, cadmium, arsenic,
lead and mercury, from the surrounding rock. Even in very small amounts, metals can be toxic to
hedumans and wildlife. Carried in water, the metals can travel far, contaminating streams and
groundwater for great distances. The impacts of acid mine drainage to fish, animals and plants
can be severe. Many streams impacted by acid mine drainage have a pH value of 4 or lower –
similar to battery acid. Plants, animals, and fish are unlikely to survive in streams.
Mine impoundments & heap , dump leach facilities -: Impoundments and dams are an integral
part of mining. These structures are used to impound waste, store water for mine use, control
runoff, and prevent flooding. They are used to control & maintenance of downstream water
quality. Impoundments and dams are classified into three hazard classification levels – low,
significant, and high – reflecting the potential damage that a failure could cause.

Impoundment in Copper mine

Faulty design, construction, or operation can lead to a failure of the dam embankment or the
containment system, resulting in the release of water or liquid-borne solid waste causing
pollution of surface & ground water. Toxic substances can leach from these dump &heap
facilities, percolate through the ground, and contaminate groundwater, especially if the bottom of
these facilities are not fitted with an impermeable liner.

Sedimentation &Fouling of water resources -: In most of mining process, sediment load of

surface water increases, because of the large area of land get disturbed by mining operations
and the large quantities of earthen materials exposed at sites. Soil erosion and sedimentation
processes can cause the build-up of thick layers of mineral fines and sediment within regional
flood plains and the alteration of aquatic habitat and the loss of storage capacity within surface
waters. Higher sediment concentrations increase the turbidity of natural waters, reducing the
light available to aquatic plants for photosynthesis. Sometimes leaching of toxic constituents,
such as arsenic, selenium, and metals, can occur even if acidic conditions are not present.
Elevated levels of cyanide and nitrogen compounds (ammonia, nitrate, nitrite) can also be found
in waters at mine sites, from heap leaching and blasting.

2. Impact on soil resource-: Mining can contaminate soils over a large area. Agricultural
activities near a mining project may be particularly affected. Soil contamination generally fall
into two category-

a. Contamination of soil resulting from windblown dust-: Fugitive ( small suspended

particle) dust emissions are inherently part of the mining industry. The inherent toxicity
of the dust depends upon type of ore being mined and the proximity of environmental
 receptors. High levels of arsenic, lead, and radionucleides in windblown dust usually
pose the greatest risk.

Fugitive dust due to blasting for mining

B. Soils contaminated from chemical spills and residues-: Soils contaminated from
chemical spills and residues at mine sites may pose a direct contact risk.

3. Impact of Mining Waste-: Mining process is highly waste intensive, and the quantity of
mining waste produced much higher than all other types of waste combined. The amount
of waste produced depends on the type of mineral extracted, as well as the size of the
mine. Gold and silver are among the most wasteful metals, with more than 99 percent of
ore extracted ending up as waste. Disposing of such large quantities of waste poses
tremendous challenges for the mining industry and may significantly impact the
environment. The impacts are often more pronounced for open-pit mines which tend to
produce less waste. Mining waste is categorized into gangue (waste rock) and tailings,
arising in different parts of the production line.

Gangue-: Both surface and underground mining often require large quantities of rock to be
broken away to reach the ore. Gangue is usually placed in heaps near the mine.
 Fig-: Gangue containing Iron & Other rare earth metals

Tailings-: Leftover waste from processing the ore is called tailings, and is generally in the form
of a slurry. Tailings (a by-product of metallic ore processing) is a high-volume waste that can
contain harmful quantities of toxic substances, including arsenic, lead, cadmium, chromium,
nickel. Tailing is mainly consist of Crushed rock, Water, Trace quantities of metals such as
copper, mercury, cadmium, zinc, etc. & Additives used in processing, such as petroleum
byproducts, sulfuric acid and cyanide.

4. Deforestation-: The topsoil as well as the vegetation are removed from the mining area
to get access to the deposit. While there are many triggers of deforestation in India,
mining, both legal and illegal, is perhaps the most significant one. In India, a total
of about 5,000 km2 of forest land was legally cleared over the past 3 decades for
mining. The key direct impact of mining on forest ecosystems is the removal of
vegetation and canopy cover. Indirect impacts include road-building and pipeline
development, which may result in habitat fragmentation and increased access to remote
areas. While larger intact forest ecosystems may withstand the impacts of mining and oil
development, smaller fragments are likely to be particularly sensitive to clearing. Large
scale deforestation or Devegetation leads to several ecological losses, which can’t be
counted in terms of money.

5. Impact on Air resources-: Airborne emissions occur during each stage of the mine
cycle, but especially during exploration, development, construction, and operational
activities. Hundreds of tons of rock are unearthed, moved, and crushed in mining
operations significantly increasing the amount of dust and particulates in the air. In
addition, mine tailings, which may contain finely ground and even toxic waste, can
become airborne. This air pollution can directly affect human health.

6. Impact on biodiversity & Habitat-: The most obvious impact to biodiversity from
mining is the removal of vegetation, which in turn alters the availability of food and
shelter for wildlife. At a broader scale, mining may impact biodiversity by changing
species composition and structure.
 7. Subsidence of land& abandoned mines: land subsidence is mainly associated with
underground mining. Subsidence of mining areas often results in tilting of buildings,
cracks in houses, buckling of roads, bending of rail tracks and leaking of gas from
cracked pipelines leading to serious disasters.

One of the other environmental challenges is mining site which no longer in use. In Bihar there
are more than 5000 abandoned coal mines covering about 1800 hectare.

8. Noise Pollution-:Common mining and mineral processing activities that contribute to

noise pollution include overburden removal, drilling and blasting, excavating, crushing,
loading and unloading, vehicular traffic, and the use of generators. Chronic noise
exposure is especially disruptive for species that rely on sound for communication,
hunting & to detect predator.
9. Occupational Health Hazard-: Most of the miners suffer from various respiratory and
skin diseases due to constant exposure to the suspended particulate matter and toxic
substances. Miners working in different types of mines suffer from asbestosis, silicosis,
black lung disease etc. Accidental hazards from handling of various hazardous chemical
& firing in coal mines may also occur.
10. Human Displacement, effect on livelihood-: As mineral resources are located in
tribal lands. Mining impacts are more severe on forest-dependent tribal people. The
greatest impact of displacement due to mining is the displacement of tribals from a close
association and symbiosis with nature to culturally and ecologically degraded
communities. In India near about 2.5 million people have been displaced due to mining.

Statistical data show that, on an average, there are 30 non-fatal but disabling accidents per
ton of mineral produced and one death per 2.5 tons of mineral produced.
 Chapter- 15

Open – Cast Mining

Open-pit mining, also known as open-cast or open-cut mining and in larger contexts mega-
mining, is a surface mining technique of extracting rock or minerals from the earth from an
open-air pit. Open cast mining involves the removal of ore from seams relatively near the surface
by means of an open pit. These mines often occupy a large area of land for excavation of the ore
and disposal of the overburden (the waste rock lying over the ore). Open pit mining is used for
the extraction of both metallic and nonmetallic ores.

Figure indicating ore under the earth for open cast mining

Open-pit mines are used when deposits of commercially useful minerals or rocks are found near
the surface; that is, where the overburden (surface material covering the valuable deposit) is
relatively thin or the material of interest is structurally unsuitable for tunneling (as would be the
case for sand, cinder, and gravel). Open-pit mines are typically enlarged until either the mineral
resource is exhausted, or an increasing ratio of overburden to ore makes further mining
uneconomic. Materials typically extracted from open-pit mines include: coal, copper, granite,
gypsum, stone, marble, metal ore such as iron, gold, Silver etc.

This kind of mining operation typically involves the following Four stages:

1. Exploration – It is site investigations involving access roads and drilling.

 2. Operation: It involves
• Clearance of vegetation and soil stripping;
• Breakage of both overburden and ore prior to excavation;
• Excavation of the overburden and
• stockpiling of this material either outside or within the excavation area
• Dewatering or sump pumping of the excavation is carried out to maintain dry working
conditions
• Excavation of the ore;
3. Mine closure and decommissioning: It involves
• Demolishing buildings and infrastructure;
• Closing open pits;
• Reclamation and rehabilitation of the main void, slopes and disturbed areas;
• Ensuring water draining from site and waste deposits are not a risk to human health and
the environment
4. Post-closure care to ensure minimal (acceptable) risk to public health and the
environment.

Extraction or Excavation of ore-: Open-cast mines are dug on benches, which describe vertical
levels of the hole. These benches are usually on four to sixty meter intervals, depending on the
size of the machinery that is being used.

Most walls of the pit are generally dug on an angle less than vertical, to prevent and minimize
damage and danger from rock falls. This depends on how weathered the rocks are, and the type
of rock, and also how many structural weaknesses occur within the rocks, such as faults. The
walls are stepped. The inclined section of the wall is known as the batter, and the flat part of the
step is known as the bench or berm. The steps in the walls help prevent rock falls continuing
down the entire face of the wall.

Environmental Impact of open-cast Mining

Impact on Water-: Mines can use large quantities of water in processing plants and for dust
suppression. Mine and mineral processing operations may cause major degradation of water
resources either by drawdown of groundwater levels leading to the drying up of wells, diversion
or damming of surface watercourses, and contamination of waters by uncontrolled site
discharges. Stockpiles of coal and spoil (waste material after ore extraction) may contain heavy
metals and mineral oxidation products. Any run-off or leakage from these may result in acidic
water leachate.

Disposal of Mining Waste-: Large quantities of soil and overburden or waste rock may need to
be removed to expose the target mineral. Almost one million tons of ore and waste rock can
produce from the largest mines per day. This should be stored in preplanned designated areas as
“earth bunds.” Tailing (Tailings are the materials left over after the process of separating the
valuable fraction from the worthless fraction of an ore) environmental impact include-:
Groundwater and surface water contamination due to acidic run-off/leachate, Sedimentation of
drainage networks, Dust & Geotechnical failure. Hazardous wastes e.g. waste oils and chemicals
produced should be handled by specialized licensed providers of dedicated hazardous waste
management facilities.

Disposal of tailings in rivers, lakes, lagoons or shallow marine areas is not an acceptable
practice. Deep sea disposal may be acceptable subject to detailed feasibility, environmental
and social assessment.

Dust-: Mining operations create large amounts of dust that can be hazardous to health when
inhaled. Occupational asthma is common in the open- cast mining industry. Radioactive particles
may also be present in dust that can pose a risk to humans if ingested. Dust is generated in
mining and extraction by: Blasting, Excavation, Moving equipment, Traffic, Loading and
unloading operation, Stockpile stacking, Land reclamation operations, Beneficiation (crushing,
grinding, compaction and drying).

Effect on land use & landslides -: The process of open-pit has a devastation impact on the land
resources; such as overlying soil is dug and ground vegetation is destroyed. Uncontrolled ground
movements in the form of landslides are a major concern in cast of open- cast mining. It can
occur during regular mining activity or years after mining has ceased.

Effect on biodiversity-: As open cast mining operation involves large land area & its
deforestation. Deforestation result in loss of wild life habitat & noise generated during mining
activities also disturb wild animals & birds biological behaviors.
All other impact of mining like Human displacement & rehabilitations of people, accidental
hazard like- coal mine fire, impact on public health & livelihood are some major effect of open
cast mining. Open cast mining displaces more person as it requires large land and creates fewer
jobs than underground mining.
 Chapter – 16

Oil Exploration & Transportation

Oil plays a vast and vital role in our society as it is organized today. Besides being an important
energy source, petroleum products serve as feedstock for several consumer goods, thus playing a
growing and relevant role in people's lives. Oil and gas exploration and production operations
have the potential for a variety of impacts on the environment. These ‘impacts’ depend upon the
stage of the process, the size and complexity of the project, the nature and sensitivity of the
surrounding environment and the effectiveness of planning, pollution prevention, mitigation and
control techniques. The oil and gas exploration and production basically involve five main
processes: (1) prospecting surveying (2) exploration drilling (3) Appraisal (4) development and
production (5) decommissioning and rehabilitation.

Environmental impact of oil exploration & drilling-:Oil and gas exploration requires power
generation and supply, infrastructure development, besides many other activities together with
the consequent influx of people makes the exploration sites vulnerable to environmental
degradation.

Oil industry impact on air resources-: The potential for emissions from exploration activities
to cause atmospheric impacts is generally considered to be low. However, during production,
with more intensive activity, increased levels of emissions occur in the immediate vicinity of the
operations. The majority of air emissions are from production side due to controlled flaring and
venting which are necessary for safe operations. Sometimes accidental discharge from well
during blowout / fire emits large amount of gases such as sulphur dioxide (SO2), carbon
monoxide (CO), hydrogen sulphide (H2S), and the other oxides of nitrogen as well as particulate
containing partially burnt hydrocarbon and metals. All of these are potentially hazardous to
human health and vegetation growth. The most important components of emissions to air are
carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxide (Nox), methane (CH4) and Non-Methane Volatile Organic
Compounds (NVOCs). The primary sources of atmospheric emissions from oil and gas
operations arise from:

• flaring, venting and purging gases;

• Dust from mud preparation and cementing operations and from movement of heavy
equipment .
• Smoke from pump engines and generators
• Carbon monoxide , hydro carbon Nox and Sox, released by incomplete combustion
 Flaring of gas in offshore oil extraction

Effect of Emissions

• Volatile organic Compounds (VOCs) – The principle effect of VOCs is their local ambient
ozone – forming potential in combination with nitrogen oxides and sunlight. Ozone can affect
the respiratory system in humans and affect plant growth. Methane can be considered separately
from other VOCs as its main impact is its global warning potential, which is second only to that
of carbon dioxide.

• Sulphur oxides (Sox) – Sulpur oxides lead to acid rains. This may corrode buildings, increases
the acidity of poorly buffered soil, reduction of forest life and marine life.

• Nitrogen oxide (Nox) – Along with VOCs and sunlight, Nox can combine to increase ambient
ozone that causes photochemical smog, particularly where there is no air dispersion. Inhalation
of NO and NO2 can affect the respiratory system directly.

• Carbon oxides (CO2 / CO) – Carbon dioxide is the predominant green house gas which could
bring about global climate change. Carbon monoxide increase the lifetime of VOCs by
atmospheric chemistry and also produces ozone in its own, although slowly.

Impact on water Resources-: The principal aqueous waste streams resulting from exploration
and production operations are:

● produced water;

● drilling fluids, cuttings and well treatment chemicals;

● Process, wash and drainage water;

● sewerage, sanitary and domestic wastes;

● oil spills and leakage;

 ● cooling water.

Again, the volumes of waste produced depend on the stage of the exploration and production
process. During seismic operations, waste volumes are minimal and relate mainly to camp or
vessel activities. In exploratory drilling the main aqueous effluents are drilling fluids and
cuttings, whilst in production operations—after the development wells are completed—the
primary effluent is produced water. Oil content of drilling fluid, cuttings & processed water is
the main factor determining the toxicity of them.

• Ocean discharges of water-based mud and cuttings have been shown to affect benthic
organisms through smothering to a distance of 25 meters from the discharge and to affect
species diversity to 100 meters from the discharge.
• Drilling fluids and cuttings poses a potential impact to fresh-water sources as contain
high pH and salt content. The salts concentration also increases significantly if a well is
drilled through a salt zones or a formation having water with a high salt concentration
• Produced water is the largest volume aqueous waste arising from production operations.
Produced water discharge from petroleum extraction results in PAH (polyaeromatic
hydro carbon) and some typical constituents may include in varying amounts inorganic
salts, heavy metals, solids, production chemicals, hydrocarbons, benzene, PAHs, and on
occasions naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM). All these chemicals pose
threats to marine life. Due to the presence of harmful chemicals in Produced Water, it is
responsible for evoking toxic responses in the surrounding environment.

Impacts on Soil Ecosystem -: The extent of disturbance on soil will depend on the soil type and
the geology of the area. Since soils have a low resistance to degradation and are vulnerable to
changes in temperature, and chemicals introduced by the various human activities it can
dramatically reshape the land. The most significant potential effects of oil and gas development
activities on soil include:

• Compaction
• Contamination from various operational discharges, leakage, site drainage and
accidental releases.
• Changes in the drainage patterns
• Erosion resulting change in the landscape and pooling of water

Oil industry & Noise-: Noise pollution can result from various activities related to drilling
operations, exploration activities, vehicular movements and production operations. Noise affects
not only humans but also wildlife. Loud sounds used in seismic surveys during the exploration
can have a range of effects on living creatures, depending on how close to the source they are.
During seismic surveying underwater explosions of around 250 decibels (the human pain
threshold is at 140db) are created with air guns. This has a particularly disturbing effect on
cetaceans (aquatic mammals), who use sound for communication and navigation, and may even
be responsible for whale grounding. Fish are also displaced, which in turn affects the cetaceans
and birds, which feed on them. The blasts can damage tissues, including lungs, guts and ears in
mammals, and swim bladders in fish.

Within a few meters of the sound source, aquatic organism can be killed or injured. Thus the
impact of oil and gas exploration is of varying magnitude both on socio economic and
environmental parameters. However, the threshold, also varies from place to place

Impacts on Biodiversity

Flora -: Loss of flora is of great concern in any oil exploration. Loss of vegetation also affects
nutrient cycling, removes the organic litter, accelerates soil erosion, and reduces the availability
of habitat for wildlife. Vegetation can also be lost or altered due to construction activities for
access roads, drilling and production sites, support infrastructure, borrow sites. Prolonged
changes in vegetation cover can disturb the ecosystem stability considerably possibly beyond
redemption.

Fauna-: Animal populations are largely affected by the changes in vegetation, soil, water and
noise levels arising from these activities due to changes in – habitat, food supplies, migration
routes, breeding areas, vulnerability to predators or changes in herbivore grazing patterns etc.
Some of the major effects of exploration and production activities on wildlife include:
Displacement in the immediate vicinity, Habitat disturbances, Direct habitat loss and
modification, Blockage of access to habitats.

It is important to note that changes in the abundance and distribution of certain wildlife
species can have significant impacts on the livelihood of indigenous people as well.

Environmental Components in Drilling Process-: To combat drilling pollution both at onshore

and offshore is a serious problem. Discharge of untreated drilling effluents into seas, rivers or
land constitutes a serious health hazard, and is detrimental to agriculture and fishes. During water
can get contaminated. Destruction of environment will lead to the destruction of all life. The
most important concern relates to the degradation of land, water and air around drill sites.

Environmental Pollution due to oil transportation

As the earth’s abundance of oil gets increasingly scarce, it is crucial to explore the safety and
efficiency of the various ways oil is transported to great distances. Environmental impact of oil
transport depends upon physical (density, viscosity “thickness , and flash point i.e. lowest
temperature at which the oil will catch fire with an ignition) and chemical ,transport mode of
crude oil that is to be transported. During the oil transportation, the loss of piping integrity may
occur, which would lead to release of hazardous substances into environment. The main result of
such accident is the transported oil leakage, which creates toxic pollution of the environment
(water, air and soil). Transportation of oil by Tankers through sea contribute to oil pollution
significantly. After delivering the oil through sea-route, earlier empty tankers used to be filled
with water called ballast-water to maintain balance. The ballast-water containing residual oil
from tankers was released into the sea on completion of return journey. Now-a-days the oil
floating on the ballast water is removed in the newly designed ‘load-on-top-tankers’ before
ballast-water is let-off.

Oil spill-: An oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment,
especially the marine ecosystem, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution. The term is
usually given to marine oil spills, where thousands of tons of oil is released into the ocean
or coastal waters, but spills may also occur on land. Oil spill occur due to damaged oil tanker,
machinery malfunction mostly due to human error. Oil in the sea water affects sensitive flora and
fauna. Phytoplankton, zooplankton, algal species, various species of invertebrates, coral reefs,
fish, birds and mammals are affected by oil pollution. Fishes show mortality (death) because the
fish gills get laden with oil after the slimy mucus of gills is affected. Oil disrupts the insulating
capacity of feathers. Death occurs due to loss of buoyancy and subsequent drowning of birds.
Leakage from oil tanker near Alaska in 1989 caused damage to coral reefs and resulted in death
of about 390 thousand birds.

Impact of oil spill-:

Physical smothering of organisms-: This is caused by oils with a high viscosity, in other words
heavy oils. Smothering will affect an organism’s physical ability to continue critical functions
such as respiration, feeding and thermoregulation.

Chemical toxicity-: This is characteristic of lighter chemical components which are more bio-
available, i.e. absorbed into organs, tissues and cells, and can have sub-lethal or lethal toxic
effects.

Ecological changes-: This is caused by the loss of key organisms with a specific function in an
ecological community. It is more detrimental when the niche in the community being replaced
with organisms performing completely different functions thereby altering the ecosystem
dynamics.

Indirect effects-: Loss of shelter or habitat through oiling or clean-up operations.