ANSWERS.

1. Operating system is the principal component of system software in a computer which act as
a central part in coordinating, controlling and managing all operations in a computer. It acts
as an interface or bridge between the hardware system and a user. Examples of operating
system include windows, UNIX, LINUX, Android, MacOS etc.
 Advantages of operating system
 Allocation of resources; It can simply refer to distribution or assigning
different resources in a computer such as CPU cycles, file storage and main
memory to a respective location to enable proper functioning of operations
performed by a computer. But also, it ensures multitasking process due to
facilitating equal resource to all activities in a computer.
 Act as a user interface; OS exist as a bridge which provide connections
between hardware and a user. There are three types of user interface which are
Command Line interface, Graphical User Interface and Batch interface. These
interfaces which are provided by operating system enable a user to use a
computer and perform any operation he or she want.
 I/O operations (Device management); Operating system allows transfers of
data or instructions across device. A user inputs data into a device through
input units such keyboard and mouse then the instructions are to be loaded
into main memory for execution thereafter the execution process produce
output through monitors, printers etc. Also, it provides notification in case of
any malfunctioning of device.
 Process communications; Operating system aids exchanging of information
or acquiring of data between varieties of devices accelerated by a computer
network. Network connection enables an appropriate link between a server
and a client in a communication.
 Detection and fixation of errors; Operating system provide an alert about an
area concerning the proper utilization and functioning of device for example
memory error, power failure, connection failure, or errors in a source code
after identifications of errors it take the appropriate actions to correct the
problem.
 Protection and security; OS ensure information safety and privacy through
preventing a system software against malware attacks as virus invasion but
also it provides with the robust measure to ensure safety of a device for
example device password, backups, updates and encryption.
 Applicable in different careers or field such as accounting; It provide
means on how to keep usage statistics which can be used to reconfigure the
system to improve computing services including keep track of memory usage,
CPU usage, file access and different activities by a particular process.
  Disadvantages of operating system
 Expensive; Most operating systems are very cost it require the huge amount
of money to worth its value due to few OS manufacturers in a world.
 Complexity; Some operating systems are complex to use since it requires
specific knowledge pertaining to a system set.
 Slow performance; Due to easy malware attacks some operating system are
always stacking and provide poor performance.
 Easy malware attacks; for examples virus attacks due to poor security and
protection system of an operating system.
 Compatibility issues; Procedures which are occurring in a computer for
example update process may lead to loss of some data in a system.

2. A kernel is a core component of operating system that which facilitates all operations in
OS. It controls the movement of data through input, memory and output device in a
computer. Example instructions in keyboard can be loaded to CPU by loader for running
process after being compiled, then CPU need an interpreter for further translation and
interpretation, thereafter the output is given through monitors, printers, speakers etc. A
kernel interface is a low abstraction level. It directs an operating system what to do through
providing suitable information which enable operating system to accomplish its tasks hence
it can be termed as a brain of an operating system since it provides guidance to the system
software on how to behave.
3. Features of the kernel
 Resource allocation; The kernel's primary function is to manage hardware
resources and allow other programs to run and use these resources. These
resources are - CPU, Memory and I/O devices.
 Process Management; A process defines which memory sections the
application can access. The main task of a kernel is to allow the execution of
programs and support them with features such as hardware abstraction. To run
an application, a kernel first set up an address space for the program, then
loads the file containing the program's code into memory, then set up a stack
for the program and branches to a given location inside the program, thus
finally starting its execution.
 Memory Management; The kernel has full access to the hardware’s memory.
It allows processes to safely access this memory as they require it. Virtual
addressing helps kernel to create virtual partitions of memory in two
disjointed areas, one is reserved for the kernel (kernel space) and the other for
the applications (user space).
  I/O Device Management; To perform useful functions, processes need access
to the peripherals connected to the computer, which are controlled by the
kernel through Device Drivers. A device driver is a computer program that
enables the operating system to interact with a hardware device. It provides
the operating system with information of how to control and communicate
with a certain piece of hardware. A kernel maintains a list of available devices.
A device manager first performs a scan on different hardware buses, such as
Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) or Universal Serial Bus (USB), to
detect installed devices, then searches for the appropriate drivers.
 Inter-process Communication; Kernel provides functions for
Synchronization and Communication between processes called Inter-Process
Communication (IPC). There are various procedures of IPC, semaphore,
shared memory, message queue, pipe (or named FIFO), etc.
 Scheduling; In a Multitasking system, the kernel will give every program a
slice of time and switch from process to process so quickly that it will appear
to the user as if these processes were being executed simultaneously. The
kernel uses Scheduling Algorithms to determine which process is running next
and how much time it will be given. The mechanism sets priority among the
processes.
 System calls and interrupt handling; A system call is a mechanism that is
used by the application program to request a service from the OS. System
calls include close, open, read, wait and write functions. To access the services
provided by the kernel we need to call the related kernel functions. Most
kernels provide a C Library or an API, which can call the related kernel
functions.
 Security or Protection Management; The kernels also provide protection
from bugs (fault control) and from malicious software.

4.Types of kernels

 There are five types of kernels which are found in the operating system. They include;
 Monolithic kernel; These are the simplest and most common type of kernel.
They include the core functionality of the operating system and support all
devices connected on it. In monolithic, the user and kernel services are
implemented in the same memory space. Due to this then the size of the kernel
increases which in turn increases the size of the operating system. The main
benefit is that the process execution is faster as there is no separate memory
space for user and Kernel.
 Microkernel; These are newer development and they are not as common as
monolithic kernels. It usually comprises only the essential services and devices
 required for the system to function. This results in a smaller kernel that is faster
and uses less memory. In this, the user and kernel services are implemented in
two different spaces. It has separate User Space and Kernel Space. This reduces
the size of the kernel and results in reducing the size of the operating system.
 Hybrid kernel; This comprises monolithic and microkernels. They include more
services than microkernels but less than monolithic kernels. This allows them to
offer some of the benefits of both kernels. It borrows speed from the monolithic
kernels and modularity from microkernels.
 Nano kernel; These are the smallest type of Kernel, consisting of only a
few thousand lines of code. It means that the code executing in the
privileged mode of the hardware is minimal. They are used primarily in
embedded systems or devices with limited resources.
 Exo kernel; It has separate resource protection and management. It is
suitable for use when performing application-specific customization. Exo
kernels are designed for use in mobile devices. They are a variation of
microkernels that include additional features specifically for mobile
devices, such as power management and support for multiple processors.