Module -1

piscreteMathematical1Struc

Module -1
1.0 Introduction
Discrete Mathematics is a fundamental mathematics component for the computer
science and allied disciplines.
Comprehensively it is focused on the study of discrete /distinct things and also
finite systems play a key role in this advanced era of computer science.
The digital computer is basically a finite structure and a number of its properties
can be understood, analyzed and can be interpreted using finite systems.
Set theory is the foundation of Discrete Mathematics. Algebraic structures are also
based on sets and we present set theory as a preamble.

1.1 Basicdefinitions and Concepts of Set Theory

A well defined collection of objects (without repetition) is called a Set. These
objects are called elements or members of the set.

Examples:
i) Students in civil engineering branch of a college.
ii) Integers between0and 9.
ii) Prime numbers less tharn 100.

Generally sets are denoted by uppercase (capital) letters such as A, B, C....and the
elements of a set are denoted by lower case (small) letters such as a, b, c....
For a set Awe write xEAifx is an element of A and y¢ A if y is not a member
of A.
The symbols E and can respectively be understood as belongs to' and
'does not belongs to'.
We generally use two methods to represent a set and they are
(i) The tabulation method (ii)The rule method.
In the Tabulation method all the elements of a set without repetition are written
within flower brackets :( }.
2 Discrete Mathematical Structures

However, if the elements are more/infinite a few are written, as the subsequents
can be guessed.
In the Rule Method we specify the set by stating its characteristic property which
all the elements of the set possess.
two methods. The notation
Here are a few illustrativeexamples that exhibit the
in the form of aslant line "/" is read as 'such that'.
Rule method
Set Tabulation method
{x/x is an vowel}
{a,e, i , o, u) (This is read as, the set of all x' where x
isan vowel)
{x/x is a positive odd integer less
B {1,3,5, 7,9 ...... 19} than 20}

(x/x is an integer)
C {....-3,-2,- 1, 0, 1, 2,3 ...
{x/xEN,
D {1,4,9, 16,.... N
being the set of natural numbers}
E {...- 15,- 10,- 5,0, 5, 10, 15 ....)|(x/x is an integer divisible by 5)

Suppose F is the set represented in the rule method as

(x/x is a letter in the word 'mathematics] then the set F by tabulation method is
represented by {m, a, t, h, e, i, c, s}.
It should be noted that the repetition of the letters m,aand t has to beavoided in
the tabulation method representing the set F.

" Finite, Infinite and Singleton sets

A set is said to be finite if it has finite numbers of elements. Otherwise the set is
said to be infinite. Aset containing only one element is called a singleton set.
Examples
) The set of allpositive integers less than 10 (finite set): (1,2,...9)
(ii) The set of allreal numbers: (infinite set)
(ii) The set of all numbers between 10 and 20 divisible by 7 is a
singleton set : (14)
 Module -1 3

" Null Set

Theset containing no elements is called Nullset or Empty set and it is denoted by
or |).

Examples of null set

0) A= (x/x +3 = 0,xE R, Ris being the set of real numbers}.
Here x = tiv3 is imaginary.
(i) B= x/x is an even integer lessthan 10divisible by 5}
Here x:2,4,6,8. These are not divisible by 5.

. Subset and Superset.

If every element of a set Ais an element of the set B then we say that Ais subset of
Bor Ais contained in B or B contains A. Bis called a superset of A.
This is written as AG B or B 2 A. Further if every element of a set C is an
element of D and in addition Dcontains an element that is not in c, then C is
called a proper subset of D.
This is written as C c D or D T C. The symbols c and c can respectively be
understood as 'subset of' and 'proper subset of.

Remark.
Every set is a subset of itself and null set is a subset of every set.

Example:
Let A = {1,2,3}. B = {1,2,3,4,5,6), X = {3,4,5}
Here, A CB. It may be observed that an element 4 E B, but 4 e A and hence
AcB.
Also A X and XÉA.
That is, Ais not a subset of X and X is not a subset of A. Further X c B.

Remark
IfAC Band BE Athen A= B. That is to say that if Ais a subset of Band Bis a subset
of A then the sets Aand B are equal.
" Universal set.

It is always possible to choose a special set U( 0) such that every set under
consideration /discussion is a subset of U.Such a set is called auniversal set.
It should be noted that universal set is not unique. A E Ufor every set A.
 Discrete Mathematical Structures
For example when we
all integers / is the
deal with sets whose elements are
universal set. That is U= (0,+1,A2, t3,integers,
...)=|
then
the set of
"
Cardinalityof a set.
If A is a finite set,
then the number of elements in A is referred
cardinality of A and is denoted by |A|. to as the
Referring to the earlier illustrative example in respect of
|A| =3, |B| = 6 and |X| = 3. subsets, we have
" Power set

Given aset A, then the set consisting of all subsets of A is

and is denoted by P(A). called the power set of A

Example
If A= {0,1,2, then we have P(A) =
{0,(0},(1,(2),(0,1), (1,2), (0,2}, A}
Remark :
Here \A| =3and |P (A)| = 8= 23
It may be noted that, if |A| =n then \P(A)| = 2"

Set operations
In this section we discuss certain basic
operations on sets. Using these operations
we exhibit the formation of new sets according to a rule
of the given sets.
combining the elements

" Union of two sets

The union of two sets A and B is the set consisting of all
elements which belong
to Aor B or to both and it is denoted by AUB. Hence by rule method
AUB = {x/xEA or xEB}

" Intersection of two sets and disjoint sets

The intersection of two sets A and B is the set consisting of all elements which
belong to both A and B. It is denoted by AnB. Hence by rule method,
AnB={x/x EAand x EB}
Further if An B= 0 then the sets Aand Bare said to be disjoint.
 Module -1 5

. Difference (Relative complement) of two sets and Complement of a set

The difference of two set A and B is the set consisting of all elements which
belong to Abut does not belong to Band it is denoted by A- B. Itis also called
the relative complement of Bin A. Hence by rule method,
A-B= {x/xE Aand x ¢ B}
Further ifUis the universal set containing a set A, then the Complement of Ais
defined to be U- Aand it is denoted by A or A'. Hence by rule method,
Aor A' = (x/x E U
and x¢A}
" Symmetric Difference
The symmetric difference of two sets Aand Bis the set consisting of elements of
A
or elements of Bbut not both and it is denoted by AAB. Hence by rule method,
AAB = {x/x E A or x¬ Band xgA n B}

Equivalently, AAB = (AUB) - (An B)

It is evident that if Aand Bare subsets of the universal set Uthen (A UB),(A n B)
and A A B are also subsets of U.

Illustrative Examples.
Let, U={x/xEN and x< 15)
A= {1,2,3,4, 6, B= {3,4, 8, 9,10) C ={1,7, 13}
We have the following illustration on set operations, where
U= {1,2, 3, 4,5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14}

Unions
AUB = {1,2, 3, 4, 6, 8,9, 10} = BUA
BUC = {1,3,4, 7, 8,9, 10, 13} = CUB
CUA = {1,2,3, 4, 6,7, 13} =AUC
Intersections

AnB= {3,4} = BnA

BOC= Ø(Null set) = CnB
CoA={1}(Singleton set) = AnC
 Module -1

1.2 Fundamentals of Logic

Introduction

The word Logic can be understood as the science of reasoning and logical' means
valid reasoning. Mathematical Logic is related to all kinds of reasoning and it serves
as a tool to judge the truthfulness of any statement. Logic principles play an
important role in computer programming and designs. It is also a foundation in
the developent of subjects like 'logic design', 'logic gates', 'artificial intelligence'
etc.

Propositions.
Aproposition is an assertive statement which is either true or false but not both.
Propositions are usually represented by small letters p, q, T, ..
The truth of aproposition is called the truth value, symbolized as '1' or T.
Also the truth value of the falsity of a proposition issymbolized as 0 or "F.

We present a few examples along with truth values in the case of propositions.
Truth value of the
S.
Statement statement being a
No
proposition
1. Mysuru is in Karnataka state T(1)

2. Mumbai is the capital of India F(0)

3. Are you working? Not a proposition

4 x=1 is the solution of x+5=6 T(1)

5. 2Ttr is the areaof the circle F (0)

Not a proposition
6 x+y<1 (The statement can be either
true or false)

The table showing the truth values of a statemnent is called a »truth table'.
10 Discrete Mathematical S
1. 21 Basic connectives and Truth tables.
Structures
We present three basic logical connectives on the propositions
eigish words 'not', 'and', 'or' with illustrations and truth tables. using simple
Negation
The negation' of a proposition p is the statement obtained by
'not (or dropping the word 'not') at the befitting place of intheducting woro
the
statement tha
Conveys the opposite version of the given statement and is denoted by p
Further it t is evident that if T(1) is the truth value of pthen F(0) is the truth orp
of ~p and vice versa. value
Observe the following illustrations.
SI. No Proposition (p) Negation (-p)
1. Today is a holiday Today is not aholiday
2. 32+4 + 52 32+42 = 5
ax + bx+c ax + bxtc
3.
is aquadratic expression is not a quadratic expression
2Tr 2r
4
is not the area of a circle is the area of a circle

Truth table associated with negation

Proposition (P)
T(1) F (0)

F(0) T(1)

" Conjunction
Given two propositions pand q, the compound proposition formed by using the
Connective "and" is called the 'conjunction' of the original propositions.
It is denoted by p Aq, read as 'p and q'.
It should be noted that if the propositions p and q are true then its conjunction
pAqisalso true. The same is false in allother cases.
 Module -1 11

Truth table associated with conjunction

T(1) T(1) T(1)

T(1) F(0) F(0)
F (0) T(1) F (0)
F (0) F(0) F (0)

Illustrative Examples
Observe the following four compound propositions (p A) connected by the
propositions p, q.
() Delhi is the capital of India and x +4 =5’x=1
(ii) Delhi is the capital of India and x+ 4 =5 ’x=2
(ii) Mumbai is the capital of India and x+4= 5x=1
(iv) Mumbaiis the capital of India and x+4=5x=2
Clearly (i) only is true as both the propositions are true. In the rest either of them
or both of them are false.

Disjunction and Exclusive disjunction.

Given two propositions p and q, the compound proposition formed by using the
connective "or" is called the disjunction' of the original propositions. It is
denoted by p Vq, read as 'p or q'. It should be noted that if both p and q are false,
then its disjunctionpVq is false. The same is true in all other cases.

Remark: The reader can easily visualize the earlier illustrative example with the word
'or' in place of 'and'
Truth table associated with disjunction.

p p Vq
T(1) T(1) T(1)
T(1) F (0) T(1)
F (0) T(1) T(1)
F(0) F (0) F(0)
12
Discrete Mathematical Structures

both, the compound

Further when either p is true or g is true but not

PVq. It is read as p exclusive g. It

the original propositions and
is called the exclusive disjunction' of should be noted that
is
pVq isis true
that pVa prdenotowhenposeidtion-by
pis
E
true and qis false and vice versa.

Truth table associated with exclusive disjunction.

p V4

T(1) F (0)
T(1)

F (0) T(1)
T (1)
T (1) T (1)
F(0)
F (0) F (0) F (0)

the first
Remark: Obseroe that in this truth table pVq truth value differs only in
case in comparison with the truth table of p q.

Illustrative Example
p: Delhiis the capital of India
q:x+ 4 =5’r=1

r: Mysuru is the capital of Karnataka

is true ;
We note that p, qare true and r is false. Therefore p Vq is false ; qVr
rVp is true. pVq is false is interpreted as follows. Either of the propositions
should be true but not both.

Worked Examples
Ex- 1. Write down the truth value of the follotoing compound propositions.
(i) Tajmahal is in Delhi and Rajghat is in Agra
(i) Tajmnahal is in Agra or Mumbai is the capital of India
> i)F (0) (ii) T (1)
 Module -1 13

Ex-2. Write the negation of the followingpropositions and the ass0ciated truth value.
) River Ganga flows in Varanasi.
(i) r² is not the area of acircle.
> () River Ganga does not flow in Varanasi : F (0)
(ii) r² is the area of a circle:T (1)
Ex - 3.Given the following propositions p.q :
p: Jaipur is in Rajasthan.
q:Chennai is a coastal city.
Write down the symbolic form of thefollowing compound propositions.
(i) Jaipur is not in Rajasthan and Chennai is a coastal city
(ii) Chennai is not acoastal city or Jaipur is not in Rajasthan
(ii) ~q V~p
Ex- 4. Considering the propositions p.q as in Ex -3, write down the compound
proposition for the following.
(i) ~p A~ q (ii) pVq
) Jaipur is not in Rajasthan and Chennai is not a coastal city
(ii) Jaipur is in Rajasthan or Chennai is not a coastal city.
Ex - 5. Construct truth table for the following
(i) pA(q Ap) (i) ~ (p V~ q) (ii) (pVq) V~p
(iv)p A
(q vr) & pv (q vr) (v) ~p V~q&~p V~ q
º (i) pA (qAp)
q^p pA(q^p)
T T
F F F
F T F F
F F F

(i) ~ (p ~ q)
pVq ~ (pV~ )
T T F F
T T F
F T F F
F T
14 Discrete M
Mathematical
(ii) (pv q) V~ p Structures
pVq (pV)Vp
T T T

F T F T

F T T
F F T T

(iv) pA(qvr) & pv(qVr)

Firstly, we need to write all possible combinations involving T, Fin respect of
P.q,r jointlyand then proceed for the truth table. The possible combinationsov
as follows.
(TTT),(TTE),(TFT),(TFF), (FTT),(FTF),(FF T),(F FF)
qVr pA(qVr) pv (qVr)
T T

T T T

F T T T
T F F F

T T T F T
T F T F
F T T F
F F F F

Remark: The number of rows needed for the truth table of conmpound propositions
composed of 'n' propositions is 2". As particular cases we have seen for
p,g(n = 2), 2 = 4 and for p, q, r (n =3) 2s =8 rows in the truth table.

(v)~p V~ q&~ pV~ q

~pV~q ~pV~q
T
F F
T
T F
T
T
 Module -1 15

.Conditional and Biconditional propositions

We quite often come across with conditional statements like,
"El get wellthen I willcome to the office".
Ethe fog condition improves then flights will take off"
We presernt two logical connectives on the propositions prefixing the words "if",
"then" appropriately so that the compound proposition becomes conditional. This
concept is used for discussing Converse, Inverse and Contrapositive propositions.
. Conditional proposition
Given two propositions p and q, the compound proposition using the words "if"
before p and "then" before q is called the Conditional proposition of the original
propositions.
It isdenoted by p’ q and is read as "if pthen q" orp implies q.
Itshould be noted that if the proposition p is true and q is false, the compound
proposition p’ q is false. In all other cases p ’ q is true.

Truth table associated with conditional proposition.

T T T
T F F
F T T
F T

Remark: Let us form the truth table of q ’ p

9’p
T T T
F T T
T F F
F T

Ifis important to note that q’pisnot the same as p ’ q

Observe the following Illustrative Example.
P:The party "X" comes to power in the state.
q:Water will be free to the citizens.
P’q:If the party "X" comes to power in the state then water will be free to
citizens.
16
Discrete Mathematical Structures
This
statement is deemed false because of the uncertainty of the party "X"
to power.
Further
This water may be free to citizens as it can be done by a party
coming
indicates that p ’q| and q ’p are not the same.
other than "X"

Biconditional propositions.
Given two
before p andpropositions p and q the
compound proposition using the words "if"
"then" before q and vice versa also is called the
proposition"
It is
of the original propositions "biconditional
denoted by p qand is read as "if P,q. pthen g" and "if qthen p"
Equivalently terminology
It is
evident
the
that p q is
"p if and only if q" or "p iff q" is being used.
(p ’ ) is true when p equal to (p ’ ) A(q ’p). It should be noted that
and ahave the same truth
values. It is false otherwise.
Truth table asso ciate dwith
biconditional propositions
pq
T
T
T F F
T F
F T
Observe the following Illustrative Examples
p:Mr. Ajay is sent abroad.
q:Mr. Ajay completes the project successfully.
p +q: Mr. Ajay is sent abroad if
and only if he complete the project
successfully.
This statement is deemed true when both the
propositions are true/false.
Converse, Inverse and Contrapositive propositions.
Let p and q be two propositions. Also p ’qis the conditional proposition. Then
() Proposition q’pis called its convese.
(ii) Proposition~p’ q is called its inverse.
(ii) Proposition ~q’~ p is called its contrapositive.
Truth table associate d with these is as follows.
 Module-1 17

Converse Inverse Contrapositive Conditional

pq
pq
T T T T T
F F T T F F
F T T F F T T
F T T T T T

We take note that the truth values of p ’qand ~g’~p are the same. Hence we
say that they are equivalent. We have the same in respect of q ’p and p ’~g.

Tautology, Contradiction and Contingency

Tautology is a compound proposition wlhich is always true irrespective of the
truth values that occurs in the propositions.
Contradiction or Absurdity is a compound proposition which is always false
irrespective of the truth values that occurs in the propositions.
Contingency is a compound proposition which is either true or false.
Equivalently we can say that, if every entry in the final column of the truth
table is

i) True (T) then the compound proposition is a Tautology

(ii) False (F) then the compound proposition is a Contradiction
(iii) Either true (T) or false (F) then the compound proposition is Contingency.

1.22 LogicalEquivalence
Two compound propositions P and Qare said to be logically equivalent if P and
Qhave the same truth value. Equivalently we can say that, if the biconditional
PoQis atautology then Pand Q are logically equivalent.
The notation P = Qor PeQis used for logical equivalence. However it may be
noted that the symbol'='do not refer to alogical connective since P=Qis not a
compound proposition.
Twopropositions P and Qare said to be contradictory if the biconditional
proposition P Qis acontradiction.

Note: The operators used in our discussion so far are called logical operators. We use
them in the same order as discussed for solving problems.
The order of the logic operators for use is as follows.
~(); A;V;V;’;’
18
Discrete Mathematical Structures

Conceptual Contents at a glance (Part - )

SI.No Operator Concept; p.q being propositions
1. ~() The word 'not to be inducted appropriately in the
[Negation] given proposition to get the opposite meaning.
2 pAq read as pand q, is true (T) only when bothp
[Conjunction] and g are true.
3 pVq read as por q, is false (F) only when both p and
[Disjunction] q are false.

4. [Exclusive P Vq read as p exclusive q, is true (T) when either p is

true or q is true but not both.
disjunction]
5.
p’q read as if pthen q orp implies q, is false (F)
[Conditional] only when p is true and gis false.
6.
p’qread as p if and only if q (p iff q), is true (T)
[Biconditional] only when p and q have same truth values.
Allin one Truth Table

pAq pVq
(Negation p) (p and q) (p or q) (p exclusive q) (p implies q) (p iff q)

T T F T F T T

T F T F

F T T F T T T F

F F T F F F T

Conceptual contents at a glance (Part - II)

Proposition New proposition and Name Remark

Given q’p[Converse] p’q is the same as

p’q ~p ’~q [Inverse]
~q’~p[Contrapositive]
 Module -1 19

Every entry in the final column of Name of the compound

truth table
proposition

[T]; True or 1
Tautology
[F]; False or 0 Contradiction

Either [T] or [F]; 1or 0 Contingerncy

Logical equivalence of compound propositions Pand Q
P=QorPQ,if Pand Qhave the same truth value or P Qis atautology.
Worked Examples
Ex-6. Let p 4, rdenote the follozwingpropositions about atriangle (A)ABC.
p: AABC is isosceles.
q: AABC is equilateral.
r:A ABC is equiangular.
Convert each of the following propositions into verbal fornm.
(i) q’p (i) (¬p) ’ (h) (iii) q ’ r
(iv) p A(q) (v) (Gp) Vq (vi) p (¬)
We first write down the verbal form of ¬p and q.
¬p: AABC is not isosceles.
¬q: AABC is not equilateral.
The required verbal forms are as follows.
(i) q’p : If A
ABC is equilateral then it is isosceles.
(ii) (-p) ’ (¬): If AABC is not isosceles then it is not equilateral.
(iii) : AABC isequilateral if and only if it is equiangular.
(iv) p(¬q) : A
ABC is isosceles and it is not equilateral.
(v) (Gp) Vq : AABC is not isosceles or it is equilateral.
(vi) po h) : A
ABC is isosceles if and only if it is not equilateral.
 20 Discrete Mathematical Structures

Ex -7. Let p.q,r,s denote the following propositions.

p:lfinish writing my computer programbefore lunch.
q:I shallplay tennis in the afternoon.
r: The sun is shining.
s: The humidity is low.
Write the following verbal form propositions in the symbolic form using logical operators.
(i) If the sun is shining, I shall play tennis thisafternoon.
(i1) Finishing the writing of my computer program before lunch is necessary for my
playing tennis this afternoon.
(iii) Low humidity and sun shine are sufficient to play tennis this afternoon.
(iv) Ishallplay tennis this afternoon iff the sun is shining and humidity is low.
The symbolic form using logical operators for the given verbal propositions
is as follows.

(i) r ’ q (ii) q ’ P (iüi) (s Ar) ’q (iv) q ’ (rAs)

Ex -8. Write doon the converse, inverse and contrapositive of the following
compound proposition "A person is successful in life if he puts sincere efforts".
> Let p and qrepresent the following propositions.
p: A person is successful in life
q: He putssincere efforts.
p’q is the given proposition.
(i)) Converse is q ’p.That is
"If a person puts sincere efforts he is successful in life".
(ii) Inverse is ~p ’ ~q. That is
"If a person isnot successful in lifethen he is not sincere in his efforts",
(ii) Contrapositive is ~q’~p. That is
"If a person has not put sincere efforts then he is not successful in life".
 Module -1 21

Ex-9. Define Tautology and Contradiction with an example for each. [Dec 2010]

> JRefer the associated conternt for definitions.]

Anexample for tautology :(p Aq) ’ (p Vq)
pAq pVq (pAq) ’ (pV)
T

T F T

F T F T T

F F F T

An example for contradiction : (p Aq) A~ (pV)

pVq ~ (pVq) (pAq) A (pV)

T T T F F

[I,
T F F T F F

F T T F F

F F F F T F

Note: 1. PA(~ P) is always a contradiction for any proposition "P".

(simple or compound)
2. (p^ )+ (pVq) seroes as an example for contingency.
Ex- 10. p and qare primitive statements with p ’ qis false. Determine the truth
values of the following.
(i) p Aq (ii) ~pVq (iii) q’p (iv) ~q ’ p IJan 2014]
Since p ’ qfalse, we have p is true (T) and q is false (F)
(i) (iii)

q’p

T F F F T T
22 Discrete Mathematical Structures

(ii) (iv)

F T

(ii) and alsofind the truth value

Ex - 11. Find the truth value p from the data as in (i),
of qfrom the data as in (ii), (iv).
(i) pvqis 0 and q is 0. (ii)p ’ qis 1and q is 0.
(iii) p e qis 1and p is 0. (v)pAq is 0and p is 1.

Reason
pVq
0 0 0 pVq is 0 when p is 0, q is 0.
(ii)
Reason

2 0 1 0 p’qis 1 when pis 0, q is 0.

(iii)
Reason

0 1 peqis1 when pis 0, q is 0.

(iv)
pAq Reason

1 0 pAqis 0 when p is 1, q is 0.

Ex-12. Given that p. q, rare propositions having truth values 0,0,1 respectively.
Find the truth value ofthe follooing propositions. IJan 2017]
(i)p ’ (q Ar) (ii) (p Vq) vr
(ii) (pA ) ’r (iv) p ’ [q ’ (~r)]
(i)

qAr p’ (qAr) Reason

0 0 1 0 1 P ’Qis Owhen P is 1, Qis 0.

 Module -1 23

(ii)

pVq (pvq) vr Reason

0 0 1 1 PVQis 0when P is 0, Qis 0.

(iii)

pAq (p Aq) r Reason

0 0 1 0 1 P ’Q is 0when P is 1, Qis 0.
(iv)

q’ (r) p’ [q’ (~r)] Reason

0 0 0 1 1
P ’Qis0 when P is 1,
Q is 0.

Ex -13.Construct truth table for each of the following.

(i) ~pV~)’ ~p (ii) (p ’ q) ’ (q ’ p)
(ii) (q A(p ’ )] ’p (iv) q ’ [(-p) V(~q)

q
pv(~)
(u)
T T F T
T F T F T
F T T F F T T
F T T F T
(i)

(p ’ ) ’ (q ’p)
T T T T

F F T
T T F F

F T T
 (iv) (iii) 24
Ex
F F F F T T T T 14. -
(i) Write
F F T T F
(p’ F F T T
F T T down F T T
q)
’r the F T F T
F T T T truth T F T

table T F F
T T T T F T for T T F T
(ii)
the T F
p’
following. qA(p’)
T T F T T T T
q’r
(q F T F T
’r) T T T F
)’r (p’ Mathematical
Structures
Discrete
F T F T T T qA(p
q
+
[(-p) T F T T ’
F )]
-’r)p’
(q
v ’p
T T T T T T
(~)
F
 Module -1 25

Ex- 15. Prove the following results by forming truth table.

) pv[-(pA)l is atautology.
(ii) pA[~p Aq] isa contradiction.
(ii) q+ [(-p) v(~q)]is a contingency.
()

pAq-p A) pv[-(pA) Conclusion

T T I F T

T F Since all the truth values are

true (T), the given
F T T T compound proposition is a
tautology.
F F T T

(ii)

~pAq pA[pAql Conclusion

T F

Since all the truth values are

T F F
false (F), the given compound
F T F
proposition is a
contradiction.
F F T F F

(ii)

(-p) v(~) Conclusion

(r)
T T F F F F
Since the truth values
T F F T T F are false (F) and true (T),
the given compound
F T T F T proposition is a
F
contingency.
T T
 Discrete Mathematical Structures
26

Ex- 16. Show that the following propositions are tautologies.

(ii)[-p Vq] vil(-p) ^q] Vp)
() (pVq) >(qVp) (ii) pA(-’ )) ’ 4
We shallprepare the associated truth tables.
()
Vp)
q Vp (p V) +o (q
pVq
T
T T
T

T T
T

I T
F T

F F
F

(ii)
pAp’ q) [pA (p’ q)] ’9

T T
T
F T
T F

F T
T T
F
F T

(ii) (p) Aq vVp

~(pV) uVw
(u) (v) (w)
F T T
T T F T

T F T T
T F

T T F T T T
F T

F T F F T

We observe that the truth values in the lastcolumn of every truth table is
true (T).
Thus we conclude that the propositions (i), (ii), and (ii) are tautologies.
 Module -1 27

Ex-17. Verify that |p (q ’)]l(0)r)]is atautology (June -12]

We shallconstruct the associated truth table,
p’r p’v U’w
x’y
(U) (v) (w) () ()
T T T T T T T T
T T F F F F F T
T F T F T T T T T
T F F F T T T
F T T T T T T T
F T F T F T T T T
F T T T T T T
F T T T T T

We observe that all the truth values in the last column of the truth table is
true (T).
Thus we have verified that the given proposition is a tautology.

Ex - 18. Showthat [(p ’r)A(q ’r)]’ [(p V )’r] is a tautology.

º We shallprepare the associated truth table.
p’r q’r pVq W ’r

(u) (v) (w) («) () x’y

T T T T T T T I

T T F F T F T

T T T T T T T T
L
T F T T F T

T T T T T T T T

F T F T F T

F F T T T F T T

F F T T F T T T

We observe that all the truth values in the last column of the truth table is true (T).
Thus we conclude that the given proposition is a tautology.
28 Discrete Mathematical Structures

Ex- 19. Use truth tables to establish thefollooing logical equivalences

(i) ¬(pV) pA 9 (iii) (p’ ) pVg
(pAq) V(pA -n)
(i) pyq (pv) A(GpV ¬q) (iv) p q
> We shall prepare the befitting truth tables.
(i)
-(pV) PoQ
pVq (P) (Q)
T
T T T F F
T
T T F
T F
T F
F T T
T T T
F F F T T

(ii)
pVq (pV) A(GpV¬) P+Q
(P) (0)
T
F F
T F

L
F T T T T
T

F T T T T

F F T T F T F F

(iii)
p Vq
P Q
(P) ()
T T F T T T

T F F F F T

F T T T T T

F F T T T T