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LECTURE 1
PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN

Introduction – Mechanical Design

 Mechanical design is a complex undertaking, requiring

various skills.
 Extensive relationships need to be subdivided into a
series of simple tasks
 The complexity of the subject requires a sequence in
which ideas are introduced and iterated
 Design engineers need to develop competence in their
field, and cultivate a strong sense of responsibility and
professional work ethic.

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Key Influences in Mechanical Design

 The survival of a mechanical component is

often related to stress and strength.
 Codes and standards guide the process
 Economics, safety, and product liability are
critical considerations
 Uncertainty is inherent in engineering design.
 Addressed using design factor and factor of
safety either in the form of a deterministic
(absolute) or statistical sense.
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Practical Considerations

 Dimensions, tolerances, and units are essential

 Calculations underpin the design process

 Attention to detail ensures successful outcomes

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Fundamental principles

 When you look at a machine or structure, try to see the

fundamental principles in either action or missing.

 With a deep knowledge of these fundamental principles,

one can rapidly generate strategies and concepts with the
greatest viability.

 With a deep understanding of fundamental principles, one

can critically evaluate other machines and components.

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Machine Design
What is Machine Design?
• Creation of new and better machines AND

• Improving existing ones

• So that it is economical in the overall cost of

production and operation.

Machine design is the art of planning or devising new or

improved machines to accomplish a specific purpose.

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What is a (Mechanical) Machine

 A machine is a tool containing one or more moving
parts that uses energy to perform the action it is
designed for.
 Tool: …(open to interpretation). Anything that makes life
easy
 Moving parts: simple machines?
 Energy: chemical, electrical, mechanical, thermal etc.
 Action: transport, manufacturing, cutting, digging etc.
 Design: ?

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Machines

Simple Machines Compound machines

Complex machine Sch. of Eng., UDS

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Design

 To design is either to formulate a plan for the satisfaction of a

specified need or to solve a specific problem
 Design is an innovative (creative) and highly iterative process.
 Design is also a decision-making process
 Design is a communication-intensive activity in which both
words and pictures are used, and written and oral forms are
employed.
 If the plan results in the creation of something having a physical
reality, then the product must be;
◼ Functional, safe, reliable, competitive (best to be chosen), usable,
manufacturable, marketable
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Classifications of (Machine) Design (1)

 Adaptive/revised design:
 Inmost cases, the designer’s work is concerned with
adaptation of existing designs.
 The embodiment design is customised/adapted to fit
new requirements.
◼ The employed solution principles are known and field-
proven
 The designer only makes minor alterations or
modifications to the existing designs of the product.
 This type of design needs no special knowledge or
skill and can be attempted by designers of ordinary
technical training. Sch. of Eng., UDS

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Classifications of (Machine) Design (2)

 Development design:
 This type of design needs considerable scientific
training and design ability in order to modify the
existing designs into a new idea by adopting a new
material or different method of manufacture.
 Inthis case, though the designer starts from the
existing design, but the final product may differ
quite markedly from the original product.
 Repeat design: New start of the production run
of an unchanged design.
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Classifications of (Machine) Design (3)

 New design:
 New tasks and problems are solved by new
solution principles
 Thistype of design needs a lot of research,
technical ability and creative thinking.
 Only those designers who have personal
qualities of a sufficiently high order can take
up the work of a new design.

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Mechanical Engineering Design

 Machine design does not encompass the entire field of

mechanical engineering.

 Design where the critical problems involve the

thermal/fluid sciences fall under the broader category
of “mechanical engineering design.”
 A simple journal bearing involves fluid flow, heat transfer,
friction, energy transport, material selection,
thermomechanical treatments, statistical descriptions

 Mechanical engineering design involves all the

disciplines of mechanical engineering.
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Phases and Interactions of the Design Process

 The design process is independent of the product and

is based on the concept of product life cycle.

 The content of each engineering design problem is

unique, but the methodology for solving these
problems is universal and can be described in a
specific way.

 Identification of a need generally starts the design

process.

 Recognition of the need and phrasing the need often

constitute a highly creative act Sch. of Eng., UDS

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Phases and Interactions of the Design Process

General Design Process

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Phases and Interactions of the Design Process

Steps in the product

development and design
process

The iterative process of design is a

cyclical, feedback-driven approach
that refines a concept into a final
product through repeated steps of
evaluation, adjustment, and
improvement.

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Phases and Interactions of the Design Process

 The definition of the problem is more specific and

must include all the specifications for the object that
is to be designed.

 The synthesis (concept design): Various schemes

proposed, investigated, and quantified. Select the
possible mechanism or group of mechanisms which
will give the desired function.

 Analysis and optimization: synthesize several

components of a system, analyse and optimize them,
and return to synthesis to see what effect this has on
the remaining parts of the system
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Phases and Interactions of the Design Process

 The definition of problem is more specific and must

include all the specifications for the object that is to
be designed.

 The synthesis (concept design):Various schemes must

be proposed, investigated, and quantified

 Analysis and optimization: synthesize several

components of a system, analyse and optimize them,
and return to synthesis to see what effect this has on
the remaining parts of the system

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Phases and Interactions of the Design Process

 Evaluation is the final proof of a successful design

and usually involves the testing of a prototype in the
laboratory.
 Here we wish to discover if the design really satisfies the
needs. Is it reliable? Will it compete successfully with
similar products? Is it economical to manufacture and to
use? Is it easily maintained and adjusted? Can a profit be
made from its sale or use? Etc.

 Communicating the design to others is the final, vital

presentation step in the design process.

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Important considerations/requirements in Machine

Design
 Design consideration refers to some characteristics that
influence the design of an element or perhaps, the entire system.

• Functionality • Operating conditions

• Utility/Usability • Cost
• Strength • Availability
• Deflection/distortion/stif • Marketability
fness • Life
• Weight • Safety
• Size & shape • Reliability
• Material properties • Maintainability
• Manufacturability • Ergonomics
• Aesthetics
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Important considerations in Machine Design

1. Specification of Function: The design of machine elements begins
with the specification of the functions of the element e.g. bearing,
shaft, key, screw fastener, etc.
2. Type of LOAD and STRESSES caused by the load
Determination of Forces: In many cases, a free-body diagram of
forces is constructed to determine the forces acting on different
parts of the machine

• Dead/steady loads • Stress and strain

• Live/variable loads (Tensile, compressive, shear)
• Thermal stresses
• Shock loads (suddenly)
• Torsional stresses
• Impact loads (applied
with some velocity) • Bending stress Sch. of Eng., UDS

Important considerations in Machine

Design…..

3. KINEMATICS of the machine (Motion of the parts)

Find the simplest arrangement that would give the most

efficient motion that is required.

4. Selection of MATERIALS
Knowledge of the properties of the materials and their
behaviour under working conditions is required.

Strength, hardness, durability, flexibility, weight, resistance

to heat and corrosion, electrical conductivity, machinability,
etc.

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Important considerations in Machine

Design…..
3. Selection of MATERIALS
Metal Non-metal

Ferrous Non-ferrous

Physical properties: Density, Melting point, Electrical/thermal properties

Mechanical properties:
• STRENGTH – resist externally applied loads without breaking or yielding
• STIFFNESS – resist deformation under stress
• ELASTICITY – regain original shape once the force is removed
• PLASTICITY – property which retains deformation (required for forging etc.)
• DUCTILITY – ability to be drawn into a wire by a tensile force
• BRITTLENESS – sudden breaking with minimum distortion
• TOUGHNESS – resist fracture due to high impact load
• CREEP – deformation under stress and high temperature
• FATIGUE – ability to withstand cyclic stresses
• HARDNESS – resistance to wear, scratching, deformation, machinability etc.
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Design Tools and Resources

 Computational tools e.g. CAD/CAM software

 Acquire technical information: Libraries, Professional
societies (Society of Manufacturing Engineers, Society
of Automotive Engineers, Society for Testing and
Materials etc.), Government sources

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Standards and Codes

Standards
 A standard is a set of specifications for parts, materials, or processes
intended to achieve uniformity, efficiency, and a specified quality.
 Standard is to limit the multitude of variations that can arise from the
arbitrary creation of a part, material, or process..
Code
 A code is a set of specifications for the analysis, design, manufacture, and
construction of something
 The purpose of a code is to achieve a specified degree of safety, efficiency,
and performance or quality e.g. Safety code
 ASME “maintains and distributes 600 codes and standards used around the
world for the design, manufacturing and installation of mechanical
devices.”
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Some Engineering Organisations

 American Gear Manufacturers Association (AGMA)

 American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
 American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
 American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM)
 British Standards Institution (BSI)
 Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
 International Standardization Organization (ISO)
 GhIE*, GSAE* GSA etc

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ASME Standards and Codes Related to

Standardization
A112 Plumbing Materials and Equipment
B1 Screw Threads
B5 Machine Tools - Components, Elements, Performance, and Equipment
B18 Standardization of Fasteners
B29 Chains, Attachments and Sprockets for Power Transmission and
Conveying
B32 Metal and Metal Alloy Wrought Mill Product Nominal Sizes
B40 Standards for Pressure and Temperature Instruments and Accessories
B46 Classification and Designation of Surface Qualities
B89 Dimensional Metrology
B94 Cutting Tools, Drivers, and Bushings
B107 Hand Tools and Accessories

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Economics

 Strength, safety, reliability, and cost are perhaps the

most important design considerations.
 In general the design alternative that satisfies other
design considerations at the lowest costs is to be
preferred.
 Issues affecting the “cost” of a design include:
• Product development costs
• Material choice
• Manufacturing processes involved
• Use of standard sizes and components
• Break even points

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Breakeven Point

 It is the production volume, time, or revenue threshold

where total costs (fixed + variable) equal total revenue.
 Beyond this point, the machine generates profit or below it,
loss is incurred.
 In machine design, this analysis helps justify investments in
new designs, prototypes, or production runs.

The breakeven point for two different screw

manufacturing processes

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Safety and Reliability

 Safety is paramount, most importantly because it is an ethical

issue.
 Safety is also related to function. Safe designs tend to function
well and perform reliably.
 The manufacturer of a product is responsible for any damage
or harm that arises due to a defect in the product.
 It doesn’t matter how long after manufacture the damage
occurs, or if the defect is due to a design flaw or
manufacturing error
 The best approaches to the prevention of product liability are
good engineering in analysis and design, quality control, and
comprehensive testing procedures
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Uncertainty – Inherent in Engineering Design

Sources of Uncertainty
 Composition of material and the effect of variation on
properties.
 Effect of thermomechanical treatment on properties.
 Intensity and distribution of loading.
 Intensity of stress concentrations.
 Influence of time on strength and geometry.
 Effect of corrosion.
 Effect of wear
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Dealing With Uncertainty - Design Factor

and Factor of Safety
 There are mathematical methods to address uncertainties
 The primary techniques are the deterministic and stochastic methods.
 The deterministic method establishes a design factor based on the
absolute uncertainties of a loss-of-function parameter and a
maximum allowable parameter ( load, stress, deflection, etc.)
 The factor of safety has the same definition as the design factor, but it
generally differs numerically.
 Engineers employ a safety factor to ensure against the foregoing
unknown uncertainties involving strength and loading.
 This factor is used to provide assurance that the load applied to a
member does not exceed the largest load it can carry
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Design factor vs. Factor of Safety

 The design factor (DF) and the factor of safety (FoS)

are both used to ensure that a structure or product can
withstand a load.

 The DF is what an item is required to withstand, while

the FoS is how much the item can actually withstand.

 The DF is used to reduce the material's breaking stress

to provide safe design stress.

 The FoS is a safety measure that increases the safety of

people and reduces the risk of failure of a product.

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Design factor vs. Factor of Safety

 The design factor is a ratio applied  The factor of safety is a measure
during the design phase to account of how much stronger a
for uncertainties, variability, and component or system is
desired performance margins. compared to the minimum
required to withstand the
 It’s a multiplier used to size maximum expected load (often
components based on expected the ultimate or failure load).
loads, material properties, or other
design inputs.  It’s typically calculated after the
design is sized, as a check up on
 Ensures the component is robust reliability.
enough to handle real-world
conditions, including  Provides a buffer against failure
approximations in load estimates, due to overloads, fatigue, wear,
material inconsistencies, or or unforeseen conditions,
manufacturing tolerances. ensuring safety and longevity.

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Dealing With Uncertainty - Design Factor

and Factor of Safety
Design factor, nd

This ratio must always be greater than unity

Since stress may not vary linearly with load , using load as the loss-of-
function parameter may not be acceptable

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Problem 1.1
Consider that the maximum load on a structure is known
with an uncertainty of ±20 percent, and the load causing
failure is known within ±15 percent. If the load causing
failure is nominally 2000 N, determine the design factor
and the maximum allowable load that will offset the
absolute uncertainties.
Solution
To account for its uncertainty, the loss-of-function load must
increase to 1/0.85, whereas the maximum allowable load must
1Τ 1.20
decrease to 1/1.2. 𝑛𝑑 = 1Τ0.85 = 1.85 = 1.4
1.20

 Maximum allowable load = 2000 /1.4 = 1400 N

Problem 1.2

 A rod with a cross-sectional area of A and loaded in tension

with an axial force of P = 2000 lbf undergoes a stress of σ =
P/A. Using a material strength of 24 kpsi and a design factor
of 3.0, determine the minimum diameter of a solid circular
rod.
 Using Table A–17 below, select a preferred fractional diameter
and determine the rod’s factor of safety.

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Reliability

 The statistical measure of the probability that a

mechanical element will not fail in use is called the
reliability of that element
 The reliability R can be expressed by R = 1 – pf

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Read!

 Units
 Fundamentals, derived and supplementary units

 Prefixes used in basic units

 Conversion of S.I. and Imperial units

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ASSIGNMENT 1: 02/04/2025

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