Nuclear Reactions

What are Nuclear Reactions?

Nuclear reactions are processes in which one or more nuclides are produced from the collisions between
two atomic nuclei or one atomic nucleus and a subatomic particle. The nuclides produced from nuclear
reactions are different from the reacting nuclei (commonly referred to as the parent nuclei).

Two notable types of nuclear reactions are nuclear fission reactions and nuclear fusion reactions. The
former involves the absorption of neutrons (or other relatively light particles) by a heavy nucleus, which
causes it to split into two (or more) lighter nuclei. Nuclear fusion reactions are the processes in which two
relatively light nuclei combine (via a collision) to afford a single, heavier nucleus.

Processes that are not Considered to be Nuclear Reactions

The term ‘nuclear reaction’ is generally used to refer to the externally induced changes brought on to
atomic nuclei. Therefore, the following processes cannot be classified as nuclear reactions:

 Nuclear scattering processes – processes that involve the collision and subsequent separation of
atomic nuclei without any notable changes in the nuclear composition. In these processes, only
momentum and energy are transferred.
 Nuclear Decay – is a process through which an unstable nucleus emits radiation in order to lose
energy.
 Spontaneous fission reactions – nuclear fission reactions that do not require a neutron to proceed
and are, therefore, not induced.
These processes are quite similar to nuclear reactions (but are spontaneous rather than induced).
Nuclear Reactions and Release Tremendous Amounts of Energy
The mass of an atomic nucleus is always less than the sum of the individual masses of each subatomic
particle that constitutes it (protons and neutrons). This difference in mass is attributed to nuclear binding
energy (often referred to as a mass defect). Nuclear binding energy can be defined as the energy required
to hold all the protons and neutrons within the nucleus.
During a nuclear reaction (such as a fission or fusion reaction), the mass accounted for by the nuclear
binding energy is released in accordance with the equation e = mc2 (energy = mass times the square of the
speed of light).
To simplify, the products formed in nuclear fission and nuclear fusion always have a lower mass than the
reactants. This ‘missing’ mass is converted into energy. A single gram of matter can release
approximately 90,00,00,00,000 kilojoules of energy.

There are four main types of nuclear reactions as follows:

 Nuclear Fission
 Nuclear Fusion
 Nuclear Decay
 Transmutation

Nuclear Fission
Nuclear fission refers to the splitting of an atomic nucleus into two or lighter nuclei. This process can
occur through a nuclear reaction or through radioactive decay. Nuclear fission reactions often release a
large amount of energy, which is accompanied by the emission of neutrons and gamma rays (photons
holding huge amounts of energy, enough to knock electrons out of atoms).
Nuclear fission was first discovered by the German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in the year
1938. The energy produced from fission reactions is converted into electricity in nuclear power plants.
This is done by using the heat produced from the nuclear reaction to convert water into steam. The steam
is used to rotate turbines in order to generate electricity.

Examples
An important example of nuclear fission is the splitting of the uranium-235 nucleus when it is bombarded
with neutrons. Various products can be formed from this nuclear reaction, as described in the equations
below.

 U + 1n → 141Ba + 92Kr + 3 1n
235

 235U + 1n → 144Xe + 90Sr + 2 1n

 235U + 1n → 146La + 87Br + 3 1n
 235U + 1n → 137Te + 97Zr + 2 1n
 235U + 1n → 137Cs + 96Rb + 3 1n
Another important example of nuclear fission is the splitting of the plutonium-239 nucleus.
Fission in Nuclear Power Plants
We have discussed the basics of nuclear fission reactions, now let us understand what real-world
applications these reactions have. One of the major applications of a fission reaction is the
production of electricity via nuclear power plants. Nuclear fission is an advantageous method for
producing power for several reasons.
We use nuclear reactors to generate electricity making use of the nuclear fission reaction. The
heat from nuclear fission is passed to a working fluid, which in turn runs through steam turbines.
These either drive a ship’s propellers or turn electrical generators’ shafts.

Nuclear Fusion
In nuclear fusion reactions, at least two atomic nuclei combine/fuse into a single nucleus. Subatomic particles such
as neutrons or protons are also formed as products in these nuclear reactions.

An illustration of the nuclear fusion reaction between deuterium (2H) and tritium (3H) that yields helium (4He) and a
neutron (1n) is provided above. Such fusion reactions occur at the core of the sun and other stars. The fusion of
deuterium and tritium nuclei is accompanied by a loss of approximately 0.0188 amu of mass (which is completely
converted into energy). Approximately 1.69*109 kilojoules of energy are generated for every mole of helium
formed.

Radioactivity
Due to nuclear instability, an atom’s nucleus exhibits the phenomenon of Radioactivity. Energy is lost
due to radiation that is emitted out of the unstable nucleus of an atom. Two forces, namely the force of
repulsion that is electrostatic and the powerful forces of attraction of the nucleus, keep the nucleus
together. These two forces are considered extremely strong in the natural environment. The chance of
encountering instability increases as the size of the nucleus increases because the mass of the nucleus
becomes a lot when concentrated. That’s the reason why atoms of Plutonium, Uranium are extremely
unstable and undergo the phenomenon of radioactivity.
Henry Becquerel discovered radioactivity by accident. A Uranium compound was placed in a drawer
containing photographic plates, wrapped in a black paper. When the plates were examined later, it was
found that they were exposed! This exposure gave rise to the concept of Radioactive decay. Radioactivity
can be seen in such forms

 Gamma Decay (Photons having high energy are emitted)

 Beta Decay (Emission consists of Electrons)
 Alpha Decay (Emission consists of Helium nucleus)

Types of Nuclear Reactions

Alpha Decay
Nuclei with mass numbers greater than 200 tend to undergo alpha decay – a process in which a 4He nucleus,
commonly referred to as an alpha particle (42α) is liberated from the parent nucleus.
The general equation for alpha decay is: AZX → (A-4)(Z-2)X’ + 42α
Where A is the mass number and Z is the atomic number. An example of alpha decay is provided below.
226
Ra → 222Rn + 42α
Here, the radium-226 nucleus decays into a radon-222 nucleus, liberating an alpha particle in the process.

Beta Decay
Beta decay occurs when a neutron is converted into a proton, which is accompanied by the emission of a beta
particle (high-energy electron). An example of this type of nuclear reaction is the beta decay of carbon-14 that
affords nitrogen-14:
14
6 C → 147N + 0-1β

Gamma Emission
Gamma emission occurs when an excited nucleus (often produced from the radioactive decay of another nucleus)
returns to its ground state, which is accompanied by the emission of a high energy photon.
An example of gamma emission is the de-excitation of the excited thallium-234 nucleus (which is produced from the
alpha decay of uranium-238). The equation for this nuclear reaction is:
234
Th* → 234Th + 𝜸
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Half-life
Half-life is the time it takes for a radioisotope to decay to half of its starting activity. The symbol is t½. Each
radioisotope has a unique half-life and can be a fraction of a second or billions of years. The decay is exponential.
For example, iodine-131 takes eight days to reach its half-life, while plutonium-239 takes 24,000 years.
If the original source of the radioactivity is known, how long it will take to decay can be predicted. Similarly, the
reverse is true. If the half-life is known, you can identify the radioisotope.

Difference between Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion

Following is the table explaining nuclear fission v/s nuclear fusion:

Parameter Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion

Fission is defined as the splitting

Fusion is defined as the combining of
Definition of a nucleus into two daughter
two lighter nuclei into a heavier one
nuclei

Generation of The amount of energy produced is The amount of energy produced is

energy huge relatively huge

Uranium is the primary fuel that is Hydrogen isotopes are the primary
Fuel
used in the power plants fuel that is used in the power plants
The nuclide
A nuclide is a specific type of atom characterized by the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus, which
approximates the mass of the nuclide. The number that is sometimes given with the name of the nuclide is called its
mass number (the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus). For example, carbon-12 is a nuclide of
carbon with 6 protons and 6 neutrons.

Understanding the isotope

Nuclides of an element that have the same number of protons but not the same number of neutrons are
called isotopes of that element. They are a variant of a basic element. For example, there are three isotopes (or
variants) of hydrogen: hydrogen-1 (one proton and no neutrons), hydrogen-2 or deuterium (one proton and one
neutron), and hydrogen-3 which is called tritium (one proton and two neutrons). Another example is uranium-235
which has 92 protons and 143 neutrons, and uranium 238 which has 92 protons and 146 neutrons. Both uranium-235
and uranium-238 are isotopes of uranium.

The stable isotope

Many isotopes are stable. They will not undergo radioactive decay and give off radiation. Other isotopes are not
stable. An isotope is stable when there is a balance between the number of neutrons and protons. When an isotope is
small and stable, it contains close to an equal number of protons and neutrons. Isotopes that are larger and stable
have slightly more neutrons than protons.
An example of a stable isotope is carbon-12, which has six protons and six neutrons, for a total mass of 12g.
The unstable isotope
When there is an imbalance between protons and neutrons, usually when the ratio of neutrons to protons is too low,
the isotope will want to transform itself into a more stable form – a different atom. When this happens, the atom
decreases its mass by emitting alpha particles, beta particles, positrons or gamma rays, but some may also gain
stability through spontaneous fission or electron capture. It is a spontaneous process that is known as radioactive
decay.

NUCLEAR REACTOR

The modern “Atomic Age” is attributed to the age of discovery and developments in the
field of nuclear fission. After India’s 3 stage Nuclear Power Program that was conceived
soon after Independence to meet the security and energy demands, India
commissioned its first Nuclear power plant in Tarapur, Maharashtra.

A nuclear reactor is the most important part of a nuclear power plant. It is where the
nuclear chain reactions occur that produce energy by fission. The heat thus produced
can be used to produce electricity.
The main purpose of a reactor is to contain and control the energy released. Uranium is
used as the nuclear fuel in the reactors.
The heat produced by nuclear reactions is used to convert the water into steam, which
is further converted into carbon-free electricity with the help of turbines.

Main Components of a Nuclear Reactor

The main components of a nuclear reactor are listed below.


 The Core: It contains all the fuel and generates the heat required for
energy production.

 The Coolant: It passes through the core, absorbing the heat and
transferring into turbines.

 The Turbine: Transfers energy into the mechanical form.

 The Cooling Tower: It eliminates the excess heat that is not converted
or transferred.

 Neutron Moderator: Moderators are used for reducing the speed of fast
neutrons released from the fission reaction and making them capable of
sustaining a nuclear chain reaction.

 Usually, water, solid graphite, and heavy water are used as a

moderator in nuclear reactors.

 Commonly-used moderators include regular (light) water (in 74.8%

of the world’s reactors), solid graphite (20% of reactors), heavy
water (5% of reactors).

 The Containment: The enveloping structure that separates the nuclear

reactor from the surrounding environment.

 Neutron Poison: A neutron poison (also called a neutron absorber or a nuclear

poison) is a substance with a large neutron absorption cross-section.

Types of Nuclear Reactor

Based on various components and working principles of Nuclear Reactors, one can
distinguish them into the following types discussed below. Even though all the
commercial nuclear power reactors use Nuclear Fission, they can be classified into two
categories based on the energy of neutrons that sustain the fission chain reaction.

 Thermal Reactors


 Thermal reactors (the most common type of nuclear reactor) use slowed
or thermal neutrons to keep up the fission of their fuel.

 Boiling water reactors (BWR), Pressurized water reactors (PWR), and

Heavy water reactors (HWR) operate with thermal neutrons.

 Fast Neutron Reactors



 Fast neutron reactors use fast neutrons to cause fission in their fuel.

 Very rare due to complexity and costs. They are more difficult to build and
more expensive to operate.

 Fast reactors have the potential to produce less radioactive waste because
all fissile is fissionable with fast neutrons [fuel is highly enriched in fissile
material].

Types of Nuclear Reactors

Light Water  LWR is a type of Thermal Neutron Reactor.

Reactors  Uses Normal Water instead of Heavy Water as its coolant and
(LWR) Neutron Moderator.
 BWR & PWR are Light Water Reactors.
 The BWR drives the steam turbine when the reactor core heats
the water converting it into steam. Example: Fukushima Daiichi,
Japan.
 The PWR drives the steam turbine in two stages.

 Pressurized water has a higher boiling point. The reactor

core heats the water without producing any steam in the
core.

 This pressurized hot water then exchanges heat with a

 secondary low-pressure water unit which turns into
steam.

 This steam drives the steam turbine.

Heavy Water  HWR is also a type of Thermal Neutron Reactor.

Reactors  Uses Heavy Water (deuterium oxide D2O) as its coolant and
Neutron Moderator.
 The HWR follows the working principle of the Pressurized Water
Reactor.
 Even though Heavy Water is very expensive, it allows the
nuclear reactor to operate without any fuel enrichment due to
the enhanced neutron economy.
 This also allows the Nuclear reactor to use alternate fuel cycles.

Gas-Cooled  BWR, LWR, HWR & PWR can’t operate at very high
Reactors temperatures and thus don’t provide great thermal efficiency.
 In Gas-Cooled reactors, gas is replaced as a coolant and that
drives the turbine.
 These reactors are called High-Temperature Gas-Cooled
Reactors (HTGRs).
 Gases like Helium & Carbon-Dioxide are used as coolants.
 HTGRs provide high thermal efficiency (Upto 50%) as they can
operate at high temperatures.
 HTGRs can have multiple applications other than power
production which involve heat processes like hydrogen fuel
cells, water desalination, oil refineries, etc.
 Gas being, not the most efficient coolant, HTGRs need a highly-
efficient back-up coolant.

Fast Reactors  The reactors discussed above use moderators that slow the
high-energy (fast) neutrons down to low-energy (slow).
 Fast reactors don’t use moderators and use Fast Neutrons.
 To sustain the fission reaction by fast neutrons, the fission
material needs to be highly enriched.
 Uranium enrichment is very expensive thus making the use of
Fast reactors uneconomical.

Nuclear Reactors in India

The list of the locations of the installed nuclear reactors in India is given below.
1. Rajasthan (Rawatbhata)
2. Tamil Nadu (Kudankulam; Kalpakkam)
3. Gujarat (Kakrapar)
4. Uttar Pradesh (Narora)
5. Karnataka (Kaiga)
6. Maharashtra (Tarapur)
Breeder reactor
Breeder reactors are a type of nuclear reactor which produce more fissile materials than they
consume. They are designed to extend the nuclear fuel supply for the generation of electricity,
[1]
and have even been mistakenly called a potential renewable energy source.[2] Breeder reactors
certainly have the ability to make nuclear fuels quite sustainable though which was Dr. Cohen's
main point, see renewable and sustainable energy for a more thorough explanation. Concerns
about nuclear weapons proliferation have been one large impediment to creating commercial
breeder reactors.

Unlike normal reactors which only use uranium-235 as their fuel, which is only available in
scarce concentrations of around 0.7% of natural uranium without enrichment, breeder reactors
also make use of natural uranium-238 which is much more common. They can use
approximately 70% of the uranium-238 for production of power, whereas normal reactors can
only use around 1% of it. They can also use thorium-232 to breed uranium-233, another
fissionable product.[1]

The most common breeding is of plutonium-239, which is bred through the process seen in
Figure 1 below.

Figure 1. The breeding of 239Pu in a breeder reactor. The neutrons are supplied by the decay of 235U, which
transmute 238U to plutonium.[3]

The first experimental breeder reactor (EBR-1) developed was in 1951 in Idaho, U.S.A.
Subsequently Russia, Japan, Great Britain and France all developed experimental breeder
reactors, however no nation has developed one suitable for high-capacity commercial use.[1] So
far, France has made the largest implementation of breeder reactors with their Super-Phenix fast
breeder reactor.[3]
Types
There are two categories of breeder reactors, based on the speed of the neutrons. Fast breeder
reactors which use uranium-238 as fuel and thermal breeder reactors which use thorium-232
as fuel. Fast breeders do not require moderation since the neutrons need to be moving fast,
whereas thermal breeders make us of moderation to achieve slower-moving neutrons.
Fast
The most promising type of breeder reactor is the Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactor
(LMFBR), which operates by using liquid sodium as its coolant, and breeds plutonium from
uranium-238.[1] It works by using highly enriched uranium, between 15-20% uranium-235
content, surrounded or "blanketed" by natural uranium-238 in the reactor core.[3] No moderator is
used to slow down the neutrons, because fast neutrons transmute uranium-238 much more
efficiently than slow neutrons.

Using water as a coolant would reduce the neutron abundance, since neutrons are absorbed by
water. Therefore liquid sodium is used instead. This immediately raised concerns of safety when
initially thought of, since sodium is a highly reactive element. It is important to keep the liquid
sodium from contact with air or oxygen to avoid explosions, however they aren't any more
dangerous than pressurized water reactors.[3] This is because the sodium doesn't need to be
pressurized to remain in a liquid state like water does; its boiling point is 892oC. This makes the
bursting of pipes far less likely than in other water-reactors. Liquid sodium is also a very good
choice because of its heat transfer capabilities, due to its high specific heat capacity.[3]

Figure 2. Liquid metal fast breeder reactor. Other fast breeder types include supercritical water
cooled reactors, molten salt reactors, and gas-cooled reactors