Quiz # 2 - Reviewer (Ethics)

Monday, 19 February 2024 4:53 pm

3. THE MORAL AGENT

DILEMMA

➢ morality of one's action will be based on the morality of the agent acting in a
particular situation.

➢ An action can be considered moral or immoral depending on the decision of the

person acting on it. For instance, one's action may be considered morally
acceptable while that same action can be considered morally unacceptable to
the other.

➢ There are also cases when a particular situation will produce two results: one good
and one evil.

➢ But not to do any action on the said situation will also produce an evil effect.
➢ comes from the two Greek words
→ dis → twice
→ lemma → assumptions or premise

➢ From the POV of logic:

→ a dilemma is a form of argument that is composed of a conjunction of two
conditional hypothetical statements as its major premise.
✓ This type of major premise will serve as the horns of the dilemma.
→ Its minor premise is a disjunction of the antecedent of the hypothetical
statements in the major premise, while its conclusion is a disjunction of the
consequent of the conditional hypothetical idea in the same major premise.
✓ The minor premise will show that whichever alternative the opponent
chooses will be against him. For example,
If I will enroll for college, I will be spending a lot of money; But if I will not
enroll, I will not be able to get a good job. Either I enroll or I do not
enroll for college.

Therefore, either I spend a lot of money or I will not be able to land a

good job.

Importance of studying dilemma

➢ lies on its rhetorical implication.
➢ dilemma will serve as the most powerful instrument of persuasion because the
opponent will be placed in a situation wherein he will be forced to choose
between two alternatives, which are both bad and unpleasant.
➢ there seems to be nowhere to go but to concede to one's opponent.
➢ Logical POV: the dilemma is not of special importance
→ This is not the case in ethics.
➢ Ethical POV:
→ dilemmas are experiences where an agent is confused about the right
decision to make because there are several competing values that are
seemingly equally important and urgent

➢ how should a human person handle a dilemma?

→ How he makes his decision on a dilemma will become the basis of how he is

ETHICS Page 1
 → How he makes his decision on a dilemma will become the basis of how he is
living his life.

→ the decision of the person placed in this dilemma will depend on the
person's moral perspective.
→ A person will realize that he is placed in a dilemma when he is being
bothered by the situations. Any person will only be bothered because he
feels that there is a problem that needs to be given a solution.
➢ Here is where ethics should come at the forefront.
→ The study of ethics should not be focused only on a mere acquisition of
knowledge but on how to apply such knowledge into his own everyday life.
→ What is important is the action to make in such a situation.
➢ This is where wisdom is coming in.
→ A person will be considered full of wisdom if he knows how to apply his
knowledge on a situation where there is a dilemma.
→ a man of wisdom
✓ is the one who knows when to make a moral decision and when to act
on a situation.
✓ He can make a distinction between moral standards from moral
standards.

A MORAL STANDARD
➢ is that which deals with matters that may seriously injure or may greatly benefit
human beings.
situations action
beneficial to more people → morally good
greater pain to more people → morally evil

➢ The basis of morality: is the pleasure or the pain that an action may cause to the
others.
➢ the validity of moral standards will be based on the justification of one's action.
➢ an action → morally acceptable
→ not because it is accepted by the majority, but on the goodness that such
action would entail to other people.
➢ the rule of the majority does not apply
➢ should be preferred to other values, including self-interest.

As a moral agent, a human person

➢ must be able to discern right from and wrong and be held accountable for his
own actions.
→ He can be held accountable for the good and the bad effects of his
actions to other people.
➢ such accountability will still depend on the moral formation and the cultural
beliefs and practices that the person has.
➢ basis of morality → biased to one's cultural and moral behavior
→ Such will affect one's decision as regards the practicality and the morality of
the act.
→ Nevertheless, practicality and morality do not always go together.
➢ Inasmuch as the situation given above would incur different ethical views, it is
quite important to determine which among these ethical views can be morally

ETHICS Page 2
 quite important to determine which among these ethical views can be morally
sound.
➢ a moral agent must have a good standard in morality so as to make a sound
moral decision.

Cultural and Moral Behavior

➢ culture contributes to the moral upbringing of a person
➢ Can these norms and values of a particular community where a person is a
member of can make a person morally upright?
➢ factors that affect our behavior as a moral person:
→ our family
✓ Pagmamano
□ way of asking for a blessing of the elders and the elders' way of
invoking the aid of the Holy Spirit to descend upon the person
asking for the blessing.
□ Hence, respect for the elders is given great importance.
✓ Most of the formative years of a Filipino are spent with their families,
who have unique values and norms, which have been influenced by
the community they belong.
→ the community we belong
→ the religion we practice
→ our school
→ the virtual world we see—the social media.
✓ when Filipinos began Viewing shows from other countries with different
cultures, the moral perspective of the Filipinos is becoming influenced
by the different moral beliefs of other countries.

✓ For this reason, Filipinos will definitely have a different moral

perspective and it is thereby difficult to come up with a Filipino
morality.

➢ It can be noted that there are multiple sources of values and norms. However,
these values may come into conflict with one another.
→ Some behaviors that have been practiced at home may not be accepted
in the community or in schools.
➢ The question now, therefore, is where to ground culture and morality.
➢ Is there a possibility to have a universal moral principle?
→ a moral principle that will be binding to all people, in all places and at all
times?

Cultural Relativism
➢ is the view that ethical systems and cultural beliefs vary from one culture to
another.
➢ It also upheld the idea that said ethical systems are all equal in validity and of
relevance.
➢ It comes from the idea that moral standards are product of society.
➢ This philosophical principle started from the Greek philosopher Protagoras of
Abdera (490-420 BCE).
→ Protagoras is known primarily for three claims:
1. man is the measure of all things, of the things that are that they are,

ETHICS Page 3
 1. man is the measure of all things, of the things that are that they are,
and of the things that are not that they are not,
2. that he could make the worse argument appear better or the weaker
argument appear to be the stronger, and
3. that one could not tell if the gods existed or not
→ Protagoras’ Epistemological Relativism
✓ knowledge is limited to the person's various perceptions. But such
perceptions will differ with each person.
✓ He believed that man's knowledge is measured by what he perceives
and if there is something about each of them that makes them
perceive in different ways, there is no standard for testing whether one
person's perception is right and another person's perception is wrong.
✓ tantamount to saying that everything is true.
✓ knowledge → relative to each person.

Moral Relativism
➢ Inasmuch as knowledge is relative to each person, moral judgments,
consequently, are also relative.
➢ One's own conception of goodness may be different from the others' conception
of goodness.
➢ Laws and moral rules, therefore, are based upon convention.
➢ Each society has its own lands and its own moral rules.
➢ Therefore, no one can say that these laws by which we can judge whether such
laws are true and the others are wrong.

➢ Protagoras did not say that every individual could decide on what is moral.
→ Instead, he took the conservative position that the state makes the laws and
that these laws should be accepted by everyone because they are as good
as any that can be made.
→ Hence, in the interest of a peaceful and orderly society, people should
respect and uphold the customs, laws, and moral rules, which their tradition
has carefully nurtured.
→ Protagoras believed that the young should be educated to accept and
support the tradition of their society, not because this tradition is true but
because it makes possible a stable society

The Doctrine of Ethical Relativism

➢ In the ethical problems, Protagoras maintained that moral judgments are relative.
➢ He believed that laws and moral rules are based, not upon nature, but upon
convention.
➢ From this idea arises the ethical relativism, which is also known as moral relativism.
➢ The moral relativists → no universal or absolute moral principles.
→ Standards of right and wrong are always relative to a particular culture or
society
→ They argue that there exists no point from which these norms can be
upheld, no universal or absolute criteria by which they can be criticized.
→ one will be considered too ambitious—if not too arrogant—in claiming that
one knows absolute and objective ethical principles that are true, valid, and
binding on all peoples.
➢ Examples:
1. the case of the Arctic Eskimos. For them, the practice of letting their wife
sleep with a special guest for a night is considered as an expression of

ETHICS Page 4
 sleep with a special guest for a night is considered as an expression of
hospitality and respect.
✓ Also, the Arctic Eskimos had the practice of leaving their old folk in the
snow and allowed them to die of starvation and this was considered
as morally legitimate.
2. for the Jews, it was a moral obligation to marry his brother's widow
3. some African cultures, to kill twins at birth is morally just and right.
4. other states in America that grants legitimacy to abortion, while there are
other states that consider abortion to be morally illegitimate.
➢ moral relativists would have the claim that whether an action is regard right or
wrong depends upon the society judging it.
➢ They claim that the different sets of moral principles are of equal worth and
nobody can claim that their moral beliefs and culture is better than that of the
others.
➢ This school of thought indeed becomes very influential in the development of the
philosophy of morals mainly because of the cultural differences of the people.
➢ However, this ethical school of thought seems to contradict the common beliefs
and some traditional practices of the people in several ways.
→ For example, no one can take the side of an ethical relativists in the case of
Adolf Hitler in killing six million Jews. Nobody can say that this act of Hitler is
considered to be immoral on the part of the Jews alone
➢ ethical relativism appears to be self-contradictory and inconsistent
➢ an ethical relativist must not accept the ethical relativists' own ethical belief.
→ Another issue is the sense of oughtness that one feels towards persons who
are victims of an accident. This sense of oughtness does not depend on
one's socio-cultural considerations or upbringings.

The Filipino Morality

➢ Ethnocentrism
→ The opposite of ethical relativism is ethnocentrism.
→ is the view that one particular ethnic group is somehow superior to all others.
→ is derived from the Greek word ethnos meaning "nation" or "people," and
from the English word center.
→ is the view that a particular ethnic group's system of beliefs and values is
morally superior to all others
➢ Theocentrism
→ The word is derived from the Greek word QeoV (Theos), meaning "God" or
"gods," and the English word center.
→ is the view that God's system of beliefs and values is morally superior to all
others.
→ The followers of theocentrism believe that God's law is the absolute standard
by which we are to judge everyone else's system of beliefs and values
➢ Both theocentrism and ethnocentrism upheld the idea that there is an absolute
value system.
→ both of them contradict cultural relativism because the latter denies
universal moral standard. However:
theocentrism → God-centered
ethnocentrism → man-centered

➢ Filipinos are not different.

→ They believe that the Filipino culture is the best culture because it is

ETHICS Page 5
 → They believe that the Filipino culture is the best culture because it is
centered on God and it upholds the dignity of the nation.
✓ Edsa Revolution on February 25, 1986,
→ They realized that ousting a dictator was actually an easy part. But what is
difficult is the task of building a nation.
→ Ibis was because self-interests and the disregard of the common good are
becoming too ordinary even to the leaders of the nation and to those who
took part in the Edsa event.
➢ Today, Filipinos are confronted with the lack of discipline and rigor.
→ Despite the display of people's power, Filipinos have eventually become
passive.
→ The Filipino populace would generally expect their leaders to take all
responsibility for solving the many problems that are haunting the nation.
→ For this reason, people are already having difficulty identifying the
demarcation line between the "what is" and "what ought to be."
Fr. Vitaliano Gorospe, SJ, believed that the problem in the morality of the Filipino is the
consideration of the actual and the prevailing norms of right and wrong among
Filipinos.
→ The belief that the law of God is the highest moral principle and the Filipino
society is the greatest among cultures, a conflict between what they say as
Christians and what they do as Filipinos arose.
→ For this reason, it becomes difficult for the Filipinos to achieve their goal of
building the nation because what is being taught as a Christian appears to
be different from the way they live as a Filipino.
→ Can the Filipino values be considered now as a foundation for morality?
Can it be used as a means in order to build a nation?
➢ To build a nation, there is a need for economic recovery. But in order to achieve
this, there is a need to
→ re-establish democratic institutions.
→ understand the goals of peace and genuine social justice.
→ eliminate the people's weaknesses and develop instead their strengths.
→ The first step to change is understanding ourselves.
According to Edmund Burke (1729-1797), "the only thing necessary for the triumph of
evil is for good men to do nothing."
→ He believed in the importance of collective wisdom over individual
opinions. The problem in the Philippines today is that people not only fail to
act against evil, but they also don't care about their problems or their
society's condition.
➢ The problem probably lies on the incapability of the Filipinos to determine what
evil really is.
➢ The Filipinos in the modern times no longer rely on religious leaders for moral
guidance, and the government often acts as if it has the authority to dictate moral
standards.
→ Filipinos therefore need to put their beliefs into action to stop evil and
corruption. However, taking action can be messy and has consequences if
not done seriously.
➢ Today, it's difficult to find strong leaders with clear plans for change, and many
people lack the knowledge to choose the right leaders. Instead, they often
blame the government for their problems without taking responsibility themselves,
like littering and then blaming the government when it floods.
➢ To address these issues, it's essential to examine positive aspects of Filipino
character and use them as a guide for making moral decisions. In simpler terms,
Filipinos need to understand what's right and wrong and take action to create
positive change in society.

ETHICS Page 6
 positive change in society.

Strengths of the Filipino Character

1. A typical Filipino has a high regard for others. This is better known as
pakikipagkapwa- tao.
→ have a basic sense of justice and fairness and a strong sense of concern for
others.
→ a well-developed sensitivity to people's feelings.
→ also have a good sense of gratitude; thereby, leading to the development
of a good interpersonal relations.
→ When practiced by everyone, this can be a good foundation for unity
among Filipino people.
2. Filipinos have a strong sense of family orientation.
→ family as the source of
✓ Filipino identity
✓ personal identity,
✓ emotional and material support,
✓ as to where commitment and responsibility are learned.
3. Filipinos have also a different sense and perception of joy and humor.
→ Filipinos have a cheerful and fun-loving approach to life.
→ because of the ability of man to laugh at their own troubles, they were able
to develop a very important coping mechanism.
4. Filipinos are also said to be flexible, adaptable, and creative.
→ great capacity to adjust to different situations and to adapt to different
circumstances so that no matter how great the disaster that happen, a
Filipino can easily rise up again and cope up once more to life's
complexities.
5. A typical Filipino is also known for his hardworking and his industriousness.
→ brought about by their desire to improve their lives and that of their family as
well as their desire to obtain a more decent and, if possible, a more luxurious
life.
6. Even before the coming of the Spaniards, Filipinos are already considered as very
religious.
→ Their religiosity was only purified and probably improved by the Spanish
friars.
→ Because of this religiosity, the Filipino will accept his fate and destiny as part
of the will of God.
→ From this, Filipinos were able to develop the value of bahala na, which
actually means entrusting one's fate to God and that whichever may
happen, Bathala na, which means, submitting everything to God whom
they call Bathalang Maykapal.
7. Filipinos were able to develop patience and they are capable of making use of
whatever is available in the environment - resourcefulness
→ have a great ability to survive

ETHICS Page 7