Unit – 1 BIO-POTENTIAL RECORDING GENERATION AND

ELECTRODE TYPES

Origin of bio potential and its propagation. Types of electrodes

- surface, needle and micro electrodes and their equivalent
circuits. Recording problems - measurement with two
electrodes

15
BIO MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION
1.1 INTRODUCTION

Bio denotes something related to life

The discipline of engineering and medicine interacts is called Biomedical
Engineering.
Biomedical engineering is the application of knowledge and technologies to solve
the problem of the living system.
It involves measurement of biological signals like ECG, EMG, or any electrical
signals generated in the human body.
Biomedical Instrumentation helps physicians to diagnose the problem and provide
treatment

1.1.1 COMPONENTS OF BIO MEDICAL

INSTRUMENTATION

Fig. 1.1 Block diagram of Bio medical Instrumentation

 To measure biological signals and to design a medical instrument, concepts of
electronics and measurement techniques are needed.
Any medical instrument consists of the following functional basic parts.
Measurand : It is the physical quantity, and the instrumentation systems
measure it. Human body acts as the source for measurand, and it generates
bio-signals.
Sensor / Transducer: The transducer converts one form of energy to
another form usually electrical energy. For example, the piezoelectric signal
which converts mechanical vibrations into the electrical signal.
Signal Conditioner: It is used to convert the output from the
transducer into an electrical value. The instrument system sends this
quantity to the display or recording system.
Display: It is used to provide a visual representation of the measured
parameter or quantity. Example: Chart recorder, Cathode Ray oscilloscope
(CRO).
Data Storage and Data Transmission: It is used to store the data and
can be used for future reference. Recent days Electronic Health records are
utilized in hospitals. Example: Telemetry

1.2 ORGIN OF BIO POTENTIALS

Bioelectric potentials are ionic voltages produced due to electro chemical

activity of cells associated with nerve conduction, brain activity, heart beat,
muscle activity and so on.
Living tissues are considered as power station generating multiple electrical
signals with two internal sources called muscles and nerves.
Muscular contraction is associated with the migration of ions – which
generates potential differences.
Bio electric potentials are generated at cellular level and the source of these
potentials is ionic in nature.
ECG (Electrocardiogram), EMG (Electro Myogram), EEG
(Electroencephalogram), ENG (Electro Neurogram), EOG (Electro-
oculogram), ERG (Electro Retinogram), etc. are some examples of
biopotentials.
CELL & CELL STRUCTURE
CELL
Basic living unit of human body
Each organ consists of different cells and each cell is responsible for
particular function
40 trillion cells in human body
All cells have the ability to produce new cells
25 trillion RBC transports oxygen from lungs to body

CELL STRUCTURE
A cell consists of three parts: Cell membrane , Nucleus, Cytoplasm
Each cell consists of centrally located Nucleus (Cell core)
Cell core is surrounded by Cytoplasm (Cell body)
Nucleus is separated from cytoplasm by nuclear membrane
Cytoplasm is separated from the surroundings from cell membrane
Different substances that make of the cell are called protoplasm (It is
composed of water, electrolyte, proteins, Lipids and Carbohydrates)

Fig.1.2.Cell Structure
 Water: Principle fluid in the cell. Concentration is 70 -80 %. Solvent for all
chemicals in order to produce chemical reaction.
Electrolytes: Large quantities- Magnesium, Potassium, Phosphate and
bicarbonate Small quantities- Calcium, Chloride and Sodium
Transport of ions through Cell membrane- Two fluids (ICF and ECF) play a
major role in transportation of ions
Intracellular fluid (ICF) The fluid which lies inside the plasma or cell
membrane
Extracellular fluid (ECF) The fluid which lies Outside the plasma or cell
membrane Correct concentration of ions needed for the normal function of human
body
INTRACELLULAR AND EXTRACELLULAR FLUID
Intra- and Extracellular fluids : Na+, Cl-, K+
Concentration of potassium (K+) ions is 30-50 times higher inside as
compared to outside.
Sodium ion concentration is 10 times higher outside than the inside

Fig.1.3 Intercellular Medium and Extracellular Medium

TRANSPORTATION OF SUBSTANCES
Generally, Transportation of substances can be divided into 2 types:
Active Transport
Passive Transport
Active Transportation is classified into two types according to the source of
energy.
Primary Active Transport : Energy is derived directly from the breakdown of
„Adenosine triphosphate‟( ATP) Ex; Na-K Pump, Ca-Pump
Secondary Active Transport : Energy is derived secondary by ionic
concentration that have created in the first phase by the primary active
transport.

1.3. MEMBRANE POTENTIAL

Two Potentials are created inside the cell membrane
Resting Potential
Action Potential
1.3.1 RESTING POTENTIAL
The drift and diffusion process gives rise to a balance of ions between Inside
and outside of a cell.
Usually , Nerve and muscle cells permit the entry of potassium and chloride
ions. It blocks entry of sodium ions.
Due to the difference in permeability of different ions , charge balance is not
achieved. So that an equilibrium condition is reached with the potential
difference across the membrane, such that negative potential on the inside
the cell membrane and positive potential on the outside membrane.
This membrane potential caused by different concentration of ions is called
as Resting Potential. When the human cell in the resting stage is said to be
Polarized.
Since measurement of membrane potential is generally made from inside the
cell, the resting potential of a cell is given as negative Voltage (-60mV to -
100mV).

Fig 1.4 Resting Cell potential

FORCES ACT ON CELL MEMBRANE AT RESTING MEMBRANE
POTENTIAL

DIFFUSION: Movement of molecules from a region of higher

concentration to region of lower concentration.
ELECTRICAL GRADIENT: Positive ions move to a negative region
and vice versa.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT: Transport ions against their concentration
gradient .
Example: Sodium Potassium Pump need energy to transport sodium
outside and potassium inside the cell.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESTING POTENTIAL

The value of resting potential is maintained as a constant until some

kind of disturbance upset the equilibrium
It is strongly depends on temperature
The permeability of different cell types should vary. Hence the
corresponding resting potential should also vary.
The resting potential is derived by Goldman‟s equation

Where K=Boltzmann‟s Constant =1.38×10-23 J/K ,

T= Absolute temperature
q =Charge of electron =1.602×10-19 C,
PK = Permeability of Potassium ion.
According to Goldman‟s equation Resting Potential is -86.8 mV
The Goldman‟s equation reduced to Nernst equation such that

If PNa=0 and PCl=0 ;

Where PNa= Permeability of Sodium ion; PCl= Permeability of Chlorine ion.
SODIUM POTASSIUM PUMP
Sodium ions are quickly transported to the outer side of the cell and the cell
becomes polarized and assure its resting potential. This process is called sodium
pump.
Sodium Potassium Pump: The device used to keep sodium ions outside the cell
and potassium ions inside the cell.

Fig 1.5 Sodium Potassium Pump

1.3.2 ACTION POTENTIAL
When the cell membrane is excited by some external energy or stimulus, then the
permeability changes.
The cell membrane is stimulated by stimulus, the permeability of cell membrane
of Na+ is dramatically increased. S
Sodium channels are open, sodium ions rush through the channel to the inside of
the cell causing inside of the cell to be more positive than the outside. This is
called Depolarization.
The membrane potential becomes reversed and reaches a voltage of +35mV.
The positive potential of the cell membrane during excitation is called as action
potential.

Fig. 1.6.1 Action Potential Membrane Fig 1.6.2 Depolarized cell

during Action potential
 Towards the end of depolarization, sodium permeability decreases and potassium
permeability increases.
K+ ions leave the cell down their concentration gradient, causing the inside of the
cell membrane to return quickly to its original potential.
This is called Repolarization
The membrane potential is brought back to 70mV.

1.3.2.1 GENERATION OF ACTION POTENTIAL

Fig 1.7 Action Potential Waveform

It can be divided 5 phases:
The Resting Potential
Threshold
The Rising Phase (Depolarization)
The Falling Phase( Repolarization)
The Recovery phase
Stimulus starts the rapid change in voltage or action potential. In patch-clamp
mode, sufficient current must be administered to the cell in order to raise the
voltage above the threshold voltage to start membrane depolarization.
Depolarization is caused by a rapid rise in membrane potential opening of
sodium channels in the cellular membrane, resulting in a large influx of sodium
ions.
Membrane Repolarization results from rapid sodium channel inactivation as well
as a large efflux of potassium ions resulting from activated potassium channels.
Hyper polarization is a lowered membrane potential caused by the efflux of
potassium ions and closing of the potassium channels.
Resting state is when membrane potential returns to the resting voltage that
occurred before the stimulus occurred.
1.4 Refractory Periods

Absolute Refractory Period:

It is the time duration in which the cell cannot respond to any new
stimulus. It is about 1ms in nerve cells
Relative Refractory Period:
It is one during which another potential can be triggered but higher
stimulus is required to reinitiate the action potential and the subsequent
contraction of muscles. RRP is in several milliseconds.

Fig1.8 Relative periods (ARP & RRP)

All or nothing law states that regardless of the method of excitation of cells
or by the intensity of the stimulus , the action potential is the same for any given
cell.
1.5 BIOPOTENTIAL ELECTRODES

Bio electrodes function as an interface between biological structures and

electronic systems.
Electrodes are employed to pick up the electrical signal of the body.
Act as Transducer (i.e.) Ionic current in the body electronic current in the circuit.
CHARACTERISTERISTICS

Electric potential generated in the body are ionic potential.

It conducts small current across the interface between body and measuring
circuit.
A net volume of current passes across the interface from the electrode to
electrolyte.

1.5.1 HALF – CELL POTENTIAL/ELECTRODE POTENTIAL

The interface of metallic ions in solution with their associated metal results in
an electrical potential. That is called electrode potential.
Half-cell potential is the voltage developed at the electrode-electrolyte
interface.
Half cell potential is determined by
Metal involved
Concentration of the ion
Temperature
In a metal – solution interface, electrode potential arises at two conditions
when ions travel from metal into the solution
when ions in solution combine with electrons in the metal they form the
atom of metal.
Metal electrode and body fluid interacts electrode discharges ions into
solution. At the same instance ions in the electrolyte combine with the
electrode. This results in the generation of charge gradient.
The half-cell potential developed can be expressed by the Nernst equation :

where
n- Valency of ion ; R- Gas Constant ; T- Temperature
C1,C2 – Concentration of selected ion on two sides of the membrane
f1,f2 – Activity coefficients of the ion on two sides of the membrane
ELECTRODE-ELECTROLYTE INTERFACE

Where
n- valence of C
m-Valence of A

The electrode consists of metallic atoms of C

The electrolyte consists of aqueous solution containing cations of the metal
electrode C+ and Anions A-
Oxidatation
It causes an atom to Lose a electron. Oxidation is dominant
when current moves from electrode to electrolyte.

Reduction
It causes an atom to gain a electron. Reduction is dominant when current
moves from electrolyte to electrode.

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF HALF-CELL POTENTIAL

where
Ehc – Half cell potential
Rd-Leakage Resistance
Cd- Electrode Capacitance
Rs- Skin Resistance

Fig 1.9 Equivalent circuit of Half cell potential

1.5.2 POLARIZED AND NON POLARIZED ELECTRODE

When current is applied there is no net transfer of charge across the metal
electrolyte, interface electrodes are Perfectly Polarized Electrode.
Electrodes behave like capacitors.
Example: Platinum Electrode.
When the exchange of charge occurs across metal-electrolyte interface
without hindrance, electrode are Perfectly Non Polarized Electrode. Here
current flows freely across the interface and energy is not required for it.
Example: Ag/AgCl electrode. For recording applications, Non-Polarized
electrodes are used.

1.6 TYPES OF ELECTRODES

Different types of electrodes used for biological measurements depend on

the anatomical locations, from where the bioelectric signals are measured.
Bioelectric electrodes acquire the signals like ECG, EEG, EMG, etc.
Generally, Electrodes can be classified into 3 types:
Surface electrodes.
Depth and needle electrodes.
Micro electrodes.

1.6.1 SURFACE ELCTRODES

These are used to measure the potentials available from the surface of the
skin and are used to sense the potentials from heart, brain and nerves.
Larger area surface electrodes are used to sense ECG Potentials. Smaller
area surface electrodes are used to sense EEG and EMG Potentials.
Depending upon the construction, surface electrodes can be:
Metal Plate Electrodes (Limb Electrodes)
Suction Cup Electrodes (Welsh Cup)
Adhesive Tape Electrodes
Multipoint Type Electrodes
Floating Electrodes
1.6.1.1 Metal Plate Electrodes

Simplest of all surface electrodes. Consists of metallic conductor in contact

with the skin.
Mostly used as limb electrodes in ECG measurements.
It is made up of flat metal plate that is bent into cylindrical segment on its
outer surface, to attach the lead wire to the ECG electrode.
Rectangular (3.5cm * 5cm) and circular (4.75cm diameter) plates form
German silver, nickel silver or nickel plated steel are used as surface
electrodes in the case of ECG measurement.
Inner surface of the electrode is covered with gel, an electrolyte soaked pad
is kept which will maintain electrode contact with the skin.
Connection between lead wire and electrode is insulated by epoxy or
polyvinyl chloride.
When these electrodes are applied on the skin with electrode paste – dc
resistance values are in the range 2 to 10Kohm.
The electrode slippage and plate displacement are the two major
disadvantages of this electrode type.
They are very sensitive, leading to measurement errors.

Fig.1.10. Metal Plate Electrodes

1.6.1.2 Suction Cup Electrodes

Also called as Modified metal plate electrodes.

A metal suction electrode is often used as precordial electrode on
Clinical ECG.
These electrodes do not require straps or adhesives tapes to hold them
to a particular location.
They consist of a hollow metallic cylindrical electrode that makes
contact with the skin at its base.
Rubber bulb is squeezed and placed on the body the bulb releases and
applies suction against the skin, thus holding the electrode to the body.
The electrode can be used for only short period of time; because the
suction and pressure can cause irritation to the skin.
Even though electrode is large, contact area is small, so Impedance is
large.

Fig.1.11 Suction Cup Electrodes

1.6.1.3 Adhesive tape electrodes (ATE)

In the surface electrode, the pressure of surface electrode against the skin
squeezes out the electrode paste. To avoid this problem, adhesive tape
electrodes are used.
Pad is behind for placing electrode paste. This adhesive backing hold the
electrode on place and tight. It also helps to avoid evaporation of electrolyte
present in the electrode paste.
It consists of disk of plastic foam material coated with silver-plated disk on
one side and silver plated snap on other side.
Silver plated disk serves as the electrode and coated with silver chloride
layer. Electrolyte gel covers the disk.
A lead wire is snapped onto the electrodes connected to ECG apparatus.
Electrode side of the foam is covered with an adhesive material covered with
protective foam material.
To apply the electrode, the skin is cleaned, protective material is removed
and pressed against the patient.

Fig.1.12 Adhesive Tape Electrodes

1.6.1.4 Multi-point Electrodes

It is used for ECG measurements. It can be used under any environmental

conditions.
It contains 1000 fine active contact points. By this a low resistance contact is
established with the patient.
 Fig.1.13 Multi-point Electrodes

1.6.1.5 Floating Electrodes

Also called as Top-hat Electrodes or Liquid Junction Electrodes

In metal plate or limb electrodes, the major disadvantage is the movement
errors. Motion artifact occurs due to the motion at the interface between
electrode and electrolyte. The interface gets stabilized using Floating
electrodes.
Actual electrode element of metal disk is kept in a cavity of insulated
package. Thus, the electrodes do not contact the humans directly. They
contact the subject via electrolytic paste or jelly.
The electrode element is surrounded by electrolyte gel inside the cavity. The
cavity does not move with respect to the metal disk, so does not any
mechanical movement. This is the advantage of Floating Electrodes.
Electrode and electrolyte gel attached to the skin surface by double adhesive
tape.
Electrode disk is made up of silver metal coated with silver chloride

Fig.1.14 Floating Electrodes

1.6.2 DEPTH & NEEDLE ELECTRODES

Used to measure and record bioelectric events for highly localized

extracellular regions.
It is used to study the electrical activity of neurons in superficial layers of
the brain. Each electrode consist of bundle of teflon insulated
platinum(90%), iridium(10%) alloy wires.
The electrode is resting on the sub cortical nerve cells. The ends of the
individual wires in the bundle constitute individual electrode.
Active area of depth electrode is 0.5mm2

Fig.1.15. Depth Electrodes

NEEDLE ELCTRODES

Used to measure EEG and EMG Signals.

A short length of the fine insulated metal wire is bent at its one end
and the bent portion is inserted through the lumen of the needle and is
advanced into the muscle.
When we insert two insulated wires into the lumen of the needle, then
the two wires constitute bipolar electrode such that one wire act as
active electrode and another act as reference electrode.
3 Types:
Monopolar Needle Electrode
Concentric or Coaxial Needle Electrode
Bipolar Needle Electrode
1.6.2.1 Monopolar Needle Electrode

Made of stainless steel, the monopolar needle electrode has a very finely
sharpened point and is covered with Teflon or other insulating material over
its entire length, except for a 0.5 mm exposure at the tip. The needle serves
as the active electrode, and a surface electrode placed on the skin close to it
serves as a reference.
The main advantage of monopolar needle electrodes is that patients accept
them better because they are of small diameter and Teflon covering allows
them to slide in and out of the muscle easily. Moving the needle causes less
discomfort.
The major disadvantages of this needle is that, with repeated use, the size of
the bare tip changes, thereby limiting the number of examinations for which
that needle can be used.

Fig.1.16.Monopolar Needle Electrode

1.6.2.2 Concentric Or Coaxial Needle electrode

With the concentric needle consists of a cannula with an insulated wire (or
wires) down the middle. The active electrode is the small tip of the center
wire, and the reference electrode is the outside cannula.
Concentric needles may have two central wires (bipolar), in which case the
active and reference electrodes are at the tip and the outside cannula acts as
the ground.
Because the active and reference electrodes are closer together, using the
concentric electrode minimizes background noise. The electrode picks up
motor units from only a very small distance. Another advantage of this
electrode is that no (reference) surface electrode is needed.

Fig.1.17.Concentric or Coaxial Needle Electrode

 The main disadvantage of the concentric electrode is that, by comparison
with other needles, its larger diameter can cause more pain, and moving the
electrode around is uncomfortable. When one tries to use a small-gauge
concentric needle, bending becomes a problem when the needle is dulled by
repeated use. This needle can be resharpened with a fine honing stone.

1.6.2.3 Bipolar Needle Electrode

Bipolar needle electrodes contain two insulated wires within a metal canula.
Two wires are bared at the tip and provide contacts to the patient. The
cannula act as a ground. Bipolar electrodes are electrically symmetrical and
have no polarity sense.

Fig.1.18. Bipolar Needle Electrode

MICRO ELECTRODES
It is used to measure the bioelectric potential near or within a single cell.
While measuring the potential of the microelectrode is located within the cell
and the reference electrode is placed outside the cell.
It is also called Intracellular electrodes.
It has a very small diameter, so that it does not damage the cell while
insertion.
Size of the cells is about 50 microns, the diameter of the tip of the
microelectrode is ranging from 0.5 to 5 microns.
2 Types:
Metal microelectrodes
Micropipet (Non metallic microelectrodes)
Metal Microelectrodes

Metal micro electrodes are formed by electrolitically etching the tip of a fine
tungsten or stainless steel wire to a fine point. This technique is called
electro pointing.
This etched metal wire is supported by a large metallic shaft.
The metallic shaft acts as a
Sturdy mechanical support for the microelectrode.
Means of connecting microelectrode to its lead wire
 The metal micro electrodes and its shaft are coated with an insulating material
like polymer material or varnish.
The tip of the microelectrode is left as it is without insulation.
The measurements of bio electric potentials requires two electrodes, the voltage
measure is the difference between the potential of the micro electrodes and the
reference electrodes and it is the sum of three potentials
Impedance of microelectrode tip is inversely proportional to the area of the tip
and frequency.
When the electrode output is coupled with an amplifier, the low frequency
components of the bio electric potential will ne attenuated if the input impedance
is not high.

Fig.1.19 Metal Microelectrodes

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

Fig.1.20 Equivalent Circuit of Metal Microelectrodes

where
EA – Metal electrode – Electrolyte potential
EB – Reference electrode – Electrolyte potential
EC – Variable cell membrane potential
RA – Resistance of connecting wire (Negligible)
RS - Resistance of shaft of the micro electrode(Negligible)
RFA,RWA,CWA- Impedance of the ME tip- inter cellular fluid interface.
RIN- Resistance of the intra cellular fluid
RB- resistance of the wire connected to the reference electrode
RFB,RWB,CWB- Impedance of the RE tip- Extra cellular fluid interface.
REX- Resistance of the Extra cellular fluid
CD- Distributed capacitance between the tip of the ME and Extra cellular
fluid(Negligible)
Non-metallic Microelectrode or Micropipet
It consist of a glass micro pipet whose tip‟s diameter is about 1 micro meter.
Micro pipet is filled with an electrolyte(3M KCl) which is compatible with the
cellular fluids.
A thin, flexible metal wire from silver chloride, stainless steel tungsten is
inserted into the stem of the micropipet.
The friction between the wire and the stem of the micropipet and the fluid
surface tension hold the micropipet on the wire.
One end of the metal wire is mounted to a rigid support and the other free
end is resting on the cell.

Fig.1.20. Non-metallic Microelectrode or Micropipet

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

Fig.1.21. Equivalent circuit of Non-metallic Microelectrode or

Micropipet
where,
EA – Metal electrode – Electrolyte potential
EB – Reference electrode – Extracellular fluid potential
EC – Variable cell membrane potential.
ED – Potential existing at the tip due to different electrolytes present in the
pipet and the cell E = EA+ EB+ ED.
RA – Resistance of connecting wire.
RFA,RWA,CWA- Impedance of the electrode-elctrolyte interface.
RT – Resistance of the electrolyte filling the tip of the Micropipet.
RIN & REX – Resistances of the electrolyte inside and outside the cell.
RFB,RWB,CWB- Impedence of the reference electrode-electrolyte.
RB- resistance of the wire connected to the reference electrode.
CD - Distributed capacitance between the fluid in the pipet and Extra cellular
fluid
CD‟ – Equivalent of distributed capacitances.
RECORDING PROBLEMS

Noise in biopotential recording

As surface biopotential recording involves the measurement of extremely
small potential differences, noise is likely to play an important role. The ECG has a
typical amplitude of 1 mV. One per cent of this value is generally accepted as the
upper level of noise voltage in ECG recording.
Electrode-electrolyte noise
Noise at the electrolyte
skin interface
Motion artifact
Electric and magnetic field interference
Thermal noise
Amplifier noise
Noise from additional bioelectric events
Other noise sources
Silver –Silver Chloride electrodes

Half cell potential is 2.5 mV only

Reduces the noise voltage and Increases the stability electrochemically
Stabilizes the half cell potential- no movement artifacts (variable
Electrochemical voltage)
Reduce the low frequency electrode- electrolyte impedance.

Distortion in signals

Ag-Agcl electrode uses shielded cable to reduce interference

Johnson noise (random movement of charge carriers) or ohmic noise (ohmic
component of the electrode impedance) occurs in micro electrodes.
Movement artifacts: equal half cell potential and high impedance will
minimize the artifacts (floating electrodes).
Distortion: movement of low current density.
Using large area electrode and bio electric recorder of high input impedance
the distortion in the wave form is reduced.
MEASUREMENT WITH TWO ELECTRODES

Fig.1.22 Measurement with two electrodes

where
R1 and R2 - Resistance
E1 and E2 - Half-cell potential
C1 and C2 - Capacitance
Z1 and Z2 -Skin contact impedance
Rt - Tissue resistance
Ct -Tissue capacitance
Rf1 and Rf2 - Faradic leakage resistance
Eb- Bioelectric event
The electrical equivalent circuit of the surface electrode suggests that the
voltage presented to the measuring instrument from the electrode consists
of two main components.
One is the contact potential and the other is the biological signal of interest.
The contact potential depends upon several factors and may produce an
interference signal which exceeds several times the useful signal. The
contact potential is found to be a function of the type of skin, skin
preparation and composition of the electrolyte.
When bioelectric events are recorded, interference signals are produced by
the potential differences of metal-electrolyte and the electrolyte-skin
interface. Normally, these potential differences are connected in opposition
during the recording procedure, and in the case of a truly reversible and
uniform electrode pair, their difference would be nil.
If ac signals are to be recorded, the potential difference between the two
electrodes will not interfere with the useful signals, provided that the contact
potential difference between the electrodes is constant. However, if the rate
of change with time of the contact potential falls within the frequency
spectrum of the signal under test, an error will be produced.
The problem of difference of contact potentials becomes serious in case dc
signals such as EOG are to be recorded. Any variation in the contact
potential would greatly alter the character of the signal to be recorded which
may itself be of extremely low amplitude in the order of a few micro volts.
Based on the above mentioned considerations, it is possible to construct the
circuit in which a pair of electrodes is placed in electrolytic contact with a
subject. The electrodes are used to measure a bioelectric event and are
connected to a differential amplifier.
Three potentials are found to exist in this circuit. one is due to the
bioelectric event (Eb) and the other two are non physiologic and represent
the half-cell potentials (E1 and E2) of the electrodes. Z1 and Z2 are the skin
contact impedances of these electrodes and R is the tissue resistance or
resistance of the bioelectric generator.
This circuit shows that the impedance of the electrodes would be high in the
low frequency region and it would decrease with increasing frequency. While
measuring the bioelectric signals, it is important to minimize potential drops
across the electrode impedance. This is achieved by making the skin-contact
impedance as low as possible and making the input impedance of the
measuring device as high as possible.
6.4 Part A Q & A (with K level and CO)

S.No PART A CO’S Bloom

s Level

1. What are Bioelectric potentials?

 Bioelectric potentials are ionic voltages produced
due to electro
chemical activity of cells associated with nerve
conduction, brain
activity, heart beat, muscle activity and so on.
 Living tissues are considered as power station
generating multiple
electrical signals with two internal sources called CO1 K1
muscles and
nerves.
 Muscular contraction is associated with the
migration of ions –
which generates potential differences.
 Bio electric potentials are generated at cellular level
and the
source of these potentials is ionic in nature.
2. What is resting potential of a cell? Give typical
values.
 The drift and diffusion process gives rise to a balance of
ions between Inside and outside of a cell.
 Usually , Nerve and muscle cells permit the entry of
potassium and chloride ions. It blocks entry of sodium
ions.
 Due to the difference in permeability of different ions ,
charge balance is not achieved. So that an equilibrium
condition is reached with the potential difference across
the membrane, such that negative potential on the inside
the cell membrane and positive potential on the outside
membrane. CO1 K1
 This membrane potential caused by different
concentration of ions is called as Resting Potential. The
resting potential of a cell is given as negative Voltage (-
60mV to -100mV).

43
S.No PART A CO’S Bloom
s Level
3. What is an action potential?

When the cell membrane is excited by some external

energy or stimulus, then the permeability changes.
The cell membrane is stimulated by stimulus, the
permeability of cell membrane of Na+ is dramatically
increased. Sodium channels are open, sodium ions
rush through the channel to the inside of the cell
causing inside of the cell to be more positive than the
outside. This is called Depolarization. The membrane
potential becomes reversed and reaches a voltage of CO1 K1
+35mV. The positive potential of the cell membrane
during excitation is called as action potential.

4. Draw the action potential waveform.

It can be divided 5 phases:
 The Resting Potential
 Threshold
 The Rising Phase (Depolarization)
 The Falling Phase( Repolarization)
 The Recovery phase

CO1 K2

44
S.No PART A CO’S Bloom
s Level

5. Give the Nernst equation for electrode potential.

The half-cell potential developed can be expressed by

the Nernst equation :

where CO1 K1
n- Valency of ion ; R- Gas Constant ;
T- Temperature
C1,C2 – Concentration of selected ion on two
sides of the membrane
f1,f2 – Activity coefficients of the ion on two
sides of the membrane
6. How is action potential propagated?

 When the cell membrane is excited by some

external energy or stimulus, then the
permeability changes.
 The cell membrane is stimulated by stimulus, the
permeability of cell membrane of Na+ is
CO1 K1
dramatically increased.
 Sodium channels are open, sodium ions rush
through the channel to the inside of the cell
causing inside of the cell to be more positive than
the outside. This is called Depolarization.
 The membrane potential becomes reversed and
reaches a voltage of +35mV.
7. How is the half cell potential setup?

 The interface of metallic ions in solution with

their associated metal results in an electrical
potential. That is called electrode potential.
 Half-cell potential is the voltage developed at the
electrode-electrolyte interface.
 Half cell potential is determined by CO1 K1
 Metal involved
 Concentration of the ion
 Temperature

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 In a metal – solution interface, electrode potential

arises at two conditions
 when ions travel from metal into the solution
 when ions in solution combine with electrons
in the metal they form the atom of metal.
CO1 K1
 Metal electrode and body fluid interacts electrode
discharges ions into solution. At the same
instance ions in the electrolyte combine with the
electrode. This results in the generation of charge
gradient.
8. What is absolute and relative refractory period?

Absolute Refractory Period:

It is the time duration in which the cell
cannot respond to any new stimulus. It is about 1ms in
nerve cells CO1 K1
Relative Refractory Period:
It is one during which another
potential can be triggered but higher stimulus is required
to reinitiate the action potential and the subsequent
contraction of muscles. RRP is in several milliseconds.
9. Define All or Nothing law.
All or nothing law states that
regardless of the method of excitation of cells or by the CO1 K1
intensity of the stimulus , the action potential is the same
for any given cell.
10. What are Biopotential Electrodes?
 Bio electrodes function as an interface between
biological structures and electronic systems.
 Electrodes are employed to pick up the electrical
signal of the body.
 Act as Transducer (i.e.) Ionic current in the body CO1 K1
electronic current in the circuit.

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11. List different types of electrodes

 Different types of electrodes used for biological

measurements depend on the anatomical locations,
from where the bioelectric signals are measured.
Bioelectric electrodes acquire the signals like ECG, CO1 K1
EEG, EMG, etc.
 Generally, Electrodes can be classified into 3 types:
Surface electrodes.
Depth and needle electrodes.
Micro electrodes.

12. What is polarized and non- polarized Electrodes?

 When current is applied there is no net transfer of

charge across the metal electrolyte, interface
electrodes are Perfectly Polarized Electrode.
Electrodes behave like capacitors. Example:
Platinum Electrode.
CO1 K1
 When the exchange of charge occurs across metal-
electrolyte interface without hindrance, electrode
are Perfectly Non Polarized Electrode. Here
current flows freely across the interface and energy
is not required for it. Example: Ag/AgCl electrode.
For recording applications, Non-Polarized electrodes
are used.
13. Define micro electrode and what are the types of
Micro electrodes?

 It is used to measure the bioelectric potential near

or within a single cell. While measuring the
potential of the microelectrode is located within the
cell and the reference electrode is placed outside
the cell.
 It is also called Intracellular electrodes. CO1 K1
 It has a very small diameter, so that it does not
damage the cell while insertion.
 Size of the cells is about 50 microns, the diameter
of the tip of the microelectrode is ranging from 0.5
to 5 microns.
 2 Types:
Metal microelectrodes
Micropipet (Non metallic microelectrodes)

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14. List the different types of surface electrodes

Surface electrodes can be classified into 5

types:
 Metal Plate Electrodes (Limb Electrodes) CO1 K1
 Suction Cup Electrodes (Welsh Cup)
 Adhesive Tape Electrodes
 Multipoint Type Electrodes
 Floating Electrodes
15. List the types of internal electrodes?

 Needle electrodes also called as Internal

Electrodes. Used to measure EEG and EMG Signals.
 A short length of the fine insulated metal wire is
bent at its one end and the bent portion is inserted
through the lumen of the needle and is advanced
into the muscle.
CO1 K1
 When we insert two insulated wires into the lumen
of the needle, then the two wires constitute bipolar
electrode such that one wire act as active electrode
and another act as reference electrode.
 3 Types:
Monopolar Needle Electrode
Concentric or Coaxial Needle Electrode
Bipolar Needle Electrode
17. What are the electrodes used for ECG, EEG and
EMG measurement?

surface electrodes are used for ECG

Needle Electrodes are used for EEG and EMG CO1 K1

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16. Draw the equivalent circuit of Metal

Microelectrodes.

where
EA – Metal electrode – Electrolyte potential
EB – Reference electrode – Electrolyte potential
EC – Variable cell membrane potential CO1 K2
RA – Resistance of connecting wire (Negligible)
RS - Resistance of shaft of the micro
electrode(Negligible)
RFA,RWA,CWA- Impedance of the ME tip- inter
cellular fluid interface.
RIN- Resistance of the intra cellular fluid
RB- resistance of the wire connected to the
reference electrode
RFB,RWB,CWB- Impedance of the RE tip- Extra
cellular fluid interface.
REX- Resistance of the Extra cellular fluid
CD- Distributed capacitance between the tip of
the ME and Extra cellular fluid(Negligible)
19. Draw equivalent circuit of Half-cell Potential.

CO1 K2
where
Ehc – Half cell potential
Rd-Leakage Resistance
Cd- Electrode Capacitance
Rs- Skin Resistance

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6.5 Part B Q & A (with K level and CO)

S.No PART B CO’S Blooms

Level

1. (i) How do you record the action potential?

(ii) With the action potential waveform summarize
CO1 K1
depolarization, repolarization and absolute and
relative refractory periods.

2. Explain generation of Action potential and its

CO1 K2
propagation.

3. (i) Explain the characteristics of resting potential

with reference to Nernst equation.
CO1 K2
(ii) Explain Half cell Potential and over potential of
electrode

4. Describe the usage of the various types of electrodes

CO1 K2
used to measure biopotentials.

5. (i) How the Limb and suction cup electrodes can be

used for recording of ECG.
CO1 K1
(ii) Explain the effect of electrode potential on
biosignals.

6. Draw the electrical equivalent circuit of a glass

microelectrode and explain its electrical CO1 K1
characteristics.

7. What are body surface electrodes? Describe in brief

CO1 K1
with suitable examples.

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12. Define Einthoven triangle. CO2 K1

The closed path RA to LA to LL and back to RA is called

Einthoven triangle. According to Einthoven the frontal
plane of the body and cardiac electric field vector forms
the two dimensional plane.
13. Define electrocardiogram (ECG) CO2 K1

The electrocardiogram is a graphic recording or display of

the time variant voltage display produced by myocardium
during cardiac cycle. Electrocardiography (ECG) deals with
the study of electrical activity of heart muscles.

14. How the heart sounds and murmurs characterized? CO2 K2

Heart sounds and murmurs are usually characterized by

three physical properties. They are
 Frequency
 Amplitude
 Quality

15. List the three augmented lead connections. CO2 K1

The three augmented lead connections are

Augmented voltage right arm (aVR)
Augmented voltage left arm (VL)
Augmented voltage foot (aVF).

16. How many lead selections are required for CO2 K2

electrocardiograms?

Twelve lead selections are required to record the

electrocardiogram. i.e. 3 standard bipolar leads, 3
augmented leads and 6 chest leads.

17. List the practical considerations for ECG recording. CO2 K1

Artifacts, wandering of base line, solid base line, frequency

response.

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18. Define excitory post synaptic potential (EPSP). CO2 K1

If the transmitter substance is excitatory, the receptor

membrane potential increases in a positive direction. So
that the receptor neuron is more likely to discharge and
produces a spike potential. This induced change is
called excitory post synaptic potential(EPSP).
19. Give the classifications of the brain waves. CO2 K2

Brain waves are classified into four types. They are

 Alpha wave
 Beta wave
 Theta wave
 Delta wave

20. How many electrodes are used in modern EEG CO2 K2

unit?

12 electrodes are used in modern EEG unit.

21. How the EEG can be recorded? CO2 K1

EEG may be recorded by picking up voltage difference

between an active electrode on the scalp with respect
to a reference electrode on the ear lobe or other part of
the body. This type of recording is called monopolar
recording.
22. Define Epilepsy. CO2 K1

Epilepsy is a system for brain damage. This may be due

to defects in the birth delivery or head injury during
accident or boxing. It may also be due to brain tumor.

23. Define stroke volume. CO2 K1

Stroke volume is defined as the amount of blood that is

ejected during each heart beat.
Stroke volume = Cardiac output / number of beats/
min.

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24. Define total lung capacity. CO2 K1

Total lung capacity (TLC) is the amount of gas

contained in the lungs at the end of maximal
inspiration. It is the sum of vital capacity and residual
volume.
25. Define heart sounds. CO2 K1

Heart sounds are acoustic phenomena resulting from

the vibrations of cardiac structures. 74.List the
classifications of heart sounds. Heart sounds are
classified into four group on the basis of their
mechanism of origin.
They are
 Valve closure sounds
 Ventricular filling sounds
 Valve opening sounds
 Extra cardiac sounds

26. Define heart murmurs. CO2 K1

Heart murmurs are sounds related to non-laminar flow
of blood in the heart and great vessels.

27. Give the origin of heart sounds. CO2 K2

There are four basic separate heart sounds that occur
during the sequence of one complete cycle.
First heart sound: it is produced by the sudden closure
of the mitral and tricuspid valves associated with
myocardial contraction.
Second heart sound : it is due to the vibration set up by
the closure of semilunar valves. i.e. the closure of aortic
and pulmonary valves.
Third heart sound : It arises as the ventricles relax and
the internal pressure drops below the pressure in the
atrium.
Fourth heart sound : it is also called an atrial sound. It
is caused by an accelerated flow of blood into ventricles
or due to atrial contraction.
28. Define inhibitory post synaptic potential (IPSP). CO2 K1
If the transmitter substance in inhibitory, the
membrane potential of the receptor neuron increases in
a negative direction. So that it is less likelyto
discharge, this induced potential change is called
inhibitory post synaptic potential.

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6.5 Part B Q & A (with K level and CO)

S.No PART B CO’S Blooms

Level

1. Express the importance of 12 lead system in ECG. CO2 K2

2. Analyze the 10-20 system of recording EEG.
CO2 K2

3. Show the typical ECG waveform and mark the

important features and their associated function of CO2 K2
the heart
4. Develop the EEG waveform in detail and its signal
frequency bands. CO2 K2

5. Compare the signal characteristics of ECG and EMG CO2 K2

6. Measure the ECG recording system in detail CO2 K2

7. Discuss about augmented unipolar limb lead system CO2 K2
8. Measure the EEG recording system in detail CO2 K2
9. Explain in detail about EMG with recording system CO2 K2
10. Discuss about different types of bio electric signals
and its characteristics CO2 K2

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