Chapter 1

Foundations of Carbon
Sequestration
Himanshu Tyagi Pawan Kumar Goel
https://orcid.org/0009-0001-8435-9832 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3601-102X
Quantum University, India Raj Kumar Goel Institute
of Technology, India
Sandhya Samant
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9538-5964 Vipin Balyan
COER University, India https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5032-8966
Cape Peninsula Univeristy of
Shalini Verma Technology, South Africa
https://orcid.org/0009-0004-9197-7956
Sparsh Himalaya University, India Aditi Singh
https://orcid.org/0009-0004-5459-047X
Quantum University, India

ABSTRACT
The Sequestration of Carbon plays a key important character in combating
global warming by capturing and storing atmospheric CO 2. This process
includes both natural and artificial methods, such as biological, geological,
oceanic, and techno- logical approaches. Notable techniques include DAC and
BECCS. Various interna- tional initiatives, including the Kyoto Protocol (KP) and
the Paris Agreement (PA), have fostered research and the implementation of
carbon sequestration strategies. Additionally, carbon markets and trading
mechanisms are essential for regulating emissions. Despite facing challenges like
economic barriers, technological limita- tions, and environmental risks,
advancements in bioengineering, mineralization, and carbon capture
technologies present promising solutions. This study delves into the significance,
methodologies, challenges, and future prospects of carbon seques- tration as a key
strategy for achieving global sustainability and net-zero emissions.

DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3373-2091-5.ch001

Copyright © 2025, IGI Global Scientific Publishing. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global Scientific Publishing is prohibited.

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1. INTRODUCTION TO CARBON SEQUESTRATION

1.1. Definition and Importance

The Sequestration of Carbon is the important process of capturing and storing

atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) to help mitigate climate change. This strategy
plays a key important role in reducing greenhouse gas concentrations and
addressing the challenges posed by global warming. It is implemented in both
natural ecosys- tems and engineered solutions (Lal, 2008).
As industrialization, deforestation, and fossil fuel consumption have led to
rising CO2 levels in the atmosphere, carbon sequestration has come into view as
a criti- cal approach to battle against climate change. By elminiating CO2 from
the earth surface, this process not only stabilizes the Earth's climate but also
supports global sustainability efforts. The study of carbon sequestration dates back
to the early 20th century, and it gained importance in the late 20th and in the
starting 21st centuries as concerns about climate change intensified. Initiatives
such as the KP and the PA have further promoted research and implementation in
this field (Lal, 2008).
The cycle of the carbon element describes the movement of carbon among the
Earth's atmosphere, biosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere. Key processes
within this cycle include photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, and
combustion. Nat- ural sequestration occurs in forests, oceans, and soils through
biological processes like plant growth and microbial activity. In contrast, artificial
sequestration involves human-engineered methods, such as direct air capture and
geological storage (Lal, 2008).

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Figure 1. Diagram showing the movement of carbon through Earth's system

The atmosphere is the primary source of excess CO2 resulting from human
ac- tivities, while the biosphere acts as a carbon reservoir through photosynthesis
and the decomposition of organic matter. The lithosphere contains long-term
carbon reservoirs, including fossil fuels and sedimentary rock formations.
Meanwhile, the hydrosphere serves as a significant carbon sink, absorbing CO2
and storing it within marine ecosystems (Lal, 2008).
In recent years, the importance of carbon sequestration has escalated due to
in- creasing carbon emissions and their impact on global temperatures. Climate
models indicate that without large-scale sequestration efforts, global temperatures
could rise beyond safe thresholds, leading to severe consequences such as
extreme weather events, rising sea levels, and biodiversity loss. Effective
sequestration strategies can complement emissions reduction policies, helping to
achieve net-zero carbon goals. Moreover, advancements in sequestration
technologies have opened new avenues for carbon utilization, where captured
carbon is transformed into valuable products like fuels, construction materials,
and synthetic chemicals. This integration of se- questration with circular
economy principles enhances its viability as a long-term solution to climate
challenges (Gibbins & Chalmers, 2008).

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1.2. Historical Context and Evolution

Carbon markets and trading mechanisms play a key important role in

regulating emissions of carbon through cap-and-trade systems (CTS), which
facilitate the trad- ing of carbon credits. Carbon offset projects offer financial
incentives for various sequestration activities. Furthermore, international climate
agreements establish emission reduction targets and promote effective carbon
sequestration strategies (Gibbins & Chalmers, 2008).
A CTS represents a approach focusing on market, which aimed at eliminating
emissions of greenhouse gas and by establishing a maximum limit (or cap) on
emis- sions for specific companies or industries. Entities that manage to emit
below their designated limit can auction their excess carbon allowances to those
that need them, creating a financial incentive for emission reductions (Gibbins &
Chalmers, 2008).
How It Works:

a) Setting the Cap: A governing body, such as the European Union or

California's Air Resources Board, determines an overall emission limit for
particular sectors or regions (Tavoni & Socolow, 2013).
b) Allocating Permits: Emission allowances, often referred to as carbon credits,
are either distributed for free or auctioned to companies which are based on
historical data or commitments to reduce emissions (Gibbins & Chalmers,
2008).
c) Trading Mechanism: Companies that emit less than their permitted limit can
auction surplus resources to those surpassing their emissions limit, fostering
financial incentives for efficiency improvements and the adaptation of
cleaner and the green (Tavoni & Socolow, 2013).
d) Compliance and Penalties: Industries are required to submit sufficient allow-
ances to cover their emissions; failure to do so results in fines and penalties.
Over time, authorities gradually reduce the cap to decrease overall emissions
(Gibbins & Chalmers, 2008)..

Examples of Cap-and-Trade Systems:

a) European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS): The biggest carbon
element market globally, encompassing power plants, industry, and aviation
sectors across EU member states.
b) California Cap-and-Trade Program: A state-run initiative regulating
emissions from industries, utilities, and fuel distributors.

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 Carbon offsets allow entities to compensate for their emissions by investing in
projects that either remove CO2 from the atmosphere or prevent its release. This
mechanism aids businesses, governments, and individuals in achieving carbon
neutrality (Gibbins & Chalmers, 2008).
Types of Carbon Offset Projects:

a) Forestation and Reforestation: Planting trees to absorb CO2 and restore

degraded land (Smith, 2016).
b) Soil Carbon Sequestration: Enhancing soil management practices in
agriculture to increase carbon storage (Smith, 2016).
c) Renewable Energy Projects: Supporting wind, solar, and hydroelectric
initiatives to replace fossil fuel-based energy sources (Smith, 2016).
d) Methane Capture: Capturing methane from landfills and agricultural waste to
prevent its release into the atmosphere (Smith, 2016).
e) Blue Carbon Initiatives: Protecting coastal ecosystems, such as mangroves
and seagrasses, which are effective at sequestering carbon (Smith, 2016).

Example of Carbon Offset Programs:

a) The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM): CDM was established under

the Kyoto Protocol, and it allowed the developed countries to fund carbon
reduction projects in developing nations in exchange for carbon credits.
b) Gold Standard and Verified Carbon Standard (VCS): Independent
verification systems that gave certification to the high-quality carbon offset
projects.

The Paris Agreement (2015)

The Paris Agreement is an important agreement which legally binds
international treaty aimed at limiting global warming to below 2°C, with a
preference for 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels. It mandates Nationally Determined
Contributions (NDCs), requiring countries to establish their own emission
reduction targets.

a) Encourages Carbon Pricing Mechanisms: Countries are motivated to

implement carbon taxes, cap-and-trade systems, and carbon credits to achieve
their climate objectives.
b) Promotes International Carbon Trading: Article 6 of the agreement outlines
mechanisms for international cooperation in carbon markets.
c) Supports Carbon Sequestration Initiatives: The agreement encourages affor-
estation, soil carbon enhancement, and technological advancements in carbon
capture.

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Kyoto Protocol (1997)
This was the first international agreement to impose legally binding emission
reduction targets for developed countries. It introduced cap-and-trade mechanisms and
carbon offset programs to facilitate compliance with these targets (Lehmann,
2007).

1.3. Types of Carbon Sequestration

It is the process of capturing and storing atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2) to

combat climate change. The primary objective is to lower greenhouse gas
concen- trations in the atmosphere, thereby mitigating the risks of excessive global
warming (Lehmann, 2007). This process can occur naturally or be facilitated
through advanced technological methods. The five principal types of carbon
sequestration are:

a) Biological Sequestration – The natural storage of CO2 in forests, soils, and

marine ecosystems.
b) Geological Sequestration – The underground storage of CO2 in rock
formations and depleted reservoirs.
c) Technological Sequestration – Innovative methods such as direct air
capture (DAC) and mineralization.
d) Ocean-Based Sequestration – Enhancing the ocean’s capacity to absorb CO2.
e) Industrial Sequestration – The integration of CCS within industrial processes.

Figure 2. Types of Carbon Sequestration

Each of these methods presents unique advantages, limitations, and practical

applications. The following sections will delve into each type in greater detail.
Table 1 gives the comparison of carbon sequestration methods.

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Table 1. Comparison of Carbon Sequestration Methods
Sequestration Process Storage Efficiency Challenges
Method Duration
Biological CO2 Decades to Moderate Deforestation,
absorption by centuries land-use change
forests, soils, and
oceans
Geological CO2 injection Thousands High Leakage risk,
into underground of years high costs
formations
Ocean-Based CO2 Centuries Moderate Ocean
absorption by acidification,
seawater and ecosystem impact
marine life
Technological Capturing Thousands High High energy
(CCS, DAC) CO2 from air or of years demand, scalability
industry issues

2. Biological Carbon Sequestration

Biological carbon sequestration, often referred to as the biological pump, in-

volves marine organisms capturing and storing carbon through photosynthesis
and other biological processes. Phytoplankton absorb CO2 from seawater,
forming the foundation of the marine food chain. Zooplankton and fish consume
phytoplankton, transferring carbon through the ecosystem, while the remains of
dead organisms sink to the ocean floor, trapping carbon in deep-sea sediments.
Seagrass meadows and coral reefs also contribute significantly to carbon
sequestration, with seagrasses storing carbon in sediments for thousands of years
and coral reefs absorbing carbon through the formation of calcium carbonate
skeletons (Lackner, 2003).

2.1. Terrestrial Carbon Sequestration

In terrestrial environments, carbon is stored in forests, soils, and wetlands.

This sequestration happens through various biological processes, including
photosyn- thesis, organic matter accumulation, and microbial activity. Forests, in
particular, serve as significant carbon sinks, storing carbon in tree biomass—such
as trunks, branches, leaves, and roots—as well as in the soil (Lackner, 2003).
Through photosynthesis, trees absorb CO 2 from the atmosphere and convert it
into biomass. When leaves fall or branches decompose, they release carbon back
into the soil, where it can be stored for extended periods [4].Old-growth forests
act
as stable carbon reservoirs, while younger forests tend to sequester carbon at higher
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rates during their growth phases. For instance, the Amazon Rainforest is known
for its vast carbon storage capacity, but deforestation can release this stored carbon
back into the atmosphere. Similarly, temperate and boreal forests across North
America, Europe, and Russia play a vital role in long-term carbon sequestration.
However, threats such as deforestation, wildfires, and climate change can disrupt
these eco- systems and diminish their ability to absorb CO2 (Lackner, 2003).

2.2. Oceanic Carbon Sequestration

Oceans serve as the largest carbon sink, absorbing approximately 30% of human-
made CO2 emissions through both physical and biological processes. In physical
carbon sequestration, also known as the solubility pump, CO2 is absorbed from
the atmosphere into surface waters. Cold waters are particularly effective at
absorbing CO2, which reacts with seawater to form carbonic acid, bicarbonate,
and carbonate, thereby stabilizing carbon in the ocean. Deep ocean circulation
then transports this absorbed CO2 to deeper waters, where it can remain
sequestered for centuries. The North Atlantic Ocean, for example, plays a
significant role in CO2 absorption, although rising temperatures are diminishing
its capacity to store carbon. Ocean acidification, a consequence of excess CO 2
absorption, lowers seawater pH and adversely affects marine life (Bui et al.,
2018).
Additionally, ecosystems such as seagrass meadows and coral reefs play a
sig- nificant role in carbon sequestration. Seagrasses can store carbon in
sediments for thousands of years, while coral reefs absorb carbon by forming
calcium carbonate skeletons (Bui et al., 2018). However, these processes face
serious threats from coral bleaching, habitat destruction, and overfishing, all of
which diminish the efficiency of carbon storage.Over millions of years, the carbon
stored in marine sediments locks organic matter into the ocean floor, leading to the
formation of carbonate rocks like limestone and fossil fuels. Whale falls, where
deceased whales sink to the seafloor, also contribute to deep-sea carbon storage.
These long-term sequestration processes are crucial for regulating atmospheric
CO2 levels, although human activities such as ocean mining and habitat
destruction can disrupt them(Bui et al., 2018).
The systems of terrestrial and oceanic carbon sequestration are intricately
linked, creating a dynamic exchange of carbon among land, water, and the
atmosphere. Forests, soils, and wetlands act as primary terrestrial carbon sinks,
capturing atmo- spheric CO2 through photosynthesis and storing it in biomass and
soil. A portion of this stored carbon is eventually transported via rivers and
streams into the ocean, where it becomes integrated into marine carbon cycles.
This transfer is facilitated by the erosion of organic material from forests,
peatlands, and agricultural lands, which carries dissolved and particulate organic
carbon to coastal and deep-sea environments. Coastal ecosystems, including
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mangroves, salt marshes, and seagrasses, are essential

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in this transition, serving as carbon bridges between land and sea (Bui et al.,
2018). These ecosystems not only capture carbon from terrestrial sources but also
absorb atmospheric CO2 directly, sequestering it in biomass and sediment over
extended periods. Mangroves and seagrasses, in particular, trap organic matter
within their root structures, preventing carbon from being released back into the
atmosphere or ocean. This process is critical for mitigating climate change, as it
effectively locks away carbon that would otherwise contribute to global
warming. However, human activities significantly disrupt these natural carbon
fluxes. Deforestation, land- use changes, and industrial pollution alter both the
quantity and quality of carbon transported to marine systems (Bui et al., 2018).
These changes often introduce excess nutrients and pollutants, contributing to
ocean acidification and disrupting marine ecosystems. Agricultural runoff and
deforestation can increase soil erosion, which, rather than aiding sequestration,
may lead to excessive carbon release into the atmosphere due to soil degradation.
(Bui et al., 2018).

2.3. Soil Carbon Sequestration

Soils shows the largest carbon reservoir on land, holding more carbon than the
atmosphere and plant biomass combined. Carbon sequestration in soils occurs
through the accumulation of organic matter, microbial activity, humification (the
formation of humus), and soil aggregation (Azar et al., 2005). Grasslands, with
their deep root systems, act as resilient carbon sinks, while agricultural soils can
enhance carbon storage through regenerative practices. Techniques such as no-till
farming, cover cropping, and biochar application can improve soil carbon
retention, preventing carbon loss and enhancing soil fertility. Soil carbon
sequestration is a natural mechanism through which carbon dioxide (CO 2) from
the atmosphere is captured and stored in the soil as organic carbon (Azar et al.,
2005). This process is essential for mitigating climate change, enhancing soil
fertility, and bolstering ecosystem resilience. By increasing the carbon stored in
soils, we can effectively lower atmospheric CO2 levels while simultaneously
boosting agricultural produc- tivity (Azar et al., 2005).

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Figure 3. Visual representation of soil carbon sequestration

Carbon in the soil exists primarily in two forms:

a) Soil Organic Carbon (SOC): This is derived from plant residues, decomposed
biomass, and microbial activity.
b) Soil Inorganic Carbon (SIC): This form is produced through mineralization
processes, including the carbonates found in arid soils.

The process of soil carbon sequestration begins with plant photosynthesis,

where plants absorb atmospheric CO2 and convert it into biomass. As plants
grow, they shed leaves or eventually die, leading to the decomposition of their
residues. Mi- croorganisms play a crucial role in breaking down this organic
material, gradually integrating carbon into the soil structure (Azar et al., 2005).
Healthy soils rich in organic content can store significant amounts of carbon,
thereby reducing its presence in the atmosphere and helping to mitigate climate
change. Various land management strategies can enhance soil carbon
sequestration, including:

2.3.1. Regenerative Farming Practices

Regenerative agriculture represents a holistic approach that enhances soil

health, biodiversity, and carbon sequestration while simultaneously improving
farm pro- ductivity. This method emphasizes the restoration of natural ecological
functions and the minimization of environmental impact (Azar et al., 2005).

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2.3.1.1. Agroforestry
Agroforestry involves the integration of trees and shrubs into agricultural
land- scapes, which enhances both carbon sequestration and soil health. Trees
absorb CO2 from the atmosphere and store it in their biomass, while deep-rooted
systems contribute to improved soil carbon content (Luderer et al., 2013).
Types of Agroforestry Systems:

a) Silvopasture: This system combines trees with livestock grazing, enhancing

carbon storage and soil fertility.
b) Alley Cropping: In this method, rows of trees are planted between crops to
provide shade, improve moisture retention, and reduce soil erosion.
c) Windbreaks and Shelterbelts: Planting tree lines helps reduce wind erosion,
enhance microclimates, and capture airborne carbon.
d) Riparian Buffers: Trees and vegetation are planted along waterways to
prevent soil erosion and sequester carbon in riparian zones.

Benefits of Agroforestry for Carbon Sequestration:

a) Trees and perennials absorb and store significant amounts of carbon in their
roots and biomass.
b) It alleviates deforestation pressure by providing alternative sources of timber
and fuelwood.
c) Agroforestry improves microbial soil activity, enhancing organic matter
decom- position and carbon storage.
d) It prevents soil erosion, thereby maintaining long-term soil productivity and
fertility

2.3.1.2. Rotational Grazing

Rotational grazing is a livestock management strategy where animals are
moved between pastures in a planned sequence. This approach mimics natural
grazing patterns and enhances soil carbon storage (Luderer et al., 2013).
Key Techniques in Rotational Grazing:

a) Short Grazing Periods: This technique prevents overgrazing and allows

grasses to regrow efficiently.
b) High Stocking Density: Concentrating livestock in a small area for brief
dura- tions encourages even manure distribution, enriching soil nutrients.
c) Resting Pastures: Allowing grasslands to recover promotes the buildup of
organic carbon.

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Benefits for Carbon Sequestration:

a) Increases root biomass, leading to greater carbon storage underground.

b) Stimulates soil microbial activity, improving nutrient cycling and organic
matter decomposition.
c) Enhances forage quality, which can reduce methane emissions from livestock
digestion.
d) Prevents soil degradation and desertification, both of which are significant
contributors to carbon loss

2.3.1.3. Conservation Tillage

It minimizes soil disturbance, and preserves the soil structure and organic
carbon levels. Traditional tilling practices expose soil carbon to the atmosphere,
accelerating its loss (Luderer et al., 2013).
Types of Conservation Tillage:

a) Reduced Tillage: This method involves minimal soil disturbance while

leaving crop residues on the surface.
b) Strip Tillage: Only narrow strips where crops are planted are disturbed,
keeping the rest of the soil intact.
c) Mulch Tillage: Organic mulch is used to protect the soil, reduce evaporation,
and maintain moisture.

Benefits for Carbon Sequestration:

a) Reduces soil erosion and carbon oxidation, preventing carbon loss to the
atmosphere.
b) Enhances water retention, supporting microbial life that contributes to soil
organic matter formation.
c) Increases soil biodiversity, leading to healthier ecosystems and improved
resil- ience to climate change (Luderer et al., 2013).

2.3.2. No-Till Farming (NTF) and Cover Cropping

NTF is a key innovative agricultural practice that eliminates traditional plow-

ing, allowing crops to be planted directly into undisturbed soil. This minimizes
disturbances in soil, thereby preserving organic matter and preventing carbon
loss (Luderer et al., 2013).
Benefits for Carbon Sequestration:
No-till farming offers several key benefits:

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a) Retention of Soil Organic Matter: This practice helps keep carbon stored in
the ground.
b) Reduced Fuel Consumption: By minimizing the use of heavy machinery, it
lowers emissions associated with fuel use.
c) Prevention of Soil Erosion: It maintains soil health and productivity.
d) Enhanced Microbial Diversity: This contributes to the natural breakdown of
organic material.

Cover crops are cultivated between planting seasons to maintain soil cover,
im- prove organic matter, and prevent carbon loss. Common examples of cover
crops include clover, rye, vetch, and legumes (Luderer et al., 2013).
Benefits for Carbon Sequestration:
Cover cropping provides several advantages:

a) Erosion Prevention: It helps keep carbon stored in the soil.

b) Increased Soil Organic Matter: This boosts long-term carbon storage.
c) Nitrogen Fixation: Cover crops can fix atmospheric nitrogen, reducing
depen- dence on fertilizers and associated emissions.
d) Improved Soil Microbial Health: This accelerates the breakdown of organic
matter into stable carbon (Luderer et al., 2013).

Examples of Cover Cropping in Practice

a) Legume Cover Crops: Varieties such as clover and alfalfa are effective at
fixing nitrogen and enhancing carbon content.
b) Grass Cover Crops: Crops like rye and barley develop deep root systems that
store carbon underground.
c) Mixed Species Cover Cropping: This approach enhances biodiversity and
max- imizes the potential for carbon sequestration.

By implementing these practices, we can significantly contribute to carbon se-

questration efforts, promoting a healthier environment and sustainable
agricultural systems.

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2.3.3. Biochar Application for Carbon Sequestration

It is a charcoal-like material created through pyrolysis, a process that involves

heating organic matter in an environment with limited oxygen. This results in a
highly stable form of carbon that can persist in the soil for hundreds to thousands
of years (Mac Dowell et al., 2017).
How Biochar Works
Biochar begins with the thermal decomposition of organic waste, such as resi-
dues of crop, wood chips, and manure, under low-oxygen conditions. The
outcome is a carbon-rich solid that can be integrated into the soil, significantly
enhancing carbon sequestration.
Biochar offers several advantages for soil health, including:

a) Improved Soil Aeration: Enhances the movement of air within the soil.
b) Increased Water Retention: Helps retain moisture, benefiting plant growth.
c) Enhanced Nutrient Availability: Makes essential nutrients more accessible to
plants.

Biochar plays a crucial role in carbon sequestration by:

a) Permanently Locking Carbon: It stabilizes carbon in a form that prevents its

release as carbon dioxide (CO2).
b) Improving Soil Fertility: This reduces the reliance on chemical fertilizers, which
are known to contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. (Mac Dowell et al., 2017).
c) Increasing Microbial Activity: It fosters the natural breakdown of organic
matter, converting it into stored carbon (Mac Dowell et al., 2017).
d) Reducing Emissions: Biochar helps lower methane (CH 4) and nitrous oxide
(N2O) emissions, both of which are potent greenhouse gases (Mac Dowell et
al., 2017).

Examples of Biochar Use:

a) Brazil’s Terra Preta Soils: Indigenous communities in the Amazon have

histor- ically utilized biochar-rich soils to enhance agricultural fertility.
b) Modern Agricultural Applications: Biochar is increasingly used in degraded
lands, organic farming, and commercial crop production.

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Figure 4. Demonstration of different land management strategies

Soil carbon sequestration not only aids in climate change mitigation but also
improves soil health, enhancing water retention, nutrient cycling, and overall
crop productivity. However, challenges such as land degradation, deforestation,
and im- proper agricultural practices can lead to soil carbon loss (Mac Dowell et
al., 2017). To maximize the potential for soil carbon sequestration, sustainable
land-use policies, incentives for carbon farming, and the widespread adoption of
soil conser- vation practices are essential. Long-term monitoring of soil carbon
levels through advanced techniques such as remote sensing and soil spectroscopy
can help track
progress and optimize sequestration strategies (Mac Dowell et al., 2017).
By prioritizing soil carbon sequestration as a viable climate solution, we can
enhance food security, improve biodiversity, and significantly reduce greenhouse
gas emissions.

3. GEOLOGICAL CARBON SEQUESTRATION

Geological carbon sequestration is an essential strategy for combating climate

change by capturing and securely storing carbon dioxide (CO2) underground.
This process involves giving CO2 into deep geological developments, where it can
remain trapped for extended periods, effectively preventing its release into the
atmosphere. By utilizing natural underground reservoirs such as depleted oil and
gas fields, deep saline aquifers, and unmineable coal seams, geological
sequestration presents a long-term solution for reducing greenhouse gas emissions
(McGlashan et al., 2011). As industrialization and energy consumption continue
to rise globally, CO2 emis- sions have surged, significantly contributing to global
warming and climate change. Geological carbon sequestration (GCS) serves as an
effective countermeasure by isolating carbon from the active carbon cycle. This
method is particularly advanta- geous for high-emission industries, such as power
generation, cement production,
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and chemical manufacturing, where completely eliminating CO2 emissions poses
a significant challenge (McGlashan et al., 2011).
The process of geological sequestration encompasses several stages, including
the capture of CO2 from emission sources, its compression, transportation to
suitable storage sites, and the injection into deep geological formations. Various
geological conditions ensure the long-term stability of stored CO2, including
physical trapping mechanisms, mineralization processes, and caprock barriers
that prevent leakage. (McGlashan et al., 2011).

Figure 5. Cross-sectional diagram of geological carbon sequestration

3.1. Underground Carbon Storage

Underground carbon storage forms the backbone of geological sequestration,

utilizing natural underground formations to securely store CO2. These
formations, which have contained oil, gas, and saline water for millions of years,
provide sta- ble environments for carbon storage. The primary geological
formations used for sequestration include:

3.1.1. Deep Saline Aquifers

Deep saline aquifers are extensive underground rock formations filled with
highly saline water, rendering them unsuitable for drinking or agricultural use.
These formations possess immense storage potential, as they are widespread and
can accommodate large volumes of CO2. When CO2 is injected, it dissolves in the

17
brine, increasing its density and minimizing the risk of leakage. Over time, CO 2
reacts with minerals in the rock, forming stable carbonate compounds through a
process known as mineral trapping (McGlashan et al., 2011).

3.1.2. Depleted Oil and Gas Reservoirs

These are prime candidates for carbon storage due to their proven ability to
retain gases for millions of years. These reservoirs exhibit well-defined
geological properties, facilitating predictions regarding CO2 behavior post-
injection. Further- more, enhanced oil recovery (EOR) techniques enable injected
CO2 to improve oil extraction efficiency while simultaneously storing CO 2
underground. This dual approach offers both economic and environmental
benefits, encouraging industries to invest in sequestration projects (McGlashan et
al., 2011).

3.1.3. Unmineable Coal Seams

Unmineable coal seams, which cannot be economically mined, present

another viable storage option. These seams can adsorb CO2 onto their surfaces,
effectively trapping the gas in a solid state. Injected CO2 often displaces methane
(CH4), allowing for methane recovery while securely storing CO2. This method,
known as enhanced coalbed methane recovery (ECBM), provides an additional
economic incentive for sequestration projects (McGlashan et al., 2011).

3.1.4. Basalt Rock Formations

Basalt are unique geological structures that facilitate rapid CO2

mineralization. When CO2 is injected into basalt, it reacts with magnesium and
calcium-rich minerals to form solid carbonates within a few years. This permanent
sequestration method ensures that CO2 is locked away in a stable, non-reversible
form, making it one of the most fruitful storage solutions (McGlashan et al.,
2011).
Ensuring safe underground carbon storage necessitates thorough geological
assessments, monitoring, and risk mitigation strategies. Site selection is critical,
as ideal storage sites must feature impermeable caprocks to prevent CO2
migration and leakage. Advanced monitoring technologies, such as seismic
imaging, satellite tracking, and chemical sensors, play a vital role in tracking CO 2
movement and ensuring the integrity of long-term storage (McGlashan et al.,
2011).

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3.2. Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) Technologies

CCS encompasses a range of technologies designed to mitigate greenhouse

gas emissions by capturing CO2 from industrial processes, transporting it, and
securely storing it underground. This method is particularly beneficial for
industries that depend on fossil fuels, such as power generation, cement
production, and chemical manufacturing, where completely eliminating CO2
emissions is currently impractical. CCS is vital for decarbonizing the energy sector
and meeting climate objectives by preventing significant amounts of CO 2 from
entering the atmosphere (Nair et al., 2022).
The CCS involves three key stages: CO2 capture, transportation, and storage.
The first step, CO2 capture, entails separating emissions from industrial sources
before they are released into the atmosphere. There are three primary capture
techniques: post-combustion, pre-combustion, and oxyfuel combustion (Nair et
al., 2022).

a) Post-combustion capture removes CO2 from flue gases after fossil fuels have
been burned, often utilizing chemical solvents like amines. This method is
commonly employed in retrofitting existing power plants and industrial
facilities.
b) Pre-combustion capture involves converting fossil fuels into a mixture of
hydro- gen and CO2 prior to combustion, allowing for the separation of CO2
beforehand and using hydrogen as a cleaner fuel alternative.
c) Oxyfuel combustion capture burns fuels in pure oxygen instead of air,
resulting in a concentrated CO2 stream that is easier to capture.

Once kept, CO2 must be transported to its designated storage site. The most
efficient method for transportation is through pipelines, which can convey large
volumes of compressed CO2 over considerable distances. In areas where pipelines
are impractical, CO2 can also be transported via ships, trucks, or trains. Upon
reaching the storage site, CO2 is injected into deep geological formations at
depths of at least 800 meters. This depth ensures that the CO2 remains in a
supercritical state, making it denser and less likely to escape. Table 2 gives the
efficiency and cost comparison of CCS Technologies (Nair et al., 2022).

19
Table 2. Efficiency and Cost Comparison of CCS Technologies
Technology CO2 Capture Cost ($/ton CO2 Challenges
Efficiency captured)
Post- 85–95% 50–100 High energy demand
Combustion
Pre-combustion 85–95% 40–80 Requires new
infrastructure
Oxyfuel 95–99% 60–120 High oxygen
combustion separation cost

CCS technologies have gained global traction as a reliable solution for large-
scale carbon emission reduction. However, their widespread implementation
faces several challenges, including high costs, energy consumption during
capture pro- cesses, and the necessity for extensive monitoring to prevent leakage.
Despite these hurdles, ongoing advancements in CCS technology, supportive
policy incentives, and international collaboration can facilitate the accelerated
adoption of carbon sequestration, positioning it as a crucial element in climate
change mitigation strategies (Nair et al., 2022).

3.3. Case Study: Norway’s Sleipner Project

Norway’s Sleipner Project stands as a pioneering example of commercial

carbon sequestration, showcasing the feasibility of Carbon Capture and Storage
(CCS) on an industrial scale. Situated in the North Sea, the project was initiated
by Equinor (formerly Statoil) in 1996 in response to Norway’s carbon tax policy,
which encour- aged industries to reduce CO2 emissions. The Sleipner gas field
produces natural gas with a high CO2 content, which would typically be vented
into the atmosphere. To comply with regulations and minimize environmental
impact, Equinor developed an innovative CCS system to capture and store CO2
underground (Nair et al., 2022). At Sleipner, CO2 is separated from natural gas
using post-combustion amine- based capture technology. Once captured, the CO2
is compressed and injected into the Utsira Formation, a deep saline aquifer
located approximately 1,000 meters beneath the seabed. The Utsira Formation
was chosen for its vast storage capacity, favorable geological characteristics, and
thick impermeable caprock that prevents CO2 leakage. Over time, the injected
CO2 becomes securely trapped within the rock pores, gradually dissolving in
saline water and undergoing mineralization to form stable carbonate compounds
(Birdsey et al., 1996). Since the project’s inception, Sleipner has successfully
stored over one million tons of CO2 annually, totaling more than 20 million tons
over the years. Comprehensive monitoring systems, including seismic imaging
and pressure sensors, track CO2 movement and ensure the integ- rity of storage
conditions. The data collected from Sleipner has provided valuable

20
insights into the long-term behavior of CO2 in geological formations,
contributing to the advancement of global CCS technologies (Birdsey et al.,
1996).
The Sleipner project was a major success, and it has made a big positive
impact on international climate policies as well as being the inspiration for other
CCS ini- tiatives such as the Snøhvit Project in Norway and the Gorgon Project
in Australia. While cost and public perception challenges still exist, Sleipner-like
projects are a good example of the integration of the CCS into future climate
solutions, and thus they are a win-win for climate and reducing carbon emissions
through sustainable means (Birdsey et al., 1996).

4. TECHNOLOGICAL APPROACHES
TO CARBON SEQUESTRATION

The increasing levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2) are significantly

accelerating global climate change. This urgent situation has led to the
exploration and development of various technological strategies aimed at carbon
sequestration. Carbon sequestration is the process of capturing and storing CO2 to
prevent its ac- cumulation in the atmosphere. Recent advancements in this field
present innovative methods to decrease greenhouse gas emissions. From the most
promising techniques are DAC, Carbon Mineralization, and BECCS . These
methods focus on extracting CO2 from the air or industrial emissions and safely
storing it underground, within minerals, or repurposing it for industrial
applications (Birdsey et al., 1996).

4.1. Direct Air Capture (DAC)

DAC shows a key innovative technology designed to liminatee CO 2 directly

from the atmosphere, regardless of its source. Unlike old carbon capture methods
that target narrow-source emissions—such as those from energy plants or
industrial facilities—DAC extracts CO2 from ambient air. This flexibility makes
it a valuable solution for addressing legacy emissions and sectors that are
challenging to decar- bonizes (Raupach et al., 2016).
DAC systems function by drawing in ambient air using large fans. The
captured air then passes through a chemical sorbent or filter material that
selectively binds with CO2 molecules. Once absorbed, the CO2 is separated from
the sorbent and concentrated for storage or utilization. There are two primary
approaches utilized in DAC technology (Raupach et al., 2016).
Liquid-Based Systems: These systems employ chemical solvents (such as hy-
droxide solutions) to capture CO2, which is subsequently released through
heating.
21
 Solid-Based Systems: These systems utilize solid sorbents that capture CO2 and
release it upon heating or changes in pressure.
Advantages of DAC:
Scalability: DAC plants can be established in various locations, independent of
emission sources.
Negative Emissions: When combined with permanent storage, DAC has the
potential to achieve net-negative emissions.
Versatile CO2 Utilization: Captured CO2 can be repurposed for synthetic fuels,
carbonated beverages, or concrete production (Raupach et al., 2016).
Challenges of DAC:
High Energy Demand: The process requires substantial energy, primarily for
heating and regenerating the sorbent.
Cost Constraints: Currently, DAC is expensive, with costs ranging from $250 to
$600 per ton of CO2 removed.
Infrastructure Needs: Large-scale deployment necessitates extensive infrastruc-
ture, including storage sites and energy sources (Raupach et al., 2016).

Figure 6. Illustration of a Direct Air Capture (DAC) system

22
4.2. Carbon Mineralization

Carbon mineralization, also referred to as mineral carbonation, is a natural or

artificial process in which CO 2 reacts with minerals to form stable compounds of
carbonate. This method provides a permanent solution for CO 2 storage, ensuring
that the captured carbon does not re-enter the atmosphere (Rogelj et al., 2016).
Mineralization occurs when CO2 reacts with silicate or mafic rocks, such as
olivine, peridotite, or basalt, resulting in the formation of carbonates like calcium
carbonate (CaCO3) or magnesium carbonate (MgCO3). The process can be accel-
erated through industrial methods, including:

a) In-Situ Mineralization: CO2 is given into underground rock developments,

where it reacts with minerals over time.
b) Ex-Situ Mineralization: CO2 is captured and reacted with crushed minerals in
industrial reactors to expedite carbonate formation.

Advantages of Carbon Mineralization

a) Permanent Storage: The reaction produces stable carbonates that do not

degrade over time (Rogelj et al., 2016).
b) Utilization in Construction: Carbonated minerals can be incorporated into
cement and building materials (Rogelj et al., 2016).
c) Abundant Feedstock: Silicate rocks are widely available and can store
significant amounts of CO2 (Rogelj et al., 2016).

Challenges of Carbon Mineralization

a) Slow Reaction Kinetics: Naturally occurring mineralization can take

thousands of years, necessitating acceleration through industrial processes
(Rogelj et al., 2016).
b) Energy and Water Requirements: Industrial mineralization methods demand
high temperatures, pressure, and considerable water usage (Rogelj et al.,
2016).
c) Economic Viability: The costs associated with mining, crushing, and
processing minerals for carbonation present a limiting factor (Rogelj et al.,
2016).

4.3. Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS)

BECCS stands out as a vital negative-emission technology that combines

biomass energy production with carbon capture and storage (CCS). Biomass,
which encom- passes crops, trees, agricultural waste, and algae, plays a crucial
23
role in absorbing

24
CO2 from the atmosphere through the process of photosynthesis. When this
biomass is utilized as fuel for electricity generation or transformed into biofuels,
it typically releases CO2 back into the atmosphere. However, BECCS intervenes
by capturing this CO2 before it can be emitted, allowing for its permanent storage
underground or repurposing for various industrial applications. This innovative
approach results in a net-negative carbon balance, positioning BECCS as an
essential strategy for climate change mitigation (California Energy Commission,
2022).
The BECCS process initiates with biomass cultivation, during which plants
absorb atmospheric CO2 as they grow. After harvesting, the biomass undergoes
processing through methods such as combustion, gasification, or fermentation. In
combustion-based BECCS, biomass is incinerated to generate electricity, and the
resulting CO2 emissions are captured using advanced carbon capture technologies. In
the case of biofuel production, microorganisms decompose biomass into
bioethanol or biodiesel, facilitating the separation of CO2 during fermentation.
Once captured, the CO2 must be transported to a storage site, which typically
includes depleted oil and gas reservoirs, deep saline aquifers, or basalt
formations, where it can be permanently mineralized. In certain scenarios, CO2 is
repurposed for enhanced oil recovery (EOR); however, this can limit BECCS'
net-negative impact if it leads to extended fossil fuel production (California
Energy Commission, 2022).
Despite its potential, BECCS encounters several challenges. Land-use compe-
tition poses a significant concern, as large-scale biomass cultivation can diminish
land availability for food production and natural ecosystems, potentially resulting
in deforestation and biodiversity loss. The energy-intensive nature of carbon cap-
ture and compression also raises economic considerations, making cost reduction
essential for widespread implementation (California Energy Commission, 2022).
The long-term effectiveness of CO2 storage remains an area of ongoing
research. While geological storage is generally regarded as safe, continuous
monitoring and verification are imperative to prevent potential leakage. Advances
in carbon miner-
alization, where carbon gas reacts with minerals to form stable carbonates, offer a
promising avenue but require further development (California Energy
Commission, 2022).
Despite these challenges, BECCS is acknowledged by organizations such as
the IPCC and IEA as a pivotal solution for achieving net-zero emissions.
Countries like the U.K, the U.S., and Sweden.. have initiated pilot BECCS
projects, showcasing its practical feasibility. Future advancements in biomass
cultivation, carbon cap- ture efficiency, and cost reductions will be crucial in
determining the scalability of BECCS as a long-term climate solution.

25
Table 3. Comparison of DAC and BECCS Technologies
Aspect DAC BECCS
CO2 Removal Rate 1000+ tons/year (scalable Variable, depends on biomass
with infrastructure) availability and processing capacity
Technology Process Extracts CO2 directly from Captures CO2 from biofuel or
ambient air biomass combustion
Energy Requirement Very high (heating sorbents, Moderate (energy used in biofuel
regeneration process) production and CO2 capture)
Cost ($/ton CO2 $250–$600 per ton (currently $50–$150 per ton (more cost-
removed) expensive) effective but site-dependent)
Infrastructure Needs Large-scale air capture Biomass production sites,
plants, energy-intensive transport, and CO2 storage
equipment
Scalability High (can be deployed Medium (limited by biomass
anywhere) availability and land use)
Land Use Impact Minimal (does not require High (requires large areas for
large land areas) growing biomass)
Storage/Utilization Permanent geological Stored in geological formations
storage or industrial reuse or used for biofuels
Environmental Low impact but high energy Risk of deforestation,
Impact demand competition with food crops
Best Use Case Hard-to-abate sectors, Power plants, biofuel
achieving net-negative production, waste-to-energy
emissions projects
Challenges High cost, high energy Land competition, water use,
consumption, slow adoption emissions from biomass processing

4.4. Case Study: Climeworks’ Direct Air Capture Plants

Founded in 2009, Climeworks is a Swiss company that has emerged as a

global leader in Direct Air Capture (DAC) technology. This innovative approach
effectively removes CO2 from the atmosphere, allowing for its permanent storage
or industrial utilization. Climeworks' modular DAC plants offer a scalable
solution for carbon sequestration, with the Orca plant in Iceland recognized as
the largest operational DAC facility in the world (Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change, 2005).
Launched in 2021 near the Hellisheiði geothermal power plant, the Orca
facility captures an impressive 4,000 tons of CO2 annually. In collaboration with
Carbfix, Climeworks ensures the permanent storage of CO2 by dissolving it in
water and in- jecting it into basalt formations, where it mineralizes within a two-
year timeframe. The company is currently advancing its next-generation facility,
Mammoth, which aims to capture 36,000 tons of CO 2 per year using renewable
geothermal energy (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2005).

26
 Despite its potential, DAC technology faces challenges, including high costs
ranging from $250 to $600 per ton of CO2 removed and significant energy
demands. To overcome these hurdles, Climeworks is dedicated to material
innovation, process optimization, and harnessing renewable energy sources such
as solar and wind. The company has garnered support from major corporations,
including Microsoft, Stripe, and Shopify, which purchase carbon removal credits
to facilitate its growth (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2005).
While challenges persist, Climeworks’ commitment to innovation and sustain-
ability establishes a benchmark for engineered carbon removal, propelling
progress toward a carbon-negative future (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change, 2005).

5. CHALLENGES AND LIMITATIONS OF

CARBON SEQUESTRATION

Although there are many potential benefits but, carbon sequestration faces
several challenges, including technological and economic barriers. High costs
associated with CCS, along with the necessity for technological advancements to
enhance efficiency and scalability, remain significant hurdles (Climeworks,
2023).

5.1. Economic and Policy Barrier

Carbon sequestration is currently grappling with significant technological and

economic hurdles that impede its widespread adoption. One of the most pressing
issues is the high cost associated with carbon capture, transportation, and storage.
Establishing the necessary infrastructure for carbon capture and storage (CCS)
demands substantial investments in pipelines, storage facilities, and monitoring
systems, which can be financially prohibitive for many industries and
governments. Presently, many CCS technologies tend to consume considerable
amounts of energy, which diminishes their overall sustainability (Climeworks,
2023).
Another challenge lies in the scalability of sequestration projects. While
various engineered methods, such as direct air capture (DAC), have been tested
on a small scale, their global implementation necessitates significant
advancements in both efficiency and cost reduction. Research focused on
optimizing materials for CO2 absorption and refining sequestration mechanisms
is essential for making carbon capture a commercially viable solution
(Climeworks, 2023).

27
5.2. Technical and Environmental Risks

Large-scale sequestration initiatives often require extensive land areas, which

can lead to issues with existing land uses, including farming, urban development,
and conservation efforts. For example, afforestation and reforestation projects, while
effective in capturing carbon, may compete for land that is crucial for food
produc- tion or for the traditional practices of indigenous communities. Similarly,
BECCS may necessitate large-scale cultivation of biomass crops, potentially
resulting in deforestation or the displacement of local populations. It is vital to
ensure that se- questration projects do not exacerbate land scarcity or contribute
to environmental degradation (Climeworks, 2023).
The pursuit of carbon sequestration often raises important questions regarding
social and economic equity. Wealthier nations and corporations, equipped with
the resources to invest in sequestration projects, may dominate carbon credit
markets, leading to an uneven distribution of benefits. Developing countries,
which have historically contributed less to global emissions, may struggle to
access carbon markets or secure funding for sequestration initiatives.
Furthermore, communities located near sequestration sites may face risks such as
groundwater contamination or land restrictions without receiving direct benefits.
Addressing these ethical con- siderations is crucial to ensure that sequestration
projects foster equitable access to environmental and economic opportunities
(Climeworks, 2023). Table 4 shows the detailed view of financial and
environmental risks of carbon sequestration.

Table 4. Financial and Environmental Risks of Carbon Sequestration

Risk Type Potential Impact Affected Possible
Sequestration Mitigation Strategies
Methods
High Costs High implementation DAC, CCS, Government subsidies,
and operational expenses BECCS tax credits, cost-sharing
limit widespread adoption initiatives
Land Use Competition BECCS, Land-use planning,
Conflicts with agriculture, urban reforestation, soil afforestation on degraded
development, and sequestration land
biodiversity conservation
Leakage Risks Potential CO2 escape Geological Rigorous site
from geological storage sites sequestration, CCS selection, long-term
monitoring, improved
injection methods
Ocean Increased CO2 Ocean-based Strict regulation
Acidification absorption in oceans lowers sequestration of ocean-based
pH, harming marine life sequestration, monitoring
programs
continued on following page

28
Table 4. Continued
Risk Type Potential Impact Affected Possible
Sequestration Mitigation Strategies
Methods
Energy High energy DAC, CCS, Use of renewable
Demand requirements for DAC and mineralization energy sources for capture
CCS could offset emissions processes
reductions
Water CCS and BECCS CCS, BECCS, Water-efficient capture
Consumption require significant amounts biochar application technologies, wastewater
of water, competing with reuse
agriculture and drinking
supplies
Infrastructure Transporting and CCS, DAC, Development of
Challenges storing CO2 requires geological storage CO2 pipeline networks,
pipelines, increasing costs government incentives for
and risks infrastructure
Public Resistance to CCS, DAC, Public awareness
Acceptance Issues sequestration projects due to geological storage campaigns, transparent
safety concerns and land use risk assessments
disputes
Biodiversity Large-scale Reforestation, Mixed-species
Loss afforestation or BECCS BECCS afforestation, sustainable
plantations may disrupt land-use practices
ecosystems
Uncertain The long-term stability Geological Mixed-species
Long-Term Storage of stored CO2 is not fully storage, mineralization afforestation, sustainable
understood land-use practices

6. FUTURE PERSPECTIVES AND INNOVATIONS

6.1. Advances in Carbon Sequestration Technologies

Advances in Bioengineering: Bioengineering offers promising avenues for

enhancing carbon sequestration. Researchers are actively developing genetically
modified plants and microorganisms that are designed to absorb and store greater
amounts of CO2. For instance, plants with deeper root systems can sequester
more carbon underground, where it remains stored for extended periods.
Additionally, scientists are investigating bioengineered algae and bacteria that
can capture CO2 from industrial emissions and convert it into valuable biofuels
or biodegradable materials. These innovations have the power to significantly
improve the efficiency

29
of biological sequestration methods while also providing economic benefits
through sustainable bio-based products (International Energy Agency, 2021).
New Materials for Capturing Carbon: The establishment of advanced
materials for CO2 capture is a critical area of research aimed at enhancing
sequestration ef- ficiency and reducing costs. Scientists are exploring innovative
materials such as:

a) Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs): These porous materials possess high

sur- face areas and can selectively capture and store CO2 molecules. MOFs
present a promising solution for direct air capture due to their tunable
properties and high absorption capacities (International Energy Agency,
2021).
b) Nanoporous Carbon Materials: These materials are being engineered to
improve CO2 adsorption while minimizing energy consumption during the
capture pro- cess. Carbon-based sorbents can be tailored to selectively
capture CO2 from industrial emissions and power plant exhausts
(International Energy Agency, 2021).
c) Mineralization Technologies: Researchers are investigating enhanced
weathering techniques, where CO2 reacts with minerals like to form stable
compounds of carbonate. This process effectively locks CO2 in solid form,
preventing its re- entry into the atmosphere (International Energy Agency,
2021).

AI and Machine Learning for Carbon Sequestration Optimization: Artificial

intelligence (AI) and machine learning are becoming integral components of
carbon sequestration strategies. These advanced technologies facilitate real-time
monitoring of sequestration sites, predict CO2 absorption rates, and optimize
sequestration pro- cesses according to varying environmental conditions. AI-
driven systems are also capable of analyzing extensive datasets from forest
ecosystems, soil compositions, and oceanic carbon sinks, thereby enhancing
sequestration efficiency and forecasting potential risks associated with carbon
storage (International Energy Agency, 2021).

6.2. Global Policies and Agreements

To promote carbon sequestration initiatives, governments and institutions

offer a variety of financial incentives, such as subsidies, tax credits, and grants
(U.S. Department of Energy, 2021). These measures aim to alleviate the financial
burden associated with adopting CCS technologies and other sequestration methods.
Table 5 shows the various global policies which supports carbon sequestration
technologies.
Subsidies for Carbon Sequestration Technologies

30
 Subsidies play a crucial role in enabling industries to implement carbon
seques- tration technologies by lowering their initial investment costs.

31
 Direct Funding for CCS Projects: Governments allocate resources to support
the research and development of carbon capture systems.
Investment in Reforestation Programs: Landowners and companies receive
financial assistance for planting trees and restoring degraded ecosystems (U.S.
Department of Energy, 2021).
Examples:
Carbon Capture Program of U.S. Department of Energy (DOE): This program
provides funding for the establishment of DAC and CCS technologies.
EU Innovation Fund: This fund supports large-scale carbon sequestration and
renewable energy projects across Europe.
Tax Credits for Carbon Capture and Utilization
Governments also offer tax credits to companies investing in carbon
sequestration, effectively reducing their overall tax liability (U.S. Department of
Energy, 2021).
Example:
U.S. 45Q Tax Credit: Companies that capture CO2 from industrial processes
can claim up to $50 per metric ton for permanent geological storage. If the
captured CO2 is utilized in enhanced oil recovery or other processes, they can
receive $35 per metric ton.
Grants for Carbon Sequestration Initiatives
Grants provide non-repayable funding to organizations engaged in developing
sequestration projects, facilitating research and large-scale deployment (U.S. De-
partment of Energy, 2021).
Example:
Global Environmental Facility (GEF): This facility offers financial support for
climate resilience and carbon sequestration initiatives in developing countries.

Table 5. Global Policies Supporting Carbon Sequestration

Policy Objective Impact on Sequestration
Kyoto Protocol (1997) Legally binding Promoted carbon trading and
CO2 reduction sequestration research
targets
Paris Agreement (2015) Keep warming Encourages national carbon
below 2°C sequestration strategies
EU ETS (Emissions Cap-and-trade Incentivizes carbon capture
Trading System) emissions regulation investments
U.S. 45Q Tax Credit Financial incentives $50/ton credit for CO2 storage
for CCS projects

32
6.3. Integrating Carbon Sequestration into Everyday Life

Incorporating carbon sequestration into our daily routines is vital for

highlight- ing climate change and lowering carbon dioxide (CO 2) levels in the
atmosphere. While large-scale carbon capture initiatives are undeniably
important, the actions of individuals and communities can also make a significant
impact. The choices we make regarding food, transportation, energy use, and
waste management directly affect carbon emissions and the potential for carbon
sequestration. By embracing sustainable practices, we can enhance biological
carbon sequestration, foster tech- nological advancements, and advocate for
policies that promote carbon capture and storage (Luderer et al., 2013).

6.3.1. Sustainable Agriculture and Gardening

The most effective and important way to weave carbon sequestration into our
everyday lives is through sustainable agricultural and gardening practices.
Engag- ing in home gardening, urban farming, and regenerative agriculture
techniques can significantly boost soil and carbon sequestration by increasing the
organic matter content. By adopting practices such as composting, no-till
gardening, cover crop- ping, and planting deep-rooted perennials, individuals can
enhance carbon storage (Luderer et al., 2013).
Composting organic waste—like food scraps and plant residues—not only
reduces emissions from landfills but also enriches the soil with stable organic
carbon. Similarly, minimizing soil disturbance through no-till or low-till farming
helps retain stored soil carbon. Cover cropping, which involves planting legumes,
grasses, or other cover crops during off-seasons, improves soil structure,
enhances carbon input, and mitigates erosion. Additionally, incorporating biochar
into garden soil stabilizes organic matter, boosts soil fertility, and sequesters
carbon for centu- ries(Luderer et al., 2013).

6.3.2. Afforestation, Reforestation, and Urban Green Spaces

Tree planting stands out as one of the simplest yet most effective methods to
promote biological carbon sequestration. Trees take CO 2 during photosynthesis
and store carbon in their core. Individuals can contribute by planting trees in their
neighborhoods, participating in community forestry projects, or supporting refor-
estation initiatives (Raupach et al., 2016).
Urban green spaces—such as parks, green roofs, and vertical gardens—also
play a crucial role in carbon sequestration by increasing vegetation cover and
alleviating the urban heat island effect. Homeowners can create green walls and
rooftop gardens

33
to maximize carbon storage potential in urban settings. Furthermore, preserving
ex- isting forests and practicing responsible consumption of wood products are
essential for maintaining global carbon sinks (Raupach et al., 2016).

6.3.3. Sustainable Transportation Choices

Transportation is a major donor to CO2 emissions, and reducing our

dependency on fossil-fuel-powered vehicles can enhance indirect carbon
sequestration. Individ- uals can choose to walk, cycle, carpool, or utilize public
transportation to minimize emissions. Transitioning to electric or hybrid
vehicles further reduces carbon footprints by decreasing dependence on
gasoline and diesel (Raupach et al., 2016). Moreover, supporting initiatives that
promote sustainable transport infrastructure— such as bike lanes, pedestrian-
friendly city planning, and renewable-powered public
transit—encourages a low-carbon lifestyle (Raupach et al., 2016).

6.3.4. Eco-Friendly Consumption and Waste Reduction

Our consumption habits significantly influence carbon sequestration efforts.

Opting for sustainably sourced and low-carbon products supports businesses that
prioritize environmental responsibility. Reducing meat consumption and
embracing plant-based diets can lower carbon footprints, as livestock farming is a
major source of methane emissions and deforestation. Additionally, supporting
local and organic food production reduces transportation emissions and promotes
regenerative agri- cultural practices that enhance soil carbon storage
(Climeworks, 2023).
Waste reduction is another critical aspect of carbon sequestration. Landfills
gives out methane—a harmful greenhouse gas—when organic waste decomposes
without oxygen. By composting food scraps and yard waste, individuals can con-
tribute to soil carbon sequestration rather than landfill emissions. Reducing
plastic consumption, recycling materials, and choosing biodegradable products also
mitigate environmental impacts. Supporting a circular economy in indutry—where
products are designed for lornger time, reuse, and recycle—minimizes waste
generation and indirectly bolsters carbon sequestration efforts (Climeworks,
2023).

6.3.5. Adoption of Renewable Energy

Switching to renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric

power, plays a key important role in significantly decreasing carbon emissions.
In- dividuals can take proactive steps by installing sunlight panels at home,
switching
34
to green energy programs, or advocating for community-based energy initiatives
(Climeworks, 2023).
Moreover, increasing the efficiency of energy usage through the use of LED
lighting, energy-efficient appliances, and smart home techniques further
diminishes carbon footprints. Simple actions—like turning off unused
electronics, improving home insulation, and utilizing programmable thermostats
—can optimize energy consumption and lessen the reliance on fossil-fuel-based
power generation (Clime- works, 2023).

6.3.6. Carbon Offsetting and Sustainable Investments

Individuals can actively contribute to carbon sequestration efforts by

participating in carbon offset programs. Numerous organizations offer carbon
offset credits, en- abling individuals to repay for their emissions by funding ideas
such as reforestation, soil carbon enhancement, and direct air capture (Mac
Dowell et al., 2017).
Investing in companies and funds that prioritize sustainability, green
technology, and carbon-neutral operations also propels large-scale carbon
sequestration initiatives. By supporting businesses that practice responsible
sourcing, minimize waste, and prioritize net-zero emissions, individuals can
ensure that their everyday spending aligns with climate-positive actions (Mac
Dowell et al., 2017).

6.3.7. Supporting Policies and Community Action

Advocacy and policy support are essential for integrating carbon sequestration
into daily life. Individuals can engage in climate activism by backing policies
that promote carbon capture, afforestation, and sustainable land use. Encouraging
local governments to implement urban greening programs, adopt stricter
emissions reg- ulations, and incentivize carbon farming can significantly enhance
sequestration efforts (Mac Dowell et al., 2017).
Participating in community-led environmental initiatives—such as tree-planting
drives, sustainable agriculture workshops, and waste management campaigns—further
strengthens collective action toward carbon sequestration (Mac Dowell et al.,
2017).

35
6.3.8. Ocean-Based Carbon
Sequestration and Sustainable
Seafood Choices

The ocean serves as a major carbon sink, absorbing a substantial portion of

atmospheric CO2. Individuals can contribute to ocean-based sequestration efforts
by supporting marine conservation projects, reducing plastic pollution, and
making sustainable seafood choices (Mac Dowell et al., 2017).
Overfishing and marine habitat destruction diminish the ocean’s capacity to
sequester carbon. Therefore, opting for sustainably sourced seafood and
minimizing single-use plastic consumption are crucial for preserving marine
ecosystems. En- gaging in beach clean-ups, supporting seagrass and mangrove
restoration projects, and advocating for marine protected areas can further
enhance oceanic carbon sequestration (Mac Dowell et al., 2017).

6.3.9. Promoting Technological Carbon Sequestration

In addition to natural carbon sequestration, individuals can support

technological advancements in CCS. DAC technologies take CO 2 gas from the
earth layer and either store it underground or convert it into usable products.
While large-scale de- ployment is still in development, individuals can advocate
for and invest in research and companies that are advancing these technologies.
Supporting policies that incentivize industrial carbon capture and promoting
awareness of emerging sequestration technologies contribute to their widespread
adoption (Mac Dowell et al., 2017).

6.3.10. Educational Awareness and Sustainable Lifestyle Shifts

Integrating carbon sequestration into everyday life necessitates widespread

awareness and education. Schools, workplaces, and communities can incorporate
sustainability education into their curricula and policies. Encouraging children
and young adults to engage in environmental initiatives fosters a culture of long-
term climate responsibility (Bui et al., 2018).
Additionally, lifestyle changes—such as reducing fast fashion consumption,
repurposing old materials, and embracing minimalism—can align daily habits
with carbon sequestration goals. Sharing knowledge through social media,
workshops, and community discussions amplifies the impact of individual
efforts, inspiring more people to take action (Bui et al., 2018).

36
CONCLUSION

In the fight against the climate change, carbon sequestration emerges as

import- ant strategy, offering both natural and engineered solutions to reduce
atmospheric CO2 levels. Techniques such as afforestation, soil carbon
enhancement, geological storage, and innovative technologies like direct air
capture contribute significantly to long-term carbon reduction.
While challenges such as high costs, technological constraints, and policy
lim- itations persist, continuous research and innovation are enhancing efficiency
and scalability. The successful implementation of sequestration strategies
necessitates global collaboration, supportive policies, and the integration of
sustainable prac- tices. By merging technological advancements with natural
carbon sinks, carbon sequestration can play a key role in getting net-zero
emissions and ensuring a stable weather for future generations.

37
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