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Electric Drive Systems (EPES303)

Dr: Ramadan Ragab Mohamed

Assistant Prof. Electrical Power Engineering Dept.
Faculty of Engineering,
Cairo University
[email protected]
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Staff
Lecture:
❑ Dr.: Ramadan Ragab Mohamed
▪ Lecturer
▪ Office: Special Electrical Machine Lab (8100)
▪ Email: [email protected]

Tutorial:
❑ Eng.: Ibrahim Mahmoud
▪ TA
▪ Office: Office: Power Electronics Lab (9300)
▪ Email:
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Code of Conduct
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Course Grading System

100 Marks

60 Marks “Semester Works” 40 Marks

▪ 20 Mid-term “Final Exam”
▪ 20 Project & Assignments
▪ 20 Quizzes
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Course Objectives
▪ Identify different types of controlled rectifiers, choppers, and inverters
▪ Draw detailed circuit diagrams of different rectifiers, choppers,and inverters.
▪ Analyze rectifier, chopper, and inverter circuits.
▪ Illustrate DC motor and induction motor principle of operation.
▪ List different types of DC and induction motors.
▪ Calculate the performance parameters of DC and induction motors.
▪ Apply proper power electronic circuits to the control of electrical
machines.
▪ Calculate the suitable motor size for a mechanical system.
▪ Collaborate with colleagues in labs and projects.
▪ Conduct a presentation about motor speed control.
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Course outlines
1) DC Motor Drives
▪ Structure of a DC motor

▪ Torque production in DC motors

▪ Steady-state characteristics

▪ Separate, Shunt, and Series Motors

▪ Thyristor D.C. Drives

▪ Chopper-Fed D.C. Motor Drives

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Course outlines
2) AC Drives
▪ Construction of Three Phase Induction Motor.
▪ Principle of Operation of Three Phase Induction Motor.
▪ Equivalent Circuit of Three Phase Induction Motor.
▪ Power and Torque Calculations of Three Phase Induction Motor
▪ Torque-Speed characteristic of Three Phase Induction Motor
▪ Speed Control of the Three Phase Induction Motor
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Recommended Text-Books
➢ P. C. Sen “Principles of Electric Machines and Power
Electronics”.

➢ M.H. Rashid, “Power Electronics Handbook: Devices,

Circuits and Applications”.

➢ Theodore Wildi, “Electrical Machines, Drives, and Power

Systems”.
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Lecture (1)
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Why Electric Drives?
▪ Enabling fast and accurate motion control

Robotics, elevators, cranes, process automation. . .

▪ Improving energy efficiency and energy saving

Process flow is controlled by means of the motor speed

Pumps, fans, compressors.

▪ Conserving braking energy

Transportation
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Applications of Electric Drives
▪ Process industry: Pumps, fans, and compressors
▪ Paper and steel industry: hoist, and rollers
▪ Transportation: elevators, trains, and automobiles
▪ Heating, ventilating and air conditioning: fans, and compressors
▪ Foods: refrigerators, mixers, conveyors, and fans
▪ Oil, Gas, and Mining: compressors, pumps, cranes, and shovels
▪ Machining: Planers, chippers, drill press, saws, mills, and presses
▪ Packaging: shears
▪ Agriculture: dryer fans, blowers, and conveyors
▪ Residential: pumps, air conditioner, freezers, appliances
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Applications of Electric Drive System
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Basic Components of The Electric Drive System

Power Electronic Electric Mechanical

Source Converter Motor Load

Input Control Unit Sensing Unit

Command
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Basic Components of an Electrical drive system

▪ Mechanical load: Depends on the customer needs and the industrial

process.
▪ Power Source: Provides the energy to the drive system (DC or AC).
▪ Motor: Selected according to the power level, environmental factors
and performance required by the load. Ex: if load requires high
starting torque so dc series motor is better than induction motor.
▪ Electronic Converter: Interfaces the motor with the power source
and provides the motor with adjustable voltage, current and/or
frequency.
▪ Control unit: Supervises the operation of the whole system to ensure
stability and enhance the overall performance.
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Power Sources

AC Sources DC Sources

Single Phase Three Phase

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Electronic Converter

AC to DC DC to DC DC to AC AC to AC

Rectifiers Chopper Inverter AC Voltage

Controller
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Electronic Converter
❑ Controlled Rectifier (AC to DC). A controlled rectifier converts a fixed-
voltage ac to a variable-voltage dc. It is used primarily to control the
speed of dc motors.
❑ Chopper (DC to DC). A chopper converts a fixed-voltage dc to a
variable-voltage dc. It is used primarily to control the speed of dc motors.
❑ Inverter (DC to AC). An inverter converts a fixed-voltage dc to a fixed-
(or variable-) voltage ac with variable frequency. It can be used to control
the speed of ac motors.
❑ AC Voltage Controller (AC to AC). An ac voltage controller converts a
fixed-voltage ac to a variable-voltage ac. It can be used to control the
speed of an induction motor (voltage control method) and for smooth
induction motor starting.
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Electric Motors

Brushed DC Motor AC Motor Special Motors

Separate DC Motor

Shunt DC Motor Three Phase

Brushless DC
Induction
Motor (BLDC)
Motor
Series DC Motor
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Mechanical Loads
❑ Mechanical loads are generally speed dependent and they
have different torque/speed characteristics. 𝐓 = 𝐊 𝐧𝐱

Mechanical Loads

Torque Torque Torque proportional Torque inversely

independent of linearly dependent to the square of proportional to
speed (X = 0) on speed (X = 1) speed (X = 2) speed (X = - 1)
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Mechanical Loads
Torque independent of speed

Crushers Hoists
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Mechanical Loads
Torque linearly dependent on speed

Mixers Compressors
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Mechanical Loads
Torque proportional to the square of speed

Centrifugal Fans
pump
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Mechanical Loads
Torque inversely proportional to speed

Milling Drill
machines
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Electrical motor
The electrical motor is an electrotechnical device that
converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.

Electric power Motor Mechanical power

Magnetic Field
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Electrical Motor
Magnetic Field Production

Permanent Magnet Coil Carrying Current

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Lecture (2)
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DC Motors
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Construction of DC Motors

Stator : The stationary part Rotor: The rotating part

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Construction of DC Motors
1) Stator (Field Circuit)

Vf : Field voltage (V) R f : Field Resistance (ohm)

If : Field Current (A) Lf : Field Inductance H)
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Construction of DC Motors
Magnetization Curve

𝐈𝐟
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Construction of DC Motors
2) Rotor (Armature Circuit)

Va : Armature voltage (V) R a : Armature Resistance (ohm)

Ia : Armature Current (A) La : Armature Inductance (H)
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Construction of DC Motors
Definitions
Armature induced (generated or internal ) Voltage Ea = kϕω

Developed (Electromagnetic or internal) Torque Td = kϕIa

Load (Output or shaft) Torque Pout
Tout =
k m : Motor constant ω
ϕ: Motor Flux (Wb) 2πn
ω: Motor speed (rad/sec) ω=
60
n: Motor speed (rpm)
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DC Seperate Motor

𝐕𝐟 = 𝐈𝐟 𝐑 𝐟 𝐕𝐚 = 𝐄𝐚 + 𝐈𝐚 𝐑 𝐚
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DC Seperate Motor

𝐏𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐏𝐝 𝐏𝐢𝐧

𝟐
𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐭 𝐈𝐚 𝐑 𝐚
𝐏𝐨𝐮𝐭 = 𝐓𝐨𝐮𝐭 ∗ 𝛚 𝐏𝐝 = 𝐓𝐝 𝛚 = 𝐄𝐚 𝐈𝐚 𝐏𝐢𝐧 = 𝐕𝐚 𝐈𝐚
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DC Series Motor
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𝐈𝐚 = 𝐈𝐟 = 𝐈𝐬 Vs = Ea + Ia (R a + R f )
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DC Series Motor

𝐏𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐏𝐝 𝐏𝐢𝐧

𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐭
𝟐
𝐈𝐚 ( 𝐑 𝐚 +𝐑 𝐟 )

𝐏𝐨𝐮𝐭 = 𝐓𝐨𝐮𝐭 ∗ 𝛚 𝐏𝐝 = 𝐓𝐝 𝛚 = 𝐄𝐚 𝐈𝐚 𝐏𝐢𝐧 = 𝐕𝐬 𝐈𝐬

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DC Shunt Motor

𝐈𝐚 = 𝐈𝐬 − 𝐈𝐟 𝐕𝐬 = 𝐕𝐚 = 𝐕𝐟 = 𝐄𝐚 + 𝐈𝐚 𝐑 𝐚 = 𝐈𝐟 𝐑 𝐟
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DC Shunt Motor
𝐏𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐏𝐝
𝐏𝐢𝐧
𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐭
𝟐 𝟐
𝐈𝐚 𝐑 𝐚 𝐈𝐟 𝐑 𝐟

𝐏𝐨𝐮𝐭 = 𝐓𝐨𝐮𝐭 ∗ 𝛚 𝐏𝐝 = 𝐓𝐝 𝛚 = 𝐄𝐚 𝐈𝐚 𝐏𝐢𝐧 = 𝐕𝐬 𝐈𝐬

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Example 39

The armature resistance of a 10 HP, 230 V DC shunt motor is 0.3 Ω. The field
resistance is 160 Ω. The motor draws a line current of 3.938 A at no-load at a speed
of 1200 rpm. At full load, the armature current is 40 A.
a) Find the armature current at no load
b) Find the power developed by the armature at no-load
c) Find the full-load efficiency of the motor
d) Find the full-load speed of the motor
DC Shunt Motor
Vs = 230 V Pout fl = 10 HP

Givens R a = 0.3 Ω R f = 160 Ω

Is nl = 3.938 A nnl = 1200 rpm
Iafl = 40 A
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Example 40

𝐕𝐬 = 𝟐𝟑𝟎 𝐕, 𝑷𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝒇𝒍 = 10 HP, 𝑹𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟑 𝛀,

a) Find the armature current at no load 𝑹𝒇 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎 𝛀, 𝑰𝒔 𝒏𝒍 = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟑𝟖 𝐀, 𝒏𝒏𝒍
= 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐫𝐩𝐦, 𝑰𝒂𝒇𝒍 = 𝟒𝟎 𝐀
Vs 230
∵ If = = ∴ If = 1.4375 A
R f 160

∵ Ia = Is − If = 3.938 − 1.4375

∴ Ianl = 2.5 A
b) Find the power developed by the armature at no-load

∵ Eanl = VS − Ianl R a = 230 − 2.5 ∗ 0.3 ∴ E = 229.25 V

∵ Pd = Eanl ∗ Ia = 229.25 ∗ 2.5 ∴ Pd = 573 W

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Example 41

𝐕𝐬 = 𝟐𝟑𝟎 𝐕, 𝑷𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝒇𝒍 = 10 HP, 𝑹𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟑 𝛀,

c) Find the full-load efficiency of the motor 𝑹𝒇 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎 𝛀, 𝑰𝒔 𝒏𝒍 = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟑𝟖 𝐀, 𝒏𝒏𝒍
= 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐫𝐩𝐦, 𝑰𝒂𝒇𝒍 = 𝟒𝟎 𝐀
Pout
∵ ηfl = |fl
Pin

Pout fl = 10 HP∗746 Pout fl = 7460 W

Pin = Vs Is = Vs Ia + If
∴ Pin = 9531 W
= 230 ∗ (40 + 1.4375)
7460
∴ ηfl = ∴ ηfl = 78.27 %
9531
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Example 42

𝐕𝐬 = 𝟐𝟑𝟎 𝐕, 𝑷𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝒇𝒍 = 10 HP, 𝑹𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟑 𝛀,

d) Find the full-load speed of the motor 𝑹𝒇 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎 𝛀, 𝑰𝒔 𝒏𝒍 = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟑𝟖 𝐀, 𝒏𝒏𝒍
= 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐫𝐩𝐦, 𝑰𝒂𝒇𝒍 = 𝟒𝟎 𝐀
∵ Efl = kφωfl , Enl = kφωnl
Efl kφωfl nfl
∵ = =
Enl kφωnl nnl
∵ Efl = VS − Ia fl R a = 230 − 40 ∗ 0.3 ∴ Efl = 218V

218 nfl
∴ = ∴ nfl = 1141 rpm
229.25 1200
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Lecture (3)
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Characteristics
of
DC Motors
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Dr: Ramadan External Characteristic Separately Excited and
Shunt Motors
V
ω0 =
Ea = Vs − Ia R a Kϕ

Ea = kϕω
Ra
slope = −
(Kϕ)2

Td = kϕIa

Va Ra Va
ω= − 2
Td ωo = no load speed
kϕ (Kϕ) kϕ
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External Characteristic Series Excited Motors

Ea = Vs − Ia (R a +R f )

Ea = kϕω Td = kϕIa Ia = If
For linear Region ϕ = K f If = K f Ia

Ea = Kϕω = KK f Ia ω = K Ia ω ′ ⇒ ω ∝ 1ΤIa 1
2 ′ 2
ω∝
Td = KϕIa = KK f Ia = K Ia ⇒ Td ∝ 2
Ia 𝑇𝑑
The no load speed of the series motor is infinity (Extremely high)
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External Characteristic Series Excited Motors

For saturation region ϕ = Const

′′
Ea = Kϕω = K ω
Td = KϕIa = K ′′ Ia

Va (R a +R f )
ω = ′′ − ′′ 2
Td
K (K )
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Comparison of DC Motors
Shunt Motors:
➢Constant speed motor (speed regulation is very good).
➢Adjustable speed.
➢Medium starting torque. (TSt = 1.4 × TFL)
➢Applications: centrifugal and reciprocating pumps, machine tools, blowers, and
fans.
Series Motors:
➢Variable speed motor which changes speed drastically from one load condition
to another.
➢It has a high starting torque. (TSt = 4:5 × TFL)
➢Applications: hoists, electric trains, conveyors, elevators, electric cars, etc.
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Speed Regulation (SR)
Speed regulation is the percentage change in speed from no-load to full-
load as a percentage of the full load speed.

𝑛𝑛𝑜−𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 − 𝑛𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙−𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑆𝑅 = × 100%
𝑛𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙−𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
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Speed Control
of
DC Motors
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Speed Control of DC Motors 51

❑The steady state speed of a DC motor

Va Ra
ω= − 2
Td
kϕ (Kϕ)

❑ Three possible methods of speed control:

1) Armature voltage contro l(V)
2) Armature resistance control (Ra)
3) Field control control (∅)
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Speed Control of DC Motors 52

1) Armature voltage control TL

Va Ra ω1
ω= − Td

Speed (rad/sec)
kϕ (Kϕ) 2
ω2
𝑽𝑎 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 → 𝝎 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝝎𝛼𝑉 ω3
• Requires variable DC supply.
• We cannot increase the armature voltage Separate and V1 > V2 > V3
above rated value. Shunt motors ω1 > ω2 > ω3
• Speed is easily controlled from zero to
rated speed
Developed Torque (Nm)
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Speed Control of DC Motors 53

2) Armature resistance TL
Va Ra

Speed (rad/sec)
ω= − 2
Td ω1
kϕ (Kϕ) ω2
𝑹𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 → 𝝎 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 ω3
𝝎 𝛼 1ൗ𝑅
𝑐
• Simple control
• Speed is easily controlled from
R c1 < R c2
Separate and
zero to rated speed Shunt motors ω1 > ω2 > ω3
• Losses in external resistor and need
coolingso it rarely used.
Developed Torque (Nm)
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Speed Control of DC Motors 54

3) Field current Control TL

ϕ3
Va Ra ω3
ω= − Td

Speed (rad/sec)
kϕ (Kϕ) 2 ϕ2
ω2
ϕ decreases --→ ω increases ϕ1 = ϕrated
Allows for controlling above the base
ω1
speed(limited to about three times the
Separate and ϕ1 > ϕ2 > ϕ3
base speed), but the field weakening
results in reduced torque production Shunt motors ω1 < ω2 < ω3
per ampere of armature current.
Developed Torque (Nm)
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Speed Control of DC Motors 55

Armature voltage control

Field flux control
Developed Torque (Nm)

Maximum Torque capability

𝛚𝐛𝐚𝐬𝐞 Speed (rad/sec)

▪ Armature voltage control : retain maximum torque capability
▪ Field flux control (i.e. flux reduced or flux weakening) : reduce maximum torque
capability
▪ For wide range of speed control: from 0 to 𝜔𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 →use armature voltage control,
above 𝜔𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 → use field flux weakening control
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Speed Control of DC Motors 56

Armature voltage control: armature voltage (Va) is varied

to obtain the speed below base speed. The armature current
and field flux (Φ) are kept constant at their rated values.
From equation (Te = KaΦIa ) the torque remains constant at
its rated value to meet the required demand. This armature
voltage control method is known as constant-torque drive
method The armature voltage (Va) is varied from its zero
voltage to rated voltage, so the power (P = Va . Ia) increases
from its zero value to rated power.

Field-flux control: this method of speed control is

employed for the speeds above base speed. From equation
(ω = (Vt - Ia .Ra) / KaΦ) it is seen that speed and field
flux are inversely proportional. During flux control
method, armature voltage and armature current are kept
constant at rated values. So, power remains constant, and
this method of control is termed as constant power drive
method. Field flux is decreased to increase the speed Base speed of the motor is defined as the speed at
above base speed, and the torque is directly proportion to which the motor runs at its rated voltage, rated
flux, so torque decreases with decrease in flux. armature current and rated field current.
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Direction Reversing
of
DC Motors
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Direction Reversing of DC Motors
DC motor can be configured to turn in direction by simply inverting the polarity
of the applied voltage. The change in the flow of current switches the direction of
the spinning force, causing the motor's shaft to begin turning in the opposite
direction.
Va Ra
ω= − 2
Td
kϕ (Kϕ)

−Va R a + R b
ω= + 2
Td
kϕ (Kϕ)
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Braking
of
DC Motors
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Braking of DC Motors
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DC motors can be easily braked using several methods,

including:
❑Mechanical Braking
❑Electrical Braking
▪ The plugging
▪ The dynamic braking
▪ Regenerative braking
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Braking of DC Motors
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Mechanical Braking: In mechanical braking, a physical brake is applied

to the motor shaft to stop the rotor from rotating. This method is useful
for applications that require precise stopping, such as machine tools and
robotics.
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Braking of DC Motors
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Plugging
The supply across the armature terminals is reversed and connected across and a
braking resistance 𝑅𝑏 , is connected to limit the braking current also the field circuit is
still excited by the source. This method is useful for applications that require rapid and
quick stopping, such as conveyor belts and printing presses.
𝑉−𝐸
Motor mode … 𝐼𝑎 =
𝑅𝑎
−𝑉−𝐸
Plugging mode… 𝐼𝑏 =
𝑅𝑎 +𝑅𝑏

𝑇𝑏𝑒 = 𝐾𝜙 𝐼𝑏

𝑇𝑏 = 𝑇𝑏𝑒 + 𝑇𝐿
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Braking of DC Motors
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Dynamic Braking
▪ Dynamic braking is used to stop the motor by dissipating its stored kinetic energy into an
external resistive load.
▪ The power dissipated during the dynamic braking is composed of two major components.
The first is mechanical losses (or rotational losses), which are due to friction and windage
losses. The second component is electrical losses in the armature and braking resistances.
▪ Once the kinetic energy is totally dissipated, the motor stops rotating.
V−E
Motor mode … Ia =
Ra
−Ea
Dynamic Braking mode … Ib =
Ra + Rb
Tbe = Kϕ Ib
Tb = Tbe + TL
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Braking of DC Motors
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Regenerative Braking
In regenerative braking, the motor acts as a generator and converts kinetic energy into electrical energy that can be
stored in a battery or used to power other electrical devices. For regenerative braking, the induced emf in the motor
must be greater than the supply voltage. This method is useful for applications that require energy recovery, such as
electric vehicles and elevators.
. V − Ea
Motor mode … Ia =
Ra
Ea − V
Regenerative Braking mode … Ib =
Ra
Tbe = Kϕ Ib
Tb = Tbe + TL
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Lecture (4)
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Power Semiconductor Devices (Power Switches)

AC input DC output
DC Output:
AC Input:
-Average Voltage Vd
-RMS Voltage Vs
-Average Current Id
-RMS Current Is Rectifier Devices -Active power delivered Po
• Uncontrolled
• Half wave
• Full wave
• Controlled
• Half wave
• Full wave
➢Rectification is a process that converts AC into DC.
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Power Semiconductor Devices (Power Switches)

• Power switches: work-horses of PE systems.

• Operates in two states:
• Fully on. i.e. switch closed. [Conducting state]
• Fully off , i.e. switch opened.[Blocking state]

• Can be categorised into three groups:

– Uncontrolled: Diode
– Semi-controlled: Thyristor (SCR)
– Fully controlled: Power transistors: e.g. BJT, MOSFET, IGBT, GTO, IGCT
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Power Semiconductor Devices (Power Switches)

Diode Thyristor
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Power Semiconductor Devices (Power Switches)

Single Phase Full-Wave Uncontrolled Rectifier

(Bridge)
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Power Semiconductor Devices (Power Switches)

Three Phase Full-Wave Uncontrolled

Rectifier (Bridge)
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AC to DC Converter

Single-Phase Source Three-Phase Source

Half-Wave Semi- Full-Wave

Controlled Controlled Controlled
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Single-Phase Source

Half-Wave Controlled Semi- Controlled Full-Wave Controlled

Vm Vm 2Vm
Vo = [cos α + 1] Vo = [1 + cos(α)] Vo = cos(α)
2π π π
π−α
ISRMS = Ia ISRMS = Ia
π

▪ Up to 0.5 kW ▪ Up to 75 kW ▪ Up to 75 kW
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Three-Phase Source

Half-Wave Controlled Semi- Controlled Full-Wave Controlled

3VLm 3VLm 3VLm

Vo = cos(α) Vo = [1 + cos(α)] Vo = cos(α)
2π 2π π
▪ Up to 50 kW ▪ Up to 100 kW ▪ Up to 150 kW
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Example 1
The speed of a 20 HP, 300 V, 1800 rpm separately excited dc motor is controlled by a three-
phase full wave converter. The field current is also controlled by a three-phase full wave
converter and the field current is set to the maximum possible value. The ac supply voltage to
the armature and field converter is a three phase, Y connected, 208 V, 60 Hz. The armature
circuit resistance is Ra = 0.35 Ω, the field circuit resistance is Rf = 250 Ω, and the motor voltage
constant is Kv = 1.15 V/A rad/s. The viscous friction is negligible. The armature and field
current are continuous and ripple free.
Determine:
a) The delay angle of the converter in the armature circuit αa, if the motor supplies the
rated power at the rated speed.
b) The no-load speed if the delay angles are the same in (a) and the armature current in
at no-load is 10% of the rated value.
c) The speed regulation.
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Example 1
Separately excited dc motor

Poutfl = 20 HP
Givens
Three−phase− Full Vafl = 300 V n𝑓𝑙 = 1800 rpm
wave−converter

Field current set to the maximum Vs = 208 V

K v = 1.15V
R a = 0.35 Ω R f = 250 Ω Prot = 0
/A.rad/sec
Dr: Ramadan 76
Example 1
a) The delay angle of the converter in the armature circuit αa, if the motor supplies the rated
power at the rated speed.

3 ∗ Vlm Td
∵ Va = ∗ cos ∝a ∵ Va = E + Ia R a ∵ E = K v If ω ∵ Ia =
π K t If

Vf Vfmax
∵ If = ∵Field current set to the maximum ∴ Vf = Vfmax ∴ Ifmax =
Rf Rf

3VLm
∵ Vf = cos αf for Vf = Vfmax ∴ αfield = 0
π
281
3VLm 3VLm 3 ∗ 208 2 ∴ Ifmax =
∴ Vfmax = cos(0) = ∴ Vfmax = = 281 V 250
π π π = 1.12 A
Dr: Ramadan 77
Example 1
2π ∗ 1800
∵ E = K v If ω ∴ E = 1.15 ∗ 1.12 ∗ = 243.56 V
60

Poutfl 20 ∗ 746 79.15

Td ∵ Td = = = 79.15 Nm
∵ Ia = ω 2π ∗ 1800 ∴ Ia = = 61.26A
K t If 60 1.15 ∗ 1.12

∵ Va = E + Ia R a ∵Va = 243.56 + 61.26 ∗ 0.35 ∴ Va = 265 V

3 ∗ Vlm 3 ∗ 208 2
∵ Va = ∗ cos ∝a ∵265 = ∗ cos ∝a ∴ ∝a = 19.4o
π π
Dr: Ramadan 78
Example 1
b) The no-load speed if the delay angles are the same in (a) and the armature current in at no-
load is 10% of the rated value.

E ∵ ∝a = 19.4o
∵ E = K v If ω ∵ω= ∴ Va = 265 V
K v If

∵ Ian.l = 0.1 Ia𝑓𝑙 ∴ Ian.l = 6.126

∵ E = Va − Ia R a ∵ E = 265 − 6.126 ∗ 0.35 ∵ E = 262.86

262.86 60 ∗ ω 60 ∗ 203.43
∴ω= = 203.43 rad/sec ∴n= = = 1943 rpm
1.15 ∗ 1.12 2π 2π
Dr: Ramadan 79
Example 1
c) The speed regulation.

nn.l − nf.l
∵ Speed regulation =
nf.l

1943 − 1800
∵ Speed regulation = ∗ 100%
1800

∵ Speed regulation = 8 %
Dr: Ramadan 80
Power Diode
• When diode is forward biased, it conducts
current with a small forward voltage (Vak)
across it (0.2-3V)
• When reversed (or blocking state), a
negligibly small leakage current (μA to mA)
flows until the reverse breakdown occurs.
• Diode should not be operated at reverse
voltage greater than VBD
• In diode-based rectifiers, output voltage
cannot be controlled. So, they are termed as VBD
uncontrolled rectifiers.
• Diodes are assumed to be ideal.
Dr: Ramadan 81
Single Phase Half Wave Uncontrolled Rectifiers

(a) With resistive load

2 
1 1 Vm 2Vs
2 0 2 0
Vd = V d = V sin  d = =
 
o m
Dr: Ramadan 82
Simplified Thyristor (SCR) Model
Dr: Ramadan 83
Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifiers

vs
𝒊𝒐 t
vo
t
v
iG
 t
Average voltage:
𝜋
1 2𝑉𝑠
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = න 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 1 + cos 𝛼
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝛼
Dr: Ramadan 84
Single Phase Full Wave Uncontrolled Rectifiers

Vm
iD1 vs

io
is D1
D3
   
+ + Vm
vo
vs vo
_ _
Full Bridge D4 D2 io
Dr: Ramadan 85
Single Phase Full Wave Uncontrolled Rectifiers

Vm
iD1

io
is D1
D3 vs
+ +    
Vm
vs vo vo
_ _
Full Bridge D4 D2
io
Dr: Ramadan 86
Single Phase Full Wave Uncontrolled Rectifiers

iD1

io
D
is 1
D3
Vm
+ + vs
vs vo   

_ _ Vm
vo
Full Bridge D4 D2

Average DC voltage: io
𝜋
1
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = න 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑 𝜔𝑡
𝜋
0
2𝑉𝑚
= = 0.637𝑉𝑚
𝜋
Dr: Ramadan 87
Single Phase Full Wave Controlled Rectifiers

Discontinuous mode

io     + 

vo

Discontinuous mode
𝜷 Continuous mode
𝟏 𝑽𝒎
𝑽𝒅𝒄 = න 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 𝒅𝝎𝒕 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜷 io
𝝅 𝝅
𝜶   + 
Continuous mode
𝝅+𝜶 vo
𝟏 𝟐𝑽𝒎
𝑽𝒅𝒄 = න 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 𝒅𝝎𝒕 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶
𝝅 𝝅
𝜶
Dr: Ramadan 88

Lecture (5)
Dr: Ramadan 89

DC – DC
Converter
DC – DC
Converters
(Choppers)
)
Dr: Ramadan
DC to DC Converters Drives 90

(CHOPPER)
DEFINITION:
▪ A chopper directly converts a fixed-voltage dc supply to a variable-voltage dc
supply.
DC supply
(from rectifier-
DC output LOAD
filter, battery,
fuel cell etc.)

Vcontrol
(derived from
APPLICATIONS: feedback circuit)
▪ Switched-mode power supply (SMPS),
▪ DC motor control,
▪ Battery chargers.
Dr: Ramadan 91
DC to DC Converters Drives

• A DC-DC converter is connected between a fixed-voltage dc source

and a DC motor to vary the armature voltage.

• DC-DC converter (or simply chopper) drives are widely used in

traction applications all over the world.

• In addition to armature voltage control, a DC-DC converter can

provide regenerative braking of the motors and can return energy back
to the supply.
Dr: Ramadan
CHOPPER 92

Bipolar Junction Transistor Operating Modes

𝐼𝐶

𝐼𝐵 = 𝑉𝐶𝐸

Bias Mode E-B Junction C-B Junction

Saturation Forward Forward
Active Forward Reverse
Cutoff Reverse Reverse
 93
Dr: Ramadan
Buck (Step-down) Converter
Basic Step-down Switching Regulator + Vce − IL

• Transistor is operated in switched-mode: Vin

RL
Vo

• Switch closed: Fully on −

• Switch opened: Fully off SWITCHING REGULATOR

• When switch is open, no current flow in it IL

• When switch is closed, no voltage drop across it. SWITCH

RL
+
Vo
Vin
• Since P=V.I, no losses occurs in the switch. −

• Power is 100% transferred from source to load. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

• Power loss is zero (for ideal switch): Vo

• Switching regulator is the basis of all DC-DC Vin

(ON) (OFF) (ON)

converters closed open closed

DT T

OUTPUT VOLTAGE
Dr: Ramadan 94
Buck (Step-down) Converter
Motoring mode

Q1 conducts → Va = Vdc

Dm conducts → Va = 0

▪ When the chopper (Q1) is turned on, say at t = 0, the supply is connected to
the motor, and Va = Vs, and the motor current Ia builds up.
▪ When the chopper (Q1) is turned off at t = ton, the motor current freewheels
through Dm, and Va = 0.
▪ At t = T, the chopper (Q1) is turned on again and the cycle repeats.

The average voltage is made grater than the back emf, thus forcing the current
to flow to the motor
Dr: Ramadan 95
Buck (Step-down) Converter
Motoring mode
0≤K≤1

Va = K ∗ Vs Ton
K=
T
Vch = (1 − k) ∗ Vs
T = Ton + Toff
Is = Ich = K ∗ Ia

ID = (1 − k) ∗ Ia Vs Vs
R eq = =
Is K ∗ Ia
 96
Dr: Ramadan
Boost (Step-up) Converter
Regenerative Braking

Q1 conducts → Va =0 Dm conducts → Va = Vdc

The average voltage is made smaller than the back emf, thus forcing the
current to flow from of the motor
Dr: Ramadan 97
Boost (Step-up) Converter
Va = Vch = (1 − k) ∗ Vs

Is = ID = (1 − k) ∗ Ia

∵ Ea = Va + Ia R a
∴ Ea = (1 − k) ∗ Vs + Ia R a

Ea (1 − k) ∗ Vs
R eq = = + Ra
Ia Ia

Pg = V𝑠 ∗ Is = (1 − k) ∗ Vs ∗ Ia
Dr: Ramadan 98
Boost (Step-up) Converter
Regenerative Braking
∵ Ea = Va + Ia R a
∴ Ea = 1 − k ∗ Vs + Ia R a = KIf ω

at k = 1 at k = 0
∴ Ea = Ia R a = KIf ω ∴ Ea = Vs + Ia R a = KIf ω

Ia R a Vs + Ia R a
∴ ωmin = ∴ ωmax =
KIf KIf
Dr: Ramadan 99
Boost (Step-up) Converter
Dynamic Braking
Dr: Ramadan 100
Boost (Step-up) Converter
Dynamic Braking
Ib = (1 − k) ∗ Ia

Vb = Vch = Ib R b = (1 − k) ∗ Ia R b

Ea = Vb + Ia R a

Ea Vb + Ia R a
R eq = =
Ia Ia
= (1 − k) ∗ R b + R a

Pb = 1 − k ∗ Ia2 R b
Dr: Ramadan 101

Lecture (6)
 102
Operating Modes (Quadrant Operations)
Dr: Ramadan

➢One-quadrant.

➢Two-quadrants.

➢ Four-quadrants.
Dr: Ramadan 103
Operating Modes (Quadrant Operations)
 104
Operating Modes (Quadrant Operations)
Dr: Ramadan

V or ω

Te
Q2 Te Q1
+Va  +  m m +Va  + 
-Ia  -T +Ia  +T
Power = -ve Power = +ve
Quadrant 2 Quadrant 1
Forward braking Forward motoring

Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4 Ia or Td
Reverse motoring Reverse braking
Te
m m
Q3 Te Q4
-Va  -  -Va  - 
-Ia  -T +Ia  +T
Power = +ve Power = -ve
Dr: Ramadan 105
AC to DC Converter
Semi- Controlled

Vm 3VLm
Vo = [1 + cos(α)] Vo = [1 + cos(α)]
π 2π

Operation in
quadrant 1 only
Dr: Ramadan 106
AC to DC Converter
Full- Controlled

2Vm
3VLm
Vo = cos(α) Vo = cos(α)
π π

Operation in
quadrant 1 and 4
only
 Dr: Ramadan
AC to DC Converter 107

Regenerative Braking using fully controlled Rectifier

❑ In the Regenerative Braking, the generated energy is returned to the source.
❑ For this to happen, the ǀEaǀ must be greater than ǀVaǀ so, Ia is negative .
❑ The converter output is positive with firing angle in the range 0° ≤ α ≤ 90°. With these polarities the converter supplies power
to the motor which is converted to mechanical energy.
❑ Direction of power flow can be reversed if the direction of current flow is reversed. But this is not possible because the
converter can carry current in only one direction.
❑ Then the only method available for reversal of power flow is by the following steps.
1. Reverse the Converter output voltage Va (making 𝛼𝑎 > 90𝑜 ).
2. Also reverse the Back emf Ea with respect to the converter terminals (The reversal of motor emf with respect to rectifier
terminals can be done by any of the following changes.
a. The motor armature terminals can be reversed w.r.t the converter terminals using a reversing switch with the motor
still running in the forward direction. (with contactors or thyristors) this gives forward regeneration.
b. The field current may be reversed with the motor running in the forward direction, and this also gives forward
regeneration without any changes in the armature connections.
3. And make lEal > lVal (can be satisfied by choosing a value of αa and αf).
❑ Regenerative braking cannot be obtained
▪ If the drive runs in the forward direction only and there is no arrangement for the reversal of either the armature or the
field.
▪ If the converter shown above is a Semi converter.
Dr: Ramadan 108
AC to DC Converter

Dual Three-Phase Dual Single-Phase

▪ Four quadrant ▪ Four quadrant
Dr: Ramadan 109
AC to DC Converter
Dr: Ramadan 110
DC to DC Converter
Basics of two quadrant chopper:
▪ Combining the Buck and Boost choppers together.
▪ This combined circuit provides both forward motoring and forward regenerative braking.
▪ T1 along with diode D2 performs forward motoring operation while T2 along with diode
D1 performs the function of forward regenerative braking.
▪ Shifting of control from T1 to T2 shifts operation from motoring to braking and vice versa.
▪ But in many applications a smooth and fast changeover from motoring to braking and vice
versa is required and in such cases T1 and T2 are controlled simultaneously.
▪ With the given polarity of Va, the motor current is positive when flowing down wards
(during motoring) and negative when flowing upwards (during braking).
▪ For two quadrant operation with forward motoring & braking, the polarity of Ea is
considered positive and not changed.
▪ The choppers conduct in only one direction when triggered and only when forward biased
and also when they are triggered to start.
▪ The voltage across the inductance is positive and adds up to the motor back emf Ea when
the rate of rise of current is positive. And this happens when T1 is ON or when diode D1 is
conducting.
▪ The voltage across the inductance is negative and opposes the motor back emf Ea when
the rate of rise of current is negative. And this happens when T2 is ON or when diode D2
is conducting.
 Dr: Ramadan 111
DC to DC Converter
Operation of two quadrant chopper:
▪ Say initially at point (P) chopper T1 is triggered, and it starts conducting, so the output voltage is
positive (Va = K*Vdc).
▪ The motor current is positive and flow from +Vdc, T1,motor,-Vdc, so the motor receives power from
the source.
▪ At point (Q) T1 is turned off, polarity of voltage across the inductance is changed (becomes negative)
and the energy in the inductance forces motor current to flow through the diode D2 ( in the same
direction through the motor i.e. positive) till the voltage across the inductance Ldi/dt becomes equal to
the back emf Ea and the motor current becomes zero i.e. up to point (R).

Buck Converter Buck Converter

T1 conducts → Va = Vdc D2 conducts → Va = 0

 Dr: Ramadan 112
DC to DC Converter
Operation of two quadrant chopper:
▪ When the motor back emf Ea become greater than the voltage across the inductance and since the gate signal for
T2 is present, now Ea forces a current in the opposite direction (negative current) through the inductance and T2.
This continues up to point (S) i.e. until T2 is turned off and T1 is turned on.
▪ Now at point (S) when T2 is turned off, polarity of voltage across the inductance changes (becomes positive) and
the energy in the inductance forces same negative current through the diode D1 into the source (-Vdc, motor, D1,
+Vdc) until point T when the current reduces to zero. In this period the current is negative and hence T1 cannot
conduct although it is triggered.
▪ At this point (T) since gate signal is available to T1, motor current becomes positive, conducts through T1 and the
sequence repeats.

T2 conducts → Va = 0 D1 conducts → Va = Vdc

Dr: Ramadan 113
DC to DC Converter
Quadrant 1 The average voltage is made larger than the
back emf.

Va Ea

Quadrant 2 The average voltage is made smaller than the back

emf, thus forcing the current to flow in the reverse direction

Va Eg
 Dr: Ramadan 114
DC to DC Converter
Summary observations of two quadrant chopper:
▪ In a period (T), T1 is switched on from 0 to K .T and T2 is switched on from K.T to T where K is the duty
ratio of T1.
▪ Therefore, during the period 0 to K .T motor is connected to the source through T1 or D1 depending upon
whether the motor current is positive (T1) or negative (D1).
▪ Similarly, during the period K.T to T motor armature is shorted through T2 or D2 depending upon
whether the motor current is negative (T2) or positive (D2). And during this period the rate of change of
current is always negative.
▪ For first quadrant operation( i.e., motoring), torque is positive, so motor current is positive and thus T1
and D2 perform the motoring.
▪ For the second quadrant operation (i.e., braking) , torque is negative, so motor current is negative and thus
T2 and D1 perform the braking.
▪ Motor voltage is zero if either T2 or diode D2 conducts and equal to Vdc if T1 or D1 conducts. So
average output voltage is always positive.
▪ Motor current is positive whenever T1 or diode D2 conduct and negative when T2 or diode D1 conducts.
▪ When motor voltage is positive and motor current is reversible hence power flow is also reversible.
▪ Both T1 and T2 should not be switched on simultaneously as it would short circuit the source voltage
Vdc. They are turned on alternatively by the gate signals.
Dr: Ramadan 115
DC to DC Converter
Operation of four quadrant chopper:
▪ Four quadrant chopper circuit consists of two bridges,
forward bridge and reverse bridge.
▪ Chopper Bridge T1 to T4 is the forward bridge which
permits flow of energy from source to load. Diode Bridge
D1 to D4 is the Reverse Bridge which permits flow of
energy from motor to source.
▪ With this type of chopper, motor direction of rotation can
be changed without changing the field excitation direction
and both motoring and braking operations in both
directions can also be obtained.
▪ Controlling choppers T1&T2 will make Va positive and
motor current reversible thus operating in first and second
quadrants.
▪ Similarly, controlling T3 and T4 will make Va negative
and motor current reversible thus operating in third and
fourth quadrants.
Dr: Ramadan 116
DC to DC Converter
Operation of four quadrant chopper:
▪ When choppers T1 and T2 are turned ON, current
flows through the path: +Vdc, T1, motor, T2, - Vdc.
Since both Va and Ia are positive, we get first quadrant
operation.
▪ When both the choppers T1 and T2 are turned OFF,
motor dissipates its’ energy through the path: motor, D3,
+Vdc,-Vdc,D2, motor. In this case Va is negative while
Ia is positive, and we get fourth quadrant operation.
▪ When choppers T3 and T4 are turned ON current
flows through the path: +Vdc, T3, motor, T4, -Vdc.
Since both Va and Ia are negative, we get third quadrant
operation.
▪ When both the choppers T3 and T4 are turned OFF,
motor dissipates its’ energy through the path: motor, D1,
+Vdc, -Vdc, D4, motor. In this case Va is positive while
Ia is negative, and we get second quadrant operation.
Dr: Ramadan 117

"Closed Loop

Lecture (7)
Control of DC
Drives
(Controlled
Rectifiers)
Dr: Ramadan
Closed Loop Control of DC Drives (Controlled Rectifiers) 118

▪ Closed loop control is when the firing angle is varied automatically by a

controller to achieve a reference speed or torque
▪ This requires the use of sensors to feedback the actual motor speed and torque
to be compared with the reference values
Dr: Ramadan
Closed Loop Control of DC Drives (Controlled Rectifiers) 119

➢Feedback loops may be provided to satisfy one or more of the

following:
• Protection.
• Enhancement of response – fast response with small overshoot.
• Improve steady-state accuracy.
➢Variables to be controlled in drives:
• Torque (achieved by controlling current).
• Speed.
• Position.
Dr: Ramadan
Closed Loop Control of DC Drives (Controlled Rectifiers) 120

➢Cascade control structure

• Flexible – outer loops can be added/removed depending on control requirements.
• Control variable can be limited by limiting its reference value.
• Torque loop is fastest, speed loop – slower and position loop – slowest.
 Dr: Ramadan
Closed Loop Control of DC Drives (Controlled Rectifiers) 121

➢Cascade control structure: Inner Torque (Current) Control Loop

▪ Current (torque) control loop is used to control torque via armature current (ia) and
maintains current within a safe limit
▪ T* is limited by the limiter to keep within the safe current
▪ T* is compared to actual current T to obtain a torque error signal
▪ The torque (PI) controller processes the error to modify the firing angle  to be sent
to the converter to obtained the motor armature voltage for the desired motor operation
torque.
Dr: Ramadan
Closed Loop Control of DC Drives (Controlled Rectifiers) 122

➢Cascade control structure: Speed Control Loop:

▪ Ensures that the actual speed is always equal to reference speed  *

▪ The reference speed * is compared to actual  to obtain a speed error signal
▪ The speed (PI) controller processes the speed error and produces the torque command T*
▪ T* is compared to actual current T to obtain a torque error signal
▪ The torque (PI) controller processes the error to modify the firing angle  to be sent to the
converter to obtained the motor armature voltage for the desired motor operation torque.
Dr: Ramadan
Closed Loop Control of DC Drives (Controlled Rectifiers) 123

➢Cascade control structure: Position Control Loop:

▪ Ensures that the actual position is always equal to reference position 𝜃*.
▪ The reference position 𝜃* is compared to actual 𝜃 to obtain a position error signal.
▪ The position (PI) controller processes the position error and produces the speed command  *
▪ The reference speed * is compared to  to obtain a speed error signal
▪ The speed (PI) controller processes the speed error and produces the torque command T*
▪ T* is compared to actual current T to obtain a torque error signal
▪ The torque (PI) controller processes the error to modify the firing angle  to be sent to the
converter to obtained the motor armature voltage for the desired motor operation torque.
Dr: Ramadan
Closed Loop Control of DC Drives (Controlled Rectifiers) 124

• Controller design procedure:

1. Obtain the transfer function of all drive subsystems
a) DC Motor & Load.
b) Converter.
c) Current feedback loop sensor.
d) Speed feedback loop sensor.
2. Design current (torque) control loop.
3. Design the speed control loop.

Design of speed and current controller (gain and time constants)

is crucial in meeting the dynamic specifications of the drive
system
 Dr: Ramadan
Closed Loop Control of DC Drives (Controlled Rectifiers) 125

Modeling of DC motor – separately excited or permanent magnet

• Perform Laplace Transformation on ac components

dia Vt(S) −Ea (S)

vt = ia R a + La + ea Vt(S) = Ia(S)Ra + La SIa + Ea(S) Ia(S) =
dt R a + La S

ea = k m ω Ea(S) = k m (S)
Vt(S) − k m (S)
Ia(S) =
Te = k m ia Te(S) = k m Ia(S) R a (1 + τe S)

dω Te(S) −TL(S)
Te = TL + Bm ω + J Te(S) = TL(S) + Bm(S) + SJ(S) (S) =
dt Bm + J S

k m 𝐼𝑎 𝑆 − 𝑇𝐿 (𝑆)
(S) =
Bm (1 + τm S)
Dr: Ramadan
Closed Loop Control of DC Drives (Controlled Rectifiers) 126

Modeling of DC motor – separately excited or permanent magnet

Vt(S) − k m (S) 𝑇𝑒 𝑆 = 𝑘𝑚 𝐼𝑎 (𝑆) k m 𝐼𝑎 𝑆 − 𝑇𝐿 (𝑆) ω S
Ia(S) = (S) = = ???
R a (1 + τe S) 𝐸𝑎 (S) = 𝑘𝑚 (S) Bm (1 + τm S) Vt (S)

J = motor inertia, Bm = motor friction coefficient,

τm : Mechanical motor time constant(τm = 𝐽/𝐵𝑚 )
τe : Electrical motor time constant (τe = 𝐿𝑎 /𝑅𝑎 )
Dr: Ramadan 127