Arab J Sci Eng (2013) 38:317–328

DOI 10.1007/s13369-012-0436-6

RESEARCH ARTICLE - SPECIAL ISSUE - MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

A Review on the Drawbacks of Renewable Energy as a Promising

Energy Source of the Future
Abbas Azarpour · Suardi Suhaimi ·
Gholamreza Zahedi · Alireza Bahadori

Received: 11 March 2012 / Accepted: 25 June 2012 / Published online: 5 December 2012
© King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals 2012

Abstract A common misconception of renewable energy

(RE) is that it could serve as a holistic solution to the prob-
lems associated with the disreputable but yet reliable fossil
fuel and nuclear energy. Energy supply and related environ-
mental problems, especially global warming could be suc-
cessfully addressed just by switching from the conventional
fossil fuel and nuclear energy to purportedly environmen-
tal friendly and sustainable renewable sources. But this cre-
dence is proved to be a fallacy as RE sources could not meet
the demand of energy that is growing globally without pos-
ing certain associated problems to human and the environ-
ment. RE supply from domestic wind, hydroelectric dam,
solar energy, ground-source heat, and biomass waste was
proven to be incapable of meeting energy demand. The scale
of demand for these resources combined would be highly
colossal and there are bound to be problems in integrat-
ing massive amounts of intermittent RE into existing sup-
ply systems. This paper will discuss problems-related RE
(biomass sources, wind, solar, hydropower and geothermal
energy combined) from engineering, environment, health and
economy perspective. 1 Introduction

Keywords Renewable energy · Wind · Geothermal · Energy is the exchangeable prevalence of technology. When
Solar · Biomass · Source populations increase at a rate higher than the average 2 %,
the necessity for more energy should be considered. Change
in lifestyle along with wealthy industrialized economies has
contributed to an inevitable increase in global energy demand
[1]. With projected energy demand of 1,000 EJ by 2050,
A. Azarpour · S. Suhaimi · G. Zahedi (B)
Process Systems Engineering Centre (PROSPECT), Faculty
world energy crisis is imminent if current trend of energy
of Chemical and Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, usage persists [2]. Dependencies on non-renewable energy
UTM Skudai, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia (non-RE) sources which include nuclear, fossil fuels and
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] coal would further accelerate the rate at which these non-
RE sources deplete due to the inevitable increase in global
A. Bahadori
School of Environment, Science and Engineering, energy demand. Apart from depletion, other problems asso-
Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW, Australia ciated with the aforementioned non-RE sources are related

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to environmental concerns like air pollution, acid precipita- able development in energy supply, with the renewability
tion, global warming, ozone depletion, forest destruction, and of the energy resources ranked first in priority. Other fac-
radioactive substances emission. The growth of world popu- tors include impacts to environment, health and economics
lation leads a corresponding increase in energy needs. World viability [4–6].
population reaching 7 billion people is a major achievement. During the past two decades, environmental deterioration
Since 1968, the population of our world has doubled. How- have become more apparent, where most of the impending
ever, despite major declines in the average number of chil- problems are related to the current sources of energy. The
dren per women, population growth is projected to continue major areas of environmental impacts may be categorized as
at least until the middle of the 21st century. Nearly all of this follows.
population growth will occur in less-developed countries and
in countries that already face major difficulties in meeting the – Major environmental accidents
basic needs of their citizens [3]. – Water pollution
One remedy to the forthcoming energy scarcity and depen- – Land use and siting impact
dency on the depleting non-renewable energy sources is to – Radiation and radioactivity
increase the utilization of renewable energy (RE) sources. – Solid waste disposal
The concept of renewable energy was introduced to address – Hazardous air pollutants
this issue and it was unanimously accepted as suitable solu- – Ambient air quality
tion. Renewable energy could be defined as the energy that – Acid rain
could be derived from renewable sources; thus, the problem – Stratospheric ozone depletion, and
of depletion as in the case of fossil fuel is all but artifact. Apart – Global climate change (greenhouse effect).
from its renewability, another compelling aspect of renew-
able energy is its green nature as it would not produce green- Table 1 gives information on the renewable energy tech-
house gases which are the major setback of fossil fuel. This nologies as a combination of several old views like hydro-
article discusses all types RE sources beginning with their power, geothermal, and biomass and new technologies such
respective advantages as well as disadvantages. The main as solar and ocean thermal [7].
concentration of this study is to present the drawbacks of the In the literatures, many advantages have been mentioned
renewable energy sources which are regarded as a solution to regarding the renewable energies. Some of them have been
the increasing demand of the world energy. The view of not notified here to present an overview of the benefits of renew-
relying on the RE sources has been scarcely focused in the able energies.
literature, especially in one collection of investigations. Here-
after, the renewable energy is described generally following 1.1.1 Wind Energy
their advantages and, more importantly for this survey, their
drawbacks. Wind is created when the earth’s equatorial regions get more
solar energy than the polar regions forming large-scale con-
1.1 Renewable Energy vection streams in the atmosphere. Meteorologists predict
that about 1 % of the received solar radiation is turned to wind
All energy stocks on Earth originate from the sun in the form energy due to considerable temperature gradient that could
of solar energy which is completely sustainable, and it could result in substantial convection and thus wind. Considering
be transformed into other forms of useful energy. There are the energy content of solar energy radiation within just
many factors that should be considered to achieve sustain- 10 days is equivalent to the world’s whole fossil fuel stocks,

Table 1 Maturity of renewable energy technologies

Proven capability (Hydropower) Transition phase (Wind) Future potential (Advanced Turbine)

Geothermal Hydrothermal Hydrothermal Hot dry rock Geo-pressure magma

Biomass Direct combustion gasification
Biofuels Ethanol from corn municipal wastes Methane
Passive solar Buildings
Active solar Buildings process heat
Solar thermal Thermal/gas hybrid Advanced electricity high-temperature process
Photovoltaics Small remote specialty products Remote power diesel hybrid Utility power
Ocean thermal

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electricity generation is considerably greater than any other

renewable energy technology, especially in the less-devel-
oped countries. It is limited to the places where water is avail-
able and there is proper geomorphology. The flexibility of
hydropower and its reliable technology distinguishes it from
other renewable energy sources [20,21]. Since hydropower
does not utilize or contaminate the water to produce power,
disruption in clean water supply is less. Simultaneously, the
revenues attained by electricity sales can be invested to pro-
vide other essential amenities for human well-being. This
might consist of potable water supply systems, irrigation
plans for food production, establishments boosting naviga-
tion, recreational facilities and ecotourism [22–24].
Fig. 1 A wind farm in Manjil of Iran
1.1.3 Solar Energy
the potential of tapping wind energy which accounts for one
percent of the total solar radiation is significant [8]. Wind Solar energy is another clean resource which does not bring
generation is growing significantly as a choice of technol- any direct negative effect to the environment. The abundant
ogy for new capacity supplements in power systems world- solar energy is frequently called “alternative energy” to fos-
wide [9–11]. Recently, a survey has been done to predict the sil fuel energy sources such as oil and coal. The depletion of
medium monthly wind speed at a couple of areas in Saudi fossil fuels has caused global concern in shifting toward the
Arabia by employing Abductory Induction Mechanism to utilization of solar energy [25–27]. Although it is currently
establish a wind-speed map over the whole country [12]. the most expensive type of renewable energies that embodies
Another study has been carried out in Algeria to evaluate only a minor portion of global energy demands (5 % of the
the reduction of CO2 emission into the atmosphere by the total chief energy supply), solar power is a type of energy
development of a wind farm [13]. The review of McVicar with great future potential. In some regions of the earth, it
et al. indicates that earthly observed near surface wind veloc- might be regarded as today’s best solution for a decentral-
ity is extensive across the globe and the rate of evaporative ized energy supply [28,29]. In assessing the global potential
demand is declining. In addition, they suggest that evalua- of solar energy, a study to estimate of global solar radiation
tion of evaporative demand trends needs involvement of wind based on measurement from 52 cities of 11 different countries
speed, atmospheric humidity, radiation, and air temperature has been conducted and it was concluded with an improved
[14]. There are some investigation which discuss on wind- model that could sufficiently estimate solar radiation with
speed analysis and optimization of wind-energy yield [15– better accuracy [30]. In accordance with the 2010 BP Sta-
17]. Figure 1 depicts a wind farm located in Manjil of Iran, tistical Energy Survey, the world aggregate installed solar
a region that is famous for its windy microclimate. energy capacity was 22,928.9 MW implying an improvement
Wind energy has many advantages like low cost, cleanli- of 46.9 % in comparison with 2008 [31]. In addition, various
ness, and abundance. Unlike coal or petroleum that produces studies indicate that solar energy may become a likely energy
harmful gases such as CO, CO2 , NOx and SOx , renewable of the future [30,32–42].
energies are clean, cost-free and abundant. There is no trans- An improved model has been developed to predict the
portation problem and no requirement for a high technology contribution of solar energy to the future energy needs [30].
to tap the wind energy. The technology of changing wind Using this model, it has been predicted that solar energy
energy to mechanical and electrical energy is more econom- could provide significant amount of energy especially in the
ical in comparison with other energy conversion systems. regions with high solar radiation throughout the year [40,41].
Thus, at the areas having sufficient wind densities, huge eco-
nomic benefits can be gained by setting up wind energy con- 1.1.4 Biomass Energy
version systems (WECS) [18,19].
Biomass is getting more attention as a clean alternative
1.1.2 Hydropower Energy source of energy to fossil fuel due to an appreciable increase
in energy demand, increase in fossil fuels’ price and dimin-
Hydropower provides 20 % of the world’s power generation. ishing supply and associated environmental concerns,espe-
As a matter of fact, it allocates the most important supply cially, the greenhouse effect [43–45]. Several bioenergy pol-
of 55 countries. For many countries, hydropower is the only icies like the Brazilian Biofuel Law, the Indian Biofuel
homely energy resource. The current role of hydropower in Policy, the US Renewable Fuel Standard, and European

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policies such as the Renewable Energy Directive, Strategy the associated physical phenomena. The main problem with
on Biofuels and the Biomass Action Plans motivate the geothermal energy is that it is erratically spread, scarcely
use of biomass to decrease fossil fuel reliance and to ful- concentrated, and, generally, at depths very far to be indus-
fill the greenhouse gas reduction strategies. These policies trially exploited. Earth’s geothermal energy is derived from
were developed as guidelines to ensure the sustainability of the original formation of the planet (20 %) and from radio-
large-scale bioenergy crop production. Main negative effects active decay of minerals (80 %) [65]. The geothermal gra-
include the direct and indirect land-use change [46–49] and dient, which is the difference in temperature between the
biodiversity loss [50,51], water supply availability [52–54], core of the Earth and its surface, creates a continuous con-
increasing agricultural products cost and risks of food secu- duction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the
rity [55–59]. These threats have to be evaluated against likely core to the surface. It can be felt since the temperature of
advantages like boosted greenhouse gas balance, business rocks improves with depth, verifying that a geothermal gra-
and earnings generation, agricultural evolution, conversion dient exists and its average value is 30 ◦ C/km of depth
of prevailing industries and enhanced security of energy [66]. Geothermal energy has been tapped since the era of
resources [60,61]. ancient Rome, especially in the public bath, but it is now
Biofuels encompass an extensive range of fuels which well known for electricity generation. Direct geothermal for
originate from biomass. The term includes solid biomass, liq- heating is also growing rapidly. Geothermal power is cost
uid fuels and various biogases. The first-generation biofuels effective, reliable, sustainable, and environmentally friendly
are made from the sugars and vegetable oils found in arable [67].
crops, which can be easily extracted using conventional tech- While it is true that geothermal wells emit greenhouse
nology. In comparison, the second-generation biofuels are gases that stuck deep within the earth, these emissions are
made from lignocellulosic biomass or woody crops, agricul- much less than those of fossil fuels. Consequently, geother-
tural residues or waste, which makes it harder to extract the mal power has the potential to help relieve global warming
required fuel. Currently, there are at least five different forms providing broadly distributed in place of fossil fuels. The
of biofuels: (1) bioethanol produced from starch-rich crops United States is pioneer in the world in geothermal electric-
like sugarcane, wheat, cassava, sorghum and maize; (2) bio- ity production with 3,086 MW of installed capacity from 77
diesel produced from oil-rich seeds such as soya, oil palm and power plants in 2010 [68]. The Table 3 illustrates the renew-
jatropha; (3) biogas generated from the biological disintegra- able energies from 2004 to 2010 [69–71].
tion of organic matter such as animal or human wastes and
other biomass; (4) biomethanol produced from cellulosic;
(5) biohydrogen produced from biomass or by synthesis of 2 Disadvantages of RE
methane by steam reforming [62]. By the improvement of
the technology, cellulosic biomass like trees and grasses are Unfortunately, the drawbacks of this supposedly promising
also employed as feedstocks for ethanol production. Etha- energy are often overlooked to the extent that renewable
nol can be utilized as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, energy is unanimously viewed as an ideal solution to replace
but it is commonly employed as a gasoline additive to boost the depleting non-renewable energy sources of today. The
octane and improve vehicle emissions. Bioethanol is broadly first major concern is the capability of RE to meet the grow-
utilized in the USA and Brazil. ing demand of energy. Based on the current trend of energy
Pure biodiesel, also known as B100, can also be used as demand and supply, fossil fuel is still the major source of
a fuel for vehicles, but it is usually utilized as a diesel addi- energy with more than 80 % contribution to global demand
tive to decrease the levels of particulates, carbon monoxide, [1]. This indicates how dominant fossil fuel is due to its reli-
and hydrocarbons from diesel-powered vehicles. The use of ability compared to RE. Moreover, there are uncertainties
biodiesel is the most common biofuel in Europe. Biofuels with RE and extensive ongoing research and the improve-
supplied 2.7 % of the world’s transport fuel in 2010 [63]. ment of the feasibility of changing from fossil fuel to RE are
Extensive studies in the literature show that ethanol could be still at the preliminary stage. With only less than 20 % input,
produced from different raw materials. Table 2 provides an the potential of RE to become a major source of energy for
overview of the global long-term bioenergy supply potential tomorrow still remains in doubt.
by source [64]. RE sources are vulnerable to climate change due to its
inherent nature [2]. A shift in global climate would inevi-
1.1.5 Geothermal Energy tably affect RE to some extent. For instance, long drought
season would affect stream level, hence, flow and ultimately
Geothermal energy is thermal energy produced and stored the available energy for the generator in hydroelectric dam to
below the surface of the Earth. The source of this type of convert to electricity. The same circumstance could also be
energy is related to the internal structure of the Earth and expected in the case of wind energy as climate change would

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Table 2 Global long-term bioenergy supply potential by source, 2050 [64]

Biomass category Bioenergy potential, 2050 (EJ) Main assumptions and remarks

Agriculture residue 15–70 Relied on predictions from various studies. Potential counts on yield/product
ratios and the total agricultural land area as well as type of production
system: large production systems need reutilization of residues for keeping
soil fertility. Comprehensive systems enable higher utilization rates of
residues
Forest residues 30–150 (or possibly 0) Amounts incorporate processing residues. Part is natural forest (reserves).
The sustainable energy potential of the world’s forests is unclear. Low
estimates based on sustainable forest management; high value reflects
technical potential
Organic wastes 0–50 +a Based on estimates from various studies. Include the organic fraction of
MSW and waste wood. Strongly dependent on economic development,
consumption and the use of biomaterials. Higher values possible by more
intensive use of biomaterials
Animal dung 5–55 (or possibly 0) Use of dried dung. Low estimate relied on global current utilization; high
estimate demonstrates technical potential. Use (collection) in longer term is
uncertain
Energy farming (on 0–700 (100–300 is more Likely land availability: 0–4 Gha, although 1–2 is more average. Relied on
current agricultural average) productivity of 8–12 dry tonne/ha/yearb (higher yields are feasible with
land) better soil quality). If transformation of thorough agriculture production
systems is not likely, bioenergy stock could be decreased to zero
Energy farming 60–150 (or possibly 0) Potential maximum land area of 1.7Gha. Low productivity of
(on marginal lands) 2–5 dry tonne/ha/yearb . Bioenergy supply could be low or zero due to poor
economics or competition with food production
Biomaterials Minus 40–150 (or These provide an additional claim on biomass supplies. Land area required to
possibly 0) meet additional global demand is 0.2–0.8Gha. Average productivity: 5 dry
tonnes/ha/yearb . Supply would come from energy farming if forests are
unable to meet projected demand
Total 40–1100 (250-500 is Pessimistic scenario assumes no land available for energy farming, only
more average) utilization of residues; optimistic scenario assumes intensive agriculture on
better-quality soils. More average potential: more likely in a world aiming
for large-scale utilization of bioenergy

EJ exajoules (1018 J), Gha billion hectares

a The energy supply of biomaterials ending up as waste varies between 20 and 55 EJ (1,100–2,900 Mtonne) dry matter per year (biomass lost during

conversion, such as charcoal, is logically excluded from this range). This range excludes cascading and does not take into account the time delay
between production of the material and release as (organic) waste
b Heating value: 19 GJ/tonne dry matter

Table 3 Selected renewable energy indicators

Selected global indicators 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010a

Investment in new renewable capacity (annual) 30 38 63 104 130 160 211 billion USD
Existing renewable power capacity, including large-scale hydro 895 930 1,020 1,070 1,140 1,230 1,320 GWe
Existing renewable power capacity, excluding large hydro 200 250 312 GWe
Hydropower capacity (existing) 950 980 1,010 GWe
Wind power capacity (existing) 48 59 74 94 121 159 198 GWe
Solar PV capacity (grid-connected) 7.6 16 23 40 GWe
Solar cell production (annual) 6.9 11 24 GWe
Solar hot-water capacity (existing) 77 88 105 120 130 160 185 GWth
Ethanol production (annual) 30.5 33 39 50 67 76 85 billion liters
Biodiesel production (annual) 12 17 19 billion liters
Countries with policy targets for renewable energy use 45 49 68 79 89 98
GWe Gigawatt of electric energy, GWth Gigawatt thermal
a Investment in new renewable capacity for 2011 was 260 billion USD

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Table 4 Disadvantages of renewable energy from different sources

RE source Disadvantages References

Hydro Loss of home and source of income for local inhabitants; possible extinction of freshwater [73–77]
aquatic biota; risk of dam structure failure; disruption in natural river flow; decrease in
land fertility due to reduction in sediment deposition; risk of flood; decomposition of
immersed biomass would result in emission of greenhouse gasses
Wind Threat to birds and bats; disturbance resulting from vibration of the moving mechanical [73,78–83]
parts; potential change in global climate; potential habitat loss
Biomass Produce yield will be affected by biomass crop; loss of biodiversity; elimination of current [76,84,85]
biomass waste uses
Solar Photovoltaic cell production requires the use of toxic heavy-metals and rare earth minerals; [39,73,81,86,87]
imbalance in the ecosystem of the affected area; not evenly distributed as only certain area
will experience certain level of solar radiation throughout the year
Geothermal Could induce micro-seismicity and land subsidence; could cause water and air pollution [73,88,89]

also has a significant impact on wind pattern and, thus, the electric dam has seen 1.57 million hectares of forest cleared
availability and opportunity to utilize this resource. affecting 44 species of protected birds, mammals and fishes
Another setback of RE is its distribution. Distribution of along with over 1,600 species of protected plants [94].
RE sources is not uniform across geographical borders across Related construction activities, especially, aluminum
the globe. For instance, approximately half of world winds smelting and improper drainage system are other major con-
energy available in just five countries with total population cerns as inadequate management of these activities would
of less than 10 % of global population (Argentina, Canada, result in problems that could otherwise be avoided. Gener-
USA, Russia and Australia) [72]. If the energy harnessed ated waste from aluminum smelting would result in the con-
from these countries is not redistributed to energy-deficient tamination of stream by the leachate, while nearby areas are
region, imbalance of energy supply per capita would be inev- at a high risk of flooding due to poor drainage system [77].
itable. But, redistribution might also pose another potential The natural flow of the rivers will also be negatively
problem which is loss of energy output when energy is dis- affected as the sediments that are naturally carried by the
tributed either via gridlines or through conversion to another flow would be impeded by the dam impoundment resulting
form of energy (e.g., chemical). The drawbacks of RE is in the accumulation of sediments, and eventually, the area
summarized in Table 4. just upstream of the impoundment would become shallow.
This would require heavy maintenance to remove the sed-
iment’s deposit. The water at the downstream of the dam
2.1 Hydropower Energy would also become pristine clear indicating the lack of sedi-
ments that might also be the source of nutrient for the biota
Hydropower energy seems a very promising renewable [92]. This would expose important plant species just down-
power source. The idea of harnessing the energy of the flow- stream of the dam to the risk of elimination, thus, altering the
ing streams might seem so simple that its implications to ecology of the river. Several species of valuable fish native
the environment and inhabitants are often overlooked, i.e., to the constructed dam are known to migrate upstream from
the social and environmental impact assessment is not thor- estuaries during the spawning season. The dam structure will
oughly implemented [90,91]. It is shocking to reveal that also impede the migration of certain valuable or endangered
over the past 50 years, approximately 8 millions of people species of fish, exposing them to the risk of extinction [92].
have been displaced to make way for the construction of 300 Disruption of river flow would also carry another potential
hydroelectric dams. This trend is unlikely to change, because catastrophic environmental problem; disappearance of Aral
recent studies reported that each year, an average of 4 million Sea which could be described as the planet’s worst disaster
people would loose their home; hence, livelihood as invest- in history is perhaps the best example [95]. Figure 2 shows
ment in this type of RE continues to grow [92]. the diminishing Aral Sea from 1977 to 2006.
In terms of impacts to environment, hydropower dam is Without a careful planning and impact assessment to
also known to cause several problems which include defores- the environment in hydroelectric dam construction, it is not
tation, change in water quality and hydrology, greenhouse gas impossible that the same tragedy would occur again.
emission and derived impacts from dam construction activ- The failure of dam structures is the worst-case scenario as
ities [93]. Deforestation is necessary to make way for dam it would just affect not only the biota but also the local inhab-
construction, at the expense of the flora and fauna as well as itants living nearby. Banqiao and Shimantan dam failure in
the livelihood of local people. For example, the Bakun hydro- 1975 was perhaps the worst case of such incidence causing

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Fig. 2 The diminishing Aral

Sea due to the diversion of Amu
Darya and Syr Darya rivers by
Soviet Union in the 1960s

more than 2,600 deaths and the destruction of 5.24 million 2.3 Wind Energy
houses together with 1.13 million hectares of farmland [96].
Greenhouse gas emission that is frequently associated Wind energy requires substantial amount of land to install
with the agents of air pollution is surprisingly another prob- related facilities particularly the wind turbine, thus it suf-
lem that could arise from hydroelectric dam. Although it fers from practicality issues. The source of the energy, i.e.,
seems quite perplexing, the biomass carried by the river the wind could be described as intermittent would further
flow would become impeded and accumulated overtime. The add to the sensibility of resorting to this type of energy.
decomposition of these biomasses via microbial activities For example, during a windy day, wind turbines could gen-
would result in the emission of methane, carbon dioxide erate substantial amount of energy supply to meet energy
and nitrous oxide with total estimated carbon emission of demand. However, during a still day, perhaps not even a sin-
10.1 million tons [93]. gle watt could be produced. Storage could be an option as a
contingency whenever the turbines are producing more than
2.2 Biomass Energy enough energy but it suffers from reliability and efficiency
issues.
Biomass energy has been touted as an environmental-friendly Global climate change may also become another concern
energy source as it produces a much lower emission that as it would affect wing pattern in the long run. It has been
could be detrimental to the environment. Low input energy projected that China would experience about 14 % reduc-
required would also increase its feasibility in terms of eco- tion in wind power within the next century as a result of
nomic viability. However, it can only provide just a fraction decreasing temperature gradient between the polar and the
of global energy needs due to the availability of the feed, lower-altitude regions [98]. Similar trend could be expected
i.e., biomass [84]; beyond this, there are concerns about the in countries encompassed in the aforementioned region.
impacts of using land to grow energy crops as there is a pos- Installation of wind turbines requires a considerable use of
sibility of competition between energy crop and food crop land, thus its impact to the environment should be thoroughly
[84,85]. How serious these impacts are will depend on how assessed. For instance, if the area where the turbines would
carefully the resource is managed. The circumstance is fur- be installed is a habitat to certain flora and fauna, the potential
ther complicated as there is no single biomass technology, but habitat loss is should not be overlooked [78]. In addition, if
rather a wide variety of production and conversion methods, it is built in the vicinity of human settlement, the residents
each with different environmental impacts. Furthermore, the would have to tolerate the noise and vibration resulting from
combustion of biomass could possibly produce air pollutants, the movement of turbines’ mechanical parts [79]. Offshore
especially, in the form of nitrogen oxides (NOx ), and partic- wind turbine may also pose potential adverse effects on sea
ulates such as soot and ash at a larger magnitude than fossil aquatic biota. There have been also some claims that large-
fuel [97]. scale use of wind power can affect the pattern of wind flow

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to the extent that the weather pattern would be significantly sun beam that passed through the atmosphere will reach the
affected [99,100]. earth surface as some of it will be reflected, absorbed and
scattered by clouds, water vapor, air molecules, dust, smoke
2.4 Solar Energy from forest fires and volcanoes as well as air pollutants. This
type of radiation is termed as the diffuse radiation where the
Utilization of solar photovoltaic (PV) cells might seem an reduction in radiation could vary from as little as 10–100 %
interesting idea to tap the free energy from solar radiation as depending on the presence and level of the aforementioned
the radiation is abundantly available at zero cost. However, agents [106]. Direct radiation, on the other hand, refers to the
PV cells suffer from low efficiency and much of the energy radiation that strikes the surface of the earth at perpendicular
from solar radiation would be wasted as heat. Until 2010, or almost perpendicular angle with respect to the surface of
solar energy contributes to about 40 GW of power in terms the Earth without being diffused. These factors would inev-
of electricity supply, a volume that is still considered as neg- itably lead to variability in solar-radiation availability.
ligible relative to other sources of energy [101,102]. There Most of the studies conducted to assess the feasibility
is also associated cost in the manufacturing of PV cells that of solar energy were performed in the area near the tropics
contributes to its considerably prohibitive price tag [103]. that experienced virtually constant and direct solar radiation
This would render the utilization of solar energy as unjusti- throughout the year. The region includes countries of the
fiable, especially in developing countries with a much lower earth which includes India, Saudi Arabia, Malaysia, Thailand
GDP per capita, hence, lower purchasing power. and so on [42]. The observations from these regions tend to
There are other potential problems associated with solar overestimate the actual potential of solar energy as in some
energy which is health hazard. Solar-energy panels or photo- other regions where direct solar radiation is rare. In the area
voltaic-cell fabrication uses chemicals that are potentially that receives low amount of solar radiation, or the diffuse
harmful to human health, thus raising concerns about its solar radiation, the use of solar panel to harness this so-called
application. Chemicals with known risk to human health such free energy would be highly impractical, for example, at the
as germanium and cadmium are frequently used in the fabri- north and south poles and the nearby regions during the win-
cation of solar panels. Safe manufacturing methods and dis- ter where little or no solar radiation is available. In addition,
posal should be addressed by introducing certain standards. solar radiation also depends on the cycle and duration of day
Current photocatalysts that are produced from conven- and night. During the short duration of daylight in winter,
tional semiconductors are subjected to poor efficiency and solar panels will produce less electricity as it would dur-
stability rendering their applications limited. Si, Ga, As and ing the summer. Energy storage would be a sensible option
Cd are among the semiconductors that are in use and fre- but energy loss is inevitable whenever one form of energy
quently associated with limited electrochemical stability. is transformed to another form. Moreover, energy storage
Photons with energy lower than the band gap of such mate- would also require some extent of energy inputs during its
rials would cause temperature increase instead of electrons fabrication, e.g., rechargeable batteries. However, the hybrid
liberation [87]. Heating of solar cells by low-energy photons energy-generating systems such as wind–diesel, pv–diesel,
would negatively affect its performance to produce electric- wind–pv–diesel reveal more trustworthiness and lower cost
ity. of generation than those that use only one source of energy,
Efficiency is another major disadvantage of solar energy. they are still costly and strongly dependent on the renew-
Storage of energy tapped by the solar panels also requires the able energy potential [32,107–110]. The feasibility of using
conversion of solar energy into some other forms of energy, solar PV–diesel–battery hybrid system has been tested and
e.g., electrical, thermal or chemical. This would lead to a observed that there was an increase in the cost of energy by
drop in the amount of usable energy as conversion of energy as much as 15.3 % compared to a system employing die-
from one form to another heavily depends on the conversion sel fuel alone. In addition, to be able to effectively capture
efficiency. the solar energy, a large amount of necessary materials, i.e.,
It was also reported that, in some solar energy power dis- the solar panels, is required. This would translate into much
tribution, the net energy produced is negative, indicating that a corresponding increase in cost as well as requirement for
energy is required in a much larger magnitude in distribut- available space where the panel should be installed [32]. Fur-
ing the energy [104]. Recycling of solar panels after it has thermore, the utilization of batteries as convenient electrical
completed its shelf life requires energy as well [105]. power source has enhanced and technology has not been able
In terms of availability, solar radiation which is the source to satisfy the needs. If renewable energy is to become a major
of solar power relies heavily on geographical location, dura- source power, immense electricity storage is the vital tech-
tion of daylight, season, as well as local landscape and nology which is to be paid much attention. Energy-storage
weather [39,106]. Solar radiation can be classified as either systems (EES) cost embodies about 30 % of the total renew-
the direct or diffuse radiation. Not all the energy from the able power-supply system cost. Furthermore, the batteries are

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very vulnerable to some parameters such as temperature, rel- a great role while locating renewable power facilities. For
ative humidity, barometric pressure, and wind speed [111]. example, many places do not have enough steady wind to
These factors need to be considered thoroughly to ensure bear a wind-farm installation, and geothermal-energy plants
that the actual potential of solar energy would not be overes- are only feasible in specific locations where the geography
timated. is proper. Renewable energy is still not very efficient with
its conversion process. For instance, the efficiency of solar
2.5 Geothermal Energy converters which change sun photons into electrical current
is about 15 %. Recently, the use of nuclear power has been
While the idea of harnessing geothermal energy is interest- considered as one of the proper substitutions of non-RE. But,
ing, the impact of implementing this idea to the environment during the last 30 years, three nuclear accidents happened in
should not be overlooked. Scenic places that would otherwise Russia, the USA and Japan. The panic of experiencing such
be reserved as recreational parks would have to make way a terrible event is so huge that regardless of the all safety
for plant construction. This would inevitably invite unwel- preparations peddled by the nuclear-equipment operators and
coming responses from they society. suppliers, nuclear energy comes up against an unpredictable
The risk of land subsidence is another matter that demands future. How would RE affect the society and environment at
a scrutinized investigation prior to the construction of the large should be thoroughly examined before it can be imple-
plant [73]. In the event of landslide or subsidence, the con- mented locally and globally. Previous surveys and studies
structed plant, human operators and local inhabitants would have revealed that not everything is green and sustainable
be in jeopardy. with RE as it would compromise both the society and envi-
Change in micro-seismicity should not also be overlooked. ronment well-being to a certain extent. Although the pros-
Enhanced geothermal system (EGS) has been shown to pect of using RE is very appealing, these tradeoffs should
induce micro-seismicity to a certain magnitude [89]. Even be resolved to realize its full potential as the most potent
though its effects are not that significant as currently pro- alternative to current world dependence on the depleting and
jected, there is a growing concern on how would this induced problematic fossil fuel. As a final word, RE is a panacea for
micro-seismicity influences the environment in future. Any the demand of the energy for the future but a more reliable
substantial increase in the magnitude of micro-seismicity solution should be looked for the huge need of energy.
may cause certain level of discomfort, particularly, to local
inhabitants or in the worst case scenario, an induced earth-
quake.
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