RING THEORY

Def. RING: A tripe (R, +, ·) is called a ring if followings are satisfied:

i. (R, +) is an abelian group.
ii. · is a binary operation on R i.e. · : R × R → R.
iii. [Associativity] a · (b · c) = (a · b) · c ∀ a, b, c ∈ R.
iv. [Distributive property]

a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c
(b + c) · a = b · a + c · a.

Def. COMMUTATIVE RING: A ring (R, +, ·) is called commutative ring if a · b = b · a for

all a, b ∈ R.

Def. RING WITH UNITY: Let (R, +, ·) be a ring. R is said to be ring with unity if there exist
e ∈ R such that e · r = r · e = r for all r ∈ R. e is called unity of R or multiplicative identity of R.
Unity in a ring is usually denoted by 1R or simply 1.

Refer ASSIGNMENT 1.

Theorem 1. In a ring (R, +, ·), the following results hold.

1. a · 0 = 0 · a = 0 ∀a ∈ R
2. a · (−b) = (−a) · b = −ab ∀a, b ∈ R
3. (−a) · (−b) = ab ∀a, b ∈ R
4. a(b − c) = ab − ac.
Proof:
1.

a · 0 = a · (0 + 0)
=⇒ a · 0 = a · 0 + a · 0 (Using distributive property)
=⇒ a · 0 = 0 (Using cancellation property in group (R, +)).

Similarly, we can prove 0 · a = 0.

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 2.

a · (−b + b) = a · 0
=⇒ a · (−b) + a · b = 0
=⇒ a · (−b) = −ab.

Similarly, we can prove (−a) · b = −ab.

3. (−a) · (−b) = −[a · (−b)] = −[−ab] = ab.

4.

a(b − c) = a[b + (−c)]

= ab + a(−c)
= ab − ac.

Def. BOOLEAN RING: A ring (R, +, ·) is said to be Boolean ring if a2 = a·a = a for all a ∈ R.

Example: The ring (Z2 , +2 , ·2 ) is boolean ring.

1. Show that a Boolean ring B is commutative and 2x = x + x = 0 for all x ∈ B.

Proof: Let B be a Boolean ring. Let a, b ∈ B be arbitrary.

(a + b)2 = (a + b)
=⇒ a2 + ab + ba + b2 = a + b
=⇒ a + ab + ba + b = a + b
=⇒ ab = −ba. (1)

Multiplying a from left on both sides of the equation (1), we get

a · (ab) = a · (−ba)
=⇒ a2 b = −aba
=⇒ ab = −aba. (2)

Multiplying a from right on both sides of the equation (1), we get

(ab) · a = (−ba) · a
=⇒ aba = −ba2
=⇒ ba = −aba. (3)

From (2) and (3), we get ab = ba. Hence, Boolean ring B is commutative.

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 Now, let x ∈ B, then

(x + x)2 = (x + x)
=⇒ x2 + xx + xx + x2 = x+x
=⇒ x + x + x + x = x+x
=⇒ x + x = 0.

Def. Nilpotent element: Let (R, +, ·) be a ring. An element a ∈ R is said to be nilpotent if

there is a positive integer n such that an = 0, where an stands for a · a · · · · a (n factors). (In
any ring R, 0 is a nilpotent element, called the trivial nilpotent element.)

Example: 0, 2, 4, 6 are nilpotent elements of Z8 .

     
0 0 0 0 2 2 0 0
Example: A = ,B = ∈ M2 (R) are nilpotent as A = B = .
0 1 1 0 0 0

2. Prove that in a ring R, ab is nilpotent if and only if ba is nilpotent.

Proof: Let ab ∈ R be nilpotent, then there exist n ∈ N such that (ab)n = 0. Now

(ba)n+1 = (ba) · (ba) · · · (ba) (n + 1 times)

= b(ab) · (ab) · · · (ab) · a
= b(ab)n a
= b · 0 · a = 0.

Hence, ba is nilpotent. Similarly, converse can be proved.

Def. Idempotent element: An element a ∈ R is said to be an idempotent if a2 = a. (In any

ring R, 0 and 1 (if 1 exists) are idempotents called the trivial idempotents.)

Example: 0, 1 ∈ Z2 are idempotents as 02 = 0 and 12 = 1.

Example: 3 ∈ Z6 is idempotent as 32 = 3 ·6 3 = 3.

Note: 0 is the only element which is both nilpotent and idempotent in any ring R.

Def. ZERO DIVISORS: Let (R, +, ·) be a commutative ring. An element a(̸= 0) ∈ R is

called zero divisor if there exist b ̸= 0 in R such that a · b = 0.

Def. INTEGRAL DOMAIN: A commutative ring R with unity without zero divisors is
called integral domain.

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 Alternatively, a commutative ring R with unity is called integral domain if a ̸= 0 and b ̸= 0
in R then ab ̸= 0.

Using contrapositive, we can say a commutative ring R with unity is called integral domain
if ab = 0 then a = 0 or b = 0 in R.

Theorem 2. A commutative ring R is an integral domain if and only if for all a, b, c ∈ R

and a ̸= 0, we have ab = ac =⇒ b = c.

Proof: Let R be an integral domain. Let ab = ac and a ̸= 0. Then

ab − ac = 0
=⇒ a(b − c) = 0
=⇒ b − c = 0 =⇒ b = c.

Conversely, assume that the given condition holds.

Let a, b ∈ R be arbitrary elements of R with a ̸= 0 such that ab = 0. Then ab = 0 = a · 0.

Then by assumption, we must have b = 0. Hence R is an integral domain.

3. Prove that the only idempotents in an integral domain are 0 and 1.

Proof: Let R be an integral domain and a ∈ R be an idempotent. Then we have

a2 = a =⇒ a(1 − a) = 0.

Since R is an integral domain , we should have either a = 0 or 1 − a = 0, i.e. , a = 0 or

a = 1, as required.

4. Prove that 0 is the only nilpotent element in an integral domain.

Proof: Let a be nilpotent element in an integral domain I, then there exist n ∈ N such that
an = 0.
If n = 1, then a = 0.

If n ≥ 2,

a · an−1 = 0 =⇒ a = 0 or an−1 = 0.

If an−1 = 0. Then

a · an−2 = 0 =⇒ a = 0 or an−2 = 0.

Similarly continuing, we get a = 0.

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Def. UNIT: Let (R, +, ·) be a ring with unity 1. An element a ̸= 0 in R is called unit if
there exists b ̸= 0 in R such that ab = ba = 1. i.e. A non-zero element is called unity if its
multiplicative inverse exists.

Example: The ring (Z, +, ·) has exactly two units namely 1 and −1.

Example: All invertible matrices in ring of 2 × 2 matrices are units.

Note that the set of units in any ring R forms a group under multiplication as if u and v are
units then (uv)−1 = v−1 u−1 is also a unit. Also, sum of units may not be unit as 1 and −1
are units in Z but −1 + 1 = 0 is not a unit.

Theorem 3. a ∈ Zn (n ≥ 2) is a unit if and only if gcd(a, n) = 1.

Proof: Let a ∈ Zn be a unit. Then there exist b ∈ Zn − {0} such that a ·n b = 1. Then
n divides ab − 1. Hence there exist some x ∈ Z such that ab − 1 = nx which implies
ab + n(−x) = 1. Therefore, gcd(a, n) = 1.

Conversely, assume that gcd(a, n) = 1. Then there exist integers x and y such that ax +ny =
1. By division algorithm, there exists p.q ∈ Z such that x = np + q; 0 ≤ q < n. Therefore,
we have

a(np + q) + ny = 1
=⇒ aq + n(ap + y) = 1
=⇒ n divides aq − 1
=⇒ a ·n q = 1
=⇒ a−1 = q in Zn .
=⇒ a is a unit.

Theorem 4. a ∈ Zn − {0}, n ̸= 2 is a unit or a zero divisor.

Proof: If gcd(a, n) = 1, then a is a unit.

n
Assume gcd(a, n) = d > 1. Let s = . Clearly r ∈ Zn . Now
d
n
a ·n s = a ·n
d
an
= remainder when is divided by n
da 
= remainder when n is divided by n
d
= 0. (as a/d is an integer in Zn )

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5. Let R be a commutative ring with unity 1. If x ∈ R is nilpotent then prove that (1 + x) is a
unit.
Solution: Let x ∈ R be nilpotent, then there exist n ∈ N such that xn = 0.

Let y = 1 − x + x2 − · · · + (−1)n−1 xn−1 . Then (1 + x)y = y(1 + x) = 1. Therefore, 1 + x is

a unit.

6. Let R be a commutative ring with unity 1. Prove that sum of a unit and nilpotent element
is a unit.
Solution: Let x ∈ R be nilpotent, then there exist n ∈ N such that xn = 0.

Let u ∈ R be a unit, then there exist v ̸= 0 in R such that uv = 1.

We write u + x = u(1 + vx). Since x is nilpotent, therefore vx is nilpotent as (vx)n = vn xn =

vn · 0 = 0. Therefore, by previous question (1 + vx) is a unit.

Since product of two units is a unit, therefore u(1 + vx) = u + x is a unit.

Def. DIVISION RING: A ring R with unity is called a division ring or a skew field if
non-zero elements of R form a group under multiplication. Equivalently, R is a division
ring if each non-zero element of R has a multiplicative inverse i.e. each non-zero element
of R is a unit.
The rings Q, R, C are some examples of division ring.

Def. FIELD: A commutative division ring is called field.

2nd definition: A commutative ring R with unity is called a field if every non-zero element
of R is a unit. Equivalently, a commutative ring R with unity is called a field if set of non-
zero elements of R forms a group.

3rd definition: A triple (F, +, ·) is called a field if

i. (F, +) is an abelian group.
ii. (F − {0}, ·) is an abelian group.
iii. [Distributive property] a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c.

The rings Q, R, C are some examples of field.

7. Give an example ofa division ring whichis not a field.  

a b 1 0
Solution: Let M = : a, b ∈ C . Then M is a ring with unity under ma-
−b a 0 1
trix addition and multiplication.

6
  
x y
Let A = be an arbitrary non-zero element of H i.e. at least one of x and y is
−y x
non-zero. Then |A| = |x|2 + |y|2 ̸= 0. Therefore, A−1 exist. Hence, A is a unit and thus M
is a division ring.
       
0 1 i 0 0 −i 0 i
Since R = ,S = ∈ M and RS = , SR = , we get RS ̸= SR
−1 0 0 −i −i 0 i 0
and thus M is not a field.

Theorem 5. Every field is an integral domain but not conversely.

Proof: Let (F, +, ·) be a field. Let a, b ∈ F such that a · b = 0 and a ̸= 0. Then

a−1 (ab) = a−1 · 0 (a−1 exists as a ̸= 0)

=⇒ a · a−1 b = 0

=⇒ b = 0.

Hence, (F, +, ·) is an integral domain.

Theorem 6. A finite integral domain is a field.

Proof: Let I = {x1 , · · · , xn } be a finite integral domain.

Let a ∈ I be arbitrary non-zero element. Consider the set Ia = {x1 a, · · · , xn a}. Since xi ∈ I
and a ∈ I, therefore xi a ∈ I for 1 ≤ i ≤ n. Therefore Ia ⊆ I.

Next, let xi a = x j a for xi , x j ∈ I. Then (xi − x j )a = 0. Since a ̸= 0 and I is an integral do-

main, we must have xi − x j = 0 =⇒ xi = x j . That is whenever xi ̸= x j , we have xi a ̸= x j a.
Therefore, all the elements in Ia are distinct. Hence |Ia| = n. Since Ia ⊆ I and |Ia| = |I| = n,
therefore we must have I = Ia.

Since a ∈ I and I = Ia, we have a ∈ Ia, therefore there exist some xk ∈ I such that
a = xk a = axk .

claim: xk is unity of I = Ia.

Let y ∈ I = Ia, then y = xi a for some xi ∈ I. Then

xk · y = xk · (xi a)
= (xk · xi )a
= (xi · xk )a = xi (xk · a) = xi a = y.

Since I is commutative, we have y · xk = y. Thus xk is unity of I = Ia .

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 Since xk ∈ I = Ia , then there exist x j ∈ I such that xk = ax j , then a is a unit.

Hence, I is a field.

8. Prove that (Zn , +n , ·n ) is a field if and only if n is a prime.

Solution: Let (Zn , +n , ·n ) be a field.
If possible, assume that n is composite then there r, s ∈ Zn − {0} such that n = r · s =⇒
r ·n s = 0. Hence, Zn has zero divisors which is a contradiction as every field is an integral
domain.

Conversely, assume that n is a prime.

(Method 1) (Zn , +n , ·n ) being finite commutative ring with unity, it is sufficient to show
that (Zn , +n , ·n ) is an integral domain.

Let a, b ∈ Zn such that a ·n b = 0 which implies n divides ab. Since n divides ab and n is a
prime, we have n divides a or n divides b. Therefore, we must have a = 0 or b = 0. Hence
(Zn , +n , ·n ) is an integral domain ans thus a field.

(Method 2) Clearly, (Zn , +n , ·n ) is a commutative ring with unity. Let a ∈ Zn − {0}. Then
gcd(a, n) = 1, hence a is a unit. Thus every non-zero element of (Zn , +n , ·n ) is a unit and
hence (Zn , +n , ·n ) is a field.

Def. CHARACTERISTIC OF A RING: The characteristic of a ring R is the least pos-

itive integer n such that nx = 0 for all x in R. If no such integer exists, we say that R has
characteristic 0. The characteristic of R is denoted by char(R).

Thus, the ring of integers has characteristic 0 and Zn has characteristic n. An infinite ring
Z2 [x] is of characteristic.

Theorem 7. Let R be a ring with unity 1. If 1 has infinite order under addition, then the
characteristic of R is 0. If 1 has order n under addition, then the characteristic of R is n.
Proof: If 1 has infinite order, then there is no positive integer n such that n · 1 = 0, so R has
characteristic 0. Now suppose that 1 has additive order n. Then n · 1 = 0, and n is the least
positive integer with this property. So, for any x in R, we have
n·x = x+x+···+x
= 1x + 1x + · · · + 1x
= (1 + 1 + · · · + 1)x
= (n · 1)x = 0x = 0.

Thus, R has characteristic n.

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 Theorem 8. The characteristic of an integral domain is 0 or prime.

Proof: Let I be an integral domain. Then I is a commutative ring with unity 1(say). Ac-
cording to previous theorem char(I) = 0 or a prime according as additive order of 1 is
infinite or a prime.

If the order of unity 1 ∈ R has infinite order then clearly char(I) = 0.

Now suppose that additive order of 1 is n. If possible assume that n is composite, then
there exists integers r, s such that n = s · t and 1 < s,t < n. Then

0 = n·1
= (r · s) · 1
= (s · 1)(s · 1).

Since, I is an integral domain, we must have r · 1 = 0 or s · 1 = 0 which further implies that

additive order of 1 is less than r and less than s and so additive order of 1 is less than n, a
contradiction. Hence n must be a prime.

9. Let F be a field of order 2n . Prove that the characteristic of F is 2.

Solution: Note the Char(F) = O(1) under addition. Also F is a finite group so O(1) must
be finite. Since characteristic of integral domain is either 0 or prime, we conclude that
order of 1 must be prime.

Also, the prime O(1) divides 2n , so by Lagrange’s theorem, O(1) = 2.

10. Let F be a field of order pn . Prove that the characteristic of F is p.

11. Let x and y belong to a commutative ring R with prime characteristic p. Show that

(x + y) p = x p + y p .

Proof: Since char(R) = p, we have p · r = 0 for all r ∈ R.

     
p p p p−1 p p−2 2 p
(x + y) = x + x y+ x y +···+ xy p−1 + y p .
1 2 p−1
 
p
Since each is a multiple of p, therefore
i
 
p p−i i
x y = 0 in R.
i
Hence, the desired result.

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 Product of Rings

Let (R1 , +1 , ·1 ) and (R2 , +2 , ·2 ) be two rings. Then the cross product R = R1 × R2 −
{(r1 , r2 ) : r1 ∈ R1 , r2 ∈ R2 } is a rings under + and · defined as for (a, b), (c, d) ∈ R

(a, b) + (c, d) = (a +1 c, b +2 d)
(a, b) · (c, d) = (a ·1 c, b ·2 d).

Theorem 9. The product of rings R × S is commutative if and only if both ring R and S are
commutative.

Theorem 10. The product of rings R × S has unity 1 if and only if both R and S has unities
1R and 1S respectively. Infact 1 = (1R , 1S ).

Theorem 11. If R and S are two rings, then


0 : if char(R) = 0orchar(S) = 0
char(R × S) =
k : where k = l.c.m. (char(R), char(S))

Proof: Let char(R) = 0, then there does not exist any n ∈ N such that nr = r for all r ∈ R.
Then there does not exist any n ∈ N such that n · (r, 0) = (0, 0) for all r ∈ R. Hence
char(R × S) = 0. Similarly, char(S) = 0 then char(R × S) = 0.

Next, let char(R) = m and char(S) = n and let k =lcm(m, n). Then

k(a, b) = (ka, kb) = (0, 0) ∀ (a, b) ∈ R × S

as m, n divides k.

Next if for some t ∈ N, we have t(a, b) = (0, 0) for all (a, b) ∈ R × S, then ta = 0∀ a ∈ R and
tb = 0 ∀ b ∈ S. Now, by division algorithm, there exists y, z ∈ N ∪ {0} such that t = my + z
where 0 ≤ z ≤ m − 1. Then

ta = 0 =⇒ (my + z)a = 0 =⇒ y(ma) + za = 0 =⇒ y · 0 + za = 0 =⇒ za = 0 for all a ∈ R.

Since char(R) = m and 0 ≤ z ≤ m − 1 we must have z = 0, therefore m divides t. Similarly

n divides t. Hence k =lcm(m, n) divides t. Therefore charR × S = k.

12. State fundamental theorem of algebra.

13. Consider the equation x2 − 5x + 6 = 0.

(a) How many solutions does this equation have in Z7 ?
(b) Find all solutions of this equation in Z8

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 Solution:

Def. Subring: A subset S of a ring R is a subring of R if S is itself a ring with the operations
of R.

Example 1: In any ring R, {0} and R are always subrings of R. {0} is called trivial subring
of R.

Example 2: {0, 2, 4} is a subring of the ring Z6 .

Theorem 12. Subring test: A nonempty subset S of a ring R is a subring if and only if
a, b ∈ S =⇒ a − b, ab ∈ S.

Example: nZ are subrings of Z where n ∈ N ∪ {0}.

  
a 0
Example: The set : a, b ∈ Z of diagonal matrices is a subring of the ring of all
0 b
2 × 2 matrices over Z.

14. Prove that the intersection of any collection of subrings of a ring R is a subring of R.
Proof: Let (R, +, ·) be a ring. Let F = {S ⊆ R : S is a subring of R} be a family of subrings
of R.

Let F ′ be a non-empty family of F .

Claim: ∩S∈F ′ S is a subring of R.

Since 0 ∈ S for all S ∈ F ′ . Therefore 0 ∈ ∩S∈F ′ S. Hence ∩S∈F ′ S is non-empty.

Let a, b ∈ ∩S∈F ′ S. Then a, b ∈ S for all S ∈ F ′ . By subring test a − b, a · b ∈ S for all

S ∈ F ′ . Therefore, a − b, a · b ∈ ∩S∈F ′ S. Hence, by subring test, ∩S∈F ′ S is a subring.

15. (Assignment) Let R be a ring. The center of R is the set Z(R) = {x ∈ R|ax = xa ∀ a ∈ R}.
Prove that the center of a ring is a subring.
Proof: Since 0 · a = a · 0 for all a ∈ R, hence 0 ∈ Z(R). Thus Z(R) is non-empty.

Let x, y ∈ Z(R) then ax = xa and ay = ya for all a ∈ R. Then

(x − y)a = xa − ya
= ax − ay
= a(x − y)

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 and
(xy)a = x(ya)
= x(ay)
= (xa)y
= (ax)y
= a(xy)
for all a ∈ R. Thus x − y, xy ∈ Z(R) and hence by subring test Z(R) is a subring of R.

16. (Assignment)If R is a division ring then show that the center Z(R) of R is a field.
Proof: Let R be a division ring with unity 1. The center of R is given by Z(R) = {x ∈
R|ax = xa ∀ a ∈ R}.

Clearly, Z(R) is a commutative subring with unity 1.

Next let x(̸= 0) ∈ Z(R) ⊆ R, then x is a unit in R and satisfies xr = rx for all r ∈ R. Also
xr = rx
−1 −1
=⇒ x (xr)x = x−1 (rx)x−1
−1
=⇒ rx = x−1 r
−1
=⇒ x ∈ Z(R).

Hence, Z(R) is a field.

17. Show that the set of nilpotent elements of a commutative ring form a subring.
Solution: Let N denote the set of all nilpotent elements in a commutative ring R. Then
0 ∈ N, so N is non empty.

Let x, y ∈ N, then there exist positive integers n, m such that xn = 0 and ym = 0. Then
 
n+m n + m i n+m−i
(x + y) = ∑ xy = 0,
i=0 i

as if 0 ≤ i < n, then n + m − i > m and so ym+n−i = 0 and if i ≥ n, then xn = 0. Hence

x + y ∈ N.

Also, as R is commutative ring, therefore

(xy)nm = xnm ynm = 0.
Therefore, xy ∈ N.

Hence, by subring test N is subring of commutative ring R.

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 Some Pathologies

If S s a subring of a ring R, then we have the following possibilities.

1. S may be commutative but not R. For example, the set S of all n × n diagonal matrices
is a commutative subring of the ring R of all n × n matrices over Z, n ≥ 2.

2. S may not have unity even if R has. For example, the set S of all even integers is a
subring without unity of the ring of all integers Z.

3. S and R mayboth have

 unities but they  may not bethe same.
 For example, the unity
a b 1 0
of ring R = : a, b, c, d ∈ R is the matrix , while the unity of subring
  c d   0 1
x x 1/2 1/2
S= : x, x, x, x ∈ R is the matrix .
x x 1/2 1/2
4. Consider the ring R = Z × 2Z and its subring S = Z × {0}. Then R does not have
unity as 2Z does not have unity. But the subring S has unity namely (1, 0).

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18. (SUBFIELD TEST) Let F be a field and let K be a subset of F with at least two element.
Prove that K is a subfield of F if, for any a, b(b ̸= 0) in K a − b and ab−1 belong to K.

√ √
19. Let d be an integer. Prove that Q[ d] = {a + b d|a, b ∈ Q} is a field.

Def. Sum of two subrings: Let S and T be two subrings of a ring R. We define

S + T = {s + t : s ∈ S,t ∈ T }

then clearly S + T is a non void subset of R as 0 = 0 + 0 ∈ S + T .

Note that sum of subrings may not be a subring, such an example is given below.
  
a 0
Example: Consider the ring M of 2 × 2 matrices over integers. Let S : a, b ∈ Z
   b 0
0 0
and T = : x ∈ Z . Then S and T are subrings of M. Then
x 0
  
a c
S+T = : a, b, c ∈ Z
b 0
is not a subring as matrix multiplication is not binary.

Def. LEFT IDEAL: A R be a ring. A subset I of R is called a left ideal of R if

1. I is a subgroup of (R, +), i.e. a, b ∈ I ⇒ a − b ∈ I
2. a ∈ I and x ∈ R ⇒ xa ∈ I.

Def. RIGHT IDEAL: A R be a ring. A subset I of R is called a right ideal of R if

1. a, b ∈ I ⇒ a − b ∈ I
2. a ∈ I and x ∈ R ⇒ ax ∈ I.

20. Let S be a non empty subset of a ring R. Show that r(s) = {x ∈ R : sx = 0} and l(s) = {x ∈
R : xs = 0} are respectively right and left ideals of R.
Solution: Note r(s) ̸= φ as 0 ∈ r(s). Again, x, y ∈ r(s) =⇒ sx = 0, sy = 0. Now,

s(x − y) = sx − sy = 0 − 0 = 0 =⇒ x − y ∈ r(s).

Again, if r ∈ R be any element then s(xr) = (sx)r = 0 · r = 0. Hence xr ∈ r(s). Thus r(s)
is a right ideal. Similarly, l(s) is a left ideal.

Note: r(s) and l(s) are called right and left annihilators of S respectively.

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21. Show by an example that a left ideal may not be a right ideal.  
a b
Solution: Consider the ring of 2 × 2 matrices over R. Let A = and B =
  0 0
0 b
. It is routine exercise to check that A is right ideal but not a left ideal and
0 d
B is left ideal but not a right ideal.

Def. IDEAL: A subset I of R, which is both a left ideal and a right ideal is called a two
sided ideal i.e. if for every r ∈ R and a ∈ I, both ra, ar ∈ I.
Alternatively, a subring I is said to be ideal if for every r ∈ R and a ∈ I, both ra, ar ∈ I.
1. It is very clear that every ideal is a subring but the converse is not true. For example,
subring of integers is not an ideal of ring of rationals.
2. Note that in any ring R, the subrings {0} and R are always ideals.
22. Find the ideals of Z.

23. Give an example to show that a subring may fail to be an ideal.

Solution: Consider the ring (Q, +, ·) and it’s subring (Z, +, ·). Then Z is not an ideal of Q
as 2 ∈ Z and 13 ∈ Q but 23 = 2 · 13 ̸∈ Z.
24. Let R be the ring of continuous functions from R to R. Let A = { f ∈ R| f (0) is an even integer}.
Show that A is a subring of R but not an ideal of R.

Theorem 13. (IDEAL TEST) A nonempty subset A of a ring R is an ideal of R if

1. a − b ∈ A whenever a, b ∈ A.
2. ra, ar ∈ A whenever a ∈ A and r ∈ R.

Proof: Try yourself.

25. Give an example to show that the union of two ideals may not be an ideal.
Solution: 2Z and 3Z are ideals of ring Z but their union is not an ideal.

26. Show that intersection of ideals is an ideal.

Solution: Let I1 and I2 be two ideals of a ring R. Then I1 ∩ I2 ̸= φ as 0 ∈ I1 ∩ I2 .

Let for a, b ∈ I1 ∩ I2 =⇒ a, b ∈ I1 and a, b ∈ I2 . Therefore, by ideal test a − b ∈ I1 and

a − b ∈ I2 . Hence a − b ∈ I1 ∩ I2 .

Next, let x ∈ I1 ∩ I2 =⇒ x ∈ I1 and x ∈ I2 . Since I1 and I2 are ideals, therefore for any
x ∈ R, rx, xr ∈ I1 and rx, xr ∈ I2 . Hence rx, xr ∈ I1 ∩ I2 . Hence by ideal test, I1 ∩ I2 is an
ideal.

15
27. If A is an ideal of a ring R and 1 belongs to A, prove that A = R.
Solution: Since 1 ∈ I and I is an ideal of R so by definition of ideals, for any r ∈ R, r =
1 · r ∈ I. Hence R ⊆ I, which implies I = R.

28. Prove that the only ideals of a field F are {0} and F itself.

29. Prove that union of two ideals is an ideal if and only if one is contained in another.

30. Prove that a commutative ring with unity F is a field iff F has only two ideals {0} and F.
Solution: Let F be a field and I be an ideal of F such that I ̸= {0}.
Since, I ̸= {0} therefore I contains atleast one non-zero element a ∈ I ⊆ F, so a(̸= 0) ∈ F,
therefore a is a unit. Hence I is an ideal containing unit therefore I = F.

Conversely, assume that F is a commutative ring with unity such that F has only two ideals
namely {0} and F itself.

To Prove: F is a field.
It is sufficient to prove that every non-zero element of F is a unit.

Let a ∈ F − {0}. Now, consider the Fa = { f a| f ∈ F}.

Claim: Fa is an ideal of F and Fa ̸= {0}.

Since, 1 ∈ F =⇒ 1 · a ∈ Fa =⇒ a ∈ Fa =⇒ Fa ̸= {0}.
Let f1 a, f2 a ∈ Fa then f1 a − f2 a = (a1 − f2 )a ∈ Fa. Next, f (a) ∈ Fa and x ∈ F,

x( f a) = (x f )a ∈ Fa,

as x, f ∈ F =⇒ x f ∈ F. Hence by ideal test, Fa is an ideal of F, but by assumption F has

only two ideals, so Fa = F.

Since, 1 ∈ F =⇒ 1 ∈ Fa, therefore, ∃b ∈ F − {0} such that 1 = b · a = a · b =⇒ a is a

unit. Hence, F is a field.

16
 Def. IDEAL GENERATED BY A SUBSET: Let S be any subset of a ring R. An ideal A
of R is said to be generated by S if S ⊆ A and for any ideal I of R, S ⊆ I =⇒ A ⊆ I.
We denote it by writing A =< S >.

Alternatively, we say ideal A is ideal generated by S if A is equal to all ideals of R which

contains S.

Another way of defining ideal generated by a subset is as follows:

Let X be a subset of ring R. The ideal generated by X in R is defined to be the set

( )
f inite f inite f inite f inite
∑ ni xi + ∑ r jy j + ∑ zk sk + ∑ al tl bl
ni ∈Z,xi ∈X r j ∈R,y j ∈X sk ∈R,xk ∈X al ,bl ∈R,tl ∈X

1. If X = φ , the ideal generated by X is {0}.

2. If X is finite then ideal generated by X is called finitely generated.
3. PRINCIPAL IDEAL: Let R be a ring. The ideal generated by a singleton set is
called Principal ideal i.e. if X = {x}, then the ideal generated by the X defined by
{nx + rx + xs + axb|n ∈ Z, r, s, a, b ∈ R} is called principal ideal.

4. Principal ideal ring: A ring R s called a principal ideal ring (P I R) if R is commuta-

tive and every ideal of R is principal.
5. Principal Integral Domain (PID): An integral domain in which every ideal is prin-
cipal (i.e., can be generated by a single element) is called PID.

Example 1. Let R[x] denote the set of all polynomials with real coefficients and let A
denote the subset of all polynomials with constant term 0. Then A is an ideal of R[x] gen-
erated by {x}.

Example 2. Let Z[x] denote the ring of all polynomials with integer coefficients and let I
be the subset of Z[x] of all polynomials with even constant terms. Then I is an ideal of Z[x]
generated by {x, 2}.

Def. SUM OF IDEALS: Let I1 and I2 are ideals of a ring R, then define the sum of ideals
I1 + I2 as

I1 + I2 = {i1 + i2 | i1 ∈ I1 , i2 ∈ I2 }.

31. If A and B are ideals in a ring R, show that the sum of A and B, A + B = {a + b|a ∈ A, b ∈ B}
is an ideal containing A and B both. In fact A + B =< A ∪ B >.
Solution: Let A and B are ideals of a ring R, then sum of ideals A and B is given as

A + B = {a + b | a ∈ A, b ∈ B}.

17
 Since, 0 ∈ A and 0 ∈ B, therefore 0 + 0 ∈ A + B. Hence, A + B is non-empty.

Let x, y ∈ A + B be arbitrary then x = a1 + b1 and y = a2 + b2 for some a1 , a2 ∈ A and

b1 , b2 ∈ B. Then x − y = (a1 − a2 ) + (b1 − b2 ) ∈ A + B. Moreover let z = a + b ∈ A + B and
r ∈ R be arbitrary. Then =⇒ a ∈ A and b ∈ B so for any r ∈ R, ra, ar ∈ A and rb, br ∈ B
implies r(a + b), (a + b)r ∈ A + B i.e. zr, rz ∈ A + B. Hence by ideal test A + B is an ideal.

Now, let a ∈ A be arbitrary then a = a + 0 ∈ A + B. Hence A ⊆ A + B. Similarly B ⊆ A + B.

Therefore A ∪ B ⊆ A + B.

To show that A + B =< A ∪ B >, we need to show that for any ideal I of R which satisfy
A ∪ B ⊆ I, we must have A + B ⊆ I.

Let x ∈ A + B, then x = a + b for some a ∈ A and b ∈ B. Since a ∈ A ⊆ A ∪ B ⊆ I

and b ∈ B ⊆ A ∪ B ⊆ I. Since I is ideal, so x = a + b ∈ I. hence A + B ⊆ I. Therefore
A + B =< A ∪ B >.

Def. If A and B are ideals of a ring. The product of A and B is defined as , AB =

f inite
{∑ai ∈A,bi ∈B ai bi }. In another words, AB is the set of all finite sums of the element of the
type ab where a ∈ A and b ∈ B.

32. If A and B are ideals of a ring R. Show that the product of ideals AB is also an ideal. Also
show that AB ⊆ A ∩ B
Solution: AB ̸= φ as 0 = 0 · 0 ∈ AB.
Let x, y ∈ AB then

x = a1 b1 + · · · + an bn
& y = c1 d1 + · · · + cn dm

where ai , c j ∈ A and bi , d j ∈ B for 1 ≤ o ≤ n and 1 ≤ j ≤ m.

Then x − y is again finite sum of elements of type ab for a ∈ A and b ∈ B.

Again for arbitrary x = a1 b1 + · · · + an bn ∈ AB and r ∈ R, we have

rx = r(a1 b1 + · · · + an bn )
= (ra1 )b1 + · · · + (ran )bn ∈ AB as A is an ideal so ra1 ∈ A.

Similarly, xr ∈ AB, hence by ideal test AB is an ideal of R.

Next, let x = a1 b1 + · · · + an bn ∈ AB be arbitrary then ai ∈ A and bi ∈ B for 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
Since ai ∈ A, bi ∈ R and A is an ideal so ai bi ∈ A and thus x ∈ A. Similarly x ∈ B. Hence
AB ⊆ A ∩ B.

18
33. Give examples of ideals A and B such that AB ̸= A ∩ B.
Solution: Consider the ideals A = 2Z and B = 4Z of Z. Then AB = 8Z and A ∩ B = 4Z.
Clearly, AB ̸= A ∩ B.

Def. Co-Maximal Ideals: Two ideals A and B of a ring R are called co-maximal ideal if
A + B = R.

For example, 2Z and 3Z are co-maximal ideals of ring Z as 2Z + 3Z = Z. Also, it is evi-

dent that co-maximal ideals need not be unique in pair as 3Z and 5Z are also co-maximal
ideals of Z because of the fact 3Z + 5Z = Z.

34. (Assignment) In a commutative ring, show that the set of all nilpotent elements is an ideal.

35. If A and B are co-maximal ideals of a commutative ring R with unity. Show that A∩B = AB.
Solution: Since A and B are co-maximal ideals of a commutative ring R, A + B = R. Also
let 1 denote the unity of R.
Since A and B are ideals of R so the product of ideals AB is an ideal of R such that
AB ⊆ A ∩ B.

To Show: R ⊆ AB.

Since A + B = R and unity 1 ∈ R so we can write 1 = a + b for some a ∈ A and b ∈ B.

Let x ∈ A ∩ B, then x ∈ A and x ∈ B. Therefore

x = x · 1 = x(a + b) = xa + xb = ax + xb as R is commutative ring.

Now since a ∈ A, x ∈ B, we have ax ∈ AB and x ∈ A and b ∈ B, we have xb ∈ AB. Therefore

x = ax + xb ∈ AB. Hence A ∩ B ⊆ AB. Hence A ∩ B = AB.

Def. Simple Ring: A non-zero ring R is called a simple ring if R has no ideals other than
{0} and R i.e there does not exist any ideal I such that {0} ⊂ I ⊂ R.

1. Division rings and fields are simple rings.

2. Matrix rings over division rings are simple.
3. If R is a simple ring with 1, then Mn (R) is a simple ring.

Def. FACTOR RINGS/ QUOTIENT RINGS: Let R be a ring and let I be an ideal of R.
Since R is a abelian group under addition and I is a subgroup of R. Since every subgroup
of an abelian group is normal subgroup, R/I is a quotient group under addition, where
R
= {r + I : r ∈ R}
I

19
 and r + I, s + I ∈ R/I then (r + I) + (s + I) = r + s + I.
To make R/I a ring, we define product on R/I as follows:

(r + I) · (s + I) = rs + I ∀r + I, s + I ∈ R/I.

Note: R/A is a ring under the defined operations addition and multiplication above.

36. Find the quotient rings of ring of integers.

Example 3. Consider the polynomial ring R[x] = {a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn | ai ∈ R}. Clearly

R[x] is a commutative ring with unity constant polynomial 1. One can check I =< x >=
{x · p(x) : p(x) ∈ R[x]} is an ideal. Now,

R[x]
= {q(x)+ < x >: q(x) ∈ R[x]}
<x>
= {b0 + b1 x + · · · + bn xn + < x > : bi ∈ R}.

Since x ∈< x > =⇒ xi ∈< x > for i ≥ 1 which further implies bi xi ∈< x > for i ≥ 1. Hence
n n
∑ bixi ∈< x > and thus ∑ bixi+ < x >=< x >. Hence, we get
i=1 i=1

R[x]
= {b0 + < x >: b0 ∈ R}.
<x>
Example 4. Consider the ring of polynomials R[x] and let x2 + 1 denote the ideal gen-
erated by the polynomial x2 + 1 i.e.

x2 + 1 = { f (x)(x2 + 1)| f (x) ∈ R[x]}.

Then
R[x]
g(x)+ < x2 + 1 > |g(x) ∈ R[x]

=
< x2 + 1 >
= ax + b+ < x2 + 1 > |a, b ∈ R .


37. If R is a commutative ring and I be an ideal of R then R/A is also commutative.

Proof: If x + I, y + I ∈ R/I then x, y ∈ R.

(x + I) · (y + I) = xy + I
= yx + I as ring is commutative
= (yI ) · (x + I).

Hence, R/I is commutative ring.

20
38. If R is a ring with unity 1 and I be an ideal of R, then R/I is a ring with unity.
Proof: Since 1 ∈ R, so 1 + I ∈ R/I.

Let r + I ∈ R/I be arbitrary, then

(r + I) · (1 + I) = r · 1 + I = r + I and
(1 + I) · (r + I) = 1 · r + I = r + I.

Hence, 1 + I is unity of R/I.

Def. PRIME IDEAL: A prime ideal A of a commutative ring R is a proper ideal of R such
that a, b ∈ R and ab ∈ A =⇒ a ∈ A or b ∈ A.

1. The zero ideal {0} is always prime ideal in an integral domain.

39. Show that the only prime ideals of Z are {0} and pZ, where p is a prime.
Solution: Since Z is an integral domain, {0} is a prime ideal. Next, we consider the ideal
pZ for p prime. Let xy ∈ pZ, then p divides xy which implies p|x or p|y =⇒ x ∈ pZ or
y ∈ pZ. Hence, pZ is prime ideal.

Let n ∈ Z be composite say ab = n, where 1 < a, b < n and consider the ideal nZ. Clearly,
the elements of nZ are precisely the multiples of n. Now, ab = n ∈ nZ but neither a ∈ nZ
nor b ∈ nZ.

40. Show by an example that intersection of prime ideals need not be a prime ideal.
Solution: 2Z and 3Z are prime ideals of Z but 6Z = 2Z ∩ 3Z is not a prime ideal.

Theorem 14. Let R be a commutative ring with unity and let A be an ideal of R. Then R/A
is an integral domain if and only if A is prime ideal.

Proof: Suppose that R/A is an integral domain and ab ∈ A.

Then 0 + A = ab + A = (a + A)(b + A). Since 0 + A is the zero element of R/A, and R/A
is integral domain, therefore a + A = 0 + A or b + A = 0 + A i.e. either a ∈ A or b ∈ A.
Therefore, A is prime ideal.

Conversely, assume that A is a prime ideal. Let a + A, b + A ∈ R/A such that (a + A)(b +
A) = 0 + A, which implies ab ∈ A =⇒ a ∈ A or b ∈ A which in turn implies a + A = 0 + A
or b + A = 0 + A. Hence R/A is an integral domain.

41. Let R be a commutative ring. An ideal P of R is a prime ideal if and only if for two ideals
A, B of R, AB ⊆ P =⇒ A ⊆ P or B ⊆ P.

21
 Solution: Let P be a prime ideal and AB ⊆ P where A, B are ideals of R.
Suppose A ̸⊆ P, then there exists some a ∈ A such that a ̸∈ P. Since AB ⊆ P, we get ab ∈ P
for all b ∈ B. Since P is prime ideal, either a ∈ P or b ∈ P. But a ̸∈ P so b ∈ P for all b ∈ B.
Hence B ⊆ P.

Conversely assume that P is an ideal of R such that for ideals A and B satisfying AB ⊆ P
implies A ⊆ P or B ⊆ P.
Let xy ∈ P. Let X =< x > and Y =< y > be ideals generated by {x} and {y} respectively.

Claim: XY ⊆ P.

Consider an arbitrary element ∑ni=1 ai bi of the product of ideals XY , where each ai ∈ X =<
x > and bi ∈ Y =< y >, therefore we can write ai = αi x and bi = βi y for αi , βi ∈ R. Then
!
n n
∑ aibi = ∑ αiβi xy ∈ P (as xy ∈ P)
i=1 i=1

Therefore, XY ⊆ P and thus by assumption, we have X =< x >⊆ P or Y =< y >⊆ P which
further implies that either x ∈ P or y ∈ P. Thus P is a prime ideal.

42. Let R be a non-zero commutative ring with unity 1. Prove that every ideal of R is prime
ideal if and only if R is a field.
Proof: As the zero ideal {0} of R is a proper ideal, it is a prime ideal by assumption.
Hence, R is integral domain as if ab = 0 ∈ {0}, then a ∈ {0} or b ∈ {0} as {0} is prime
ideal, so ab = 0 =⇒ a = 0 or b = 0.
Let a ∈ R be an arbitrary non-zero element.
CLAIM: a is invertible.
Consider the ideal a2 generated by the element a2 . If a2 = R, then there exist b ∈ R
such that 1 = a2 b as 1 ∈ R = a2 . Hence 1 = a(ab) and a is invertible.

Next, if a2 is a proper ideal, then a2 is a prime ideal by assumption. Since the product
a · a = a2 is in the prime ideal a2 , it follows that a ∈ a2 . Thus there exist b ∈ R such
that a = a2 b =⇒ a(ab − 1) = 0. Since by assumption {0} is prime ideal and a ̸= 0, so
ab = 1. Hence a is a unit. Hence R is a field.

Converse is trivial.

Def. MAXIMAL IDEAL: A maximal ideal A of a commutative ring R is a proper ideal

of R such that whenever B is an ideal of R and A ⊆ B ⊆ R, then B = A or B = R.

43. If R is a commutative ring and a ∈ R show that aR = {ar | r ∈ R} is a two sided ideal of R.
Sol: Let x, y ∈ aR =⇒ x = ar1 , y = ar2 . Hence x − y = a(r1 − r2 ) ∈ aR.

22
 Also, for r ∈ R, we have rx = rar1 = a(rr1 ) ∈ aR and xr = ar1 r = a(r1 r) ∈ aR. Hence, by
ideal test aR is an ideal.

Theorem 15. Let R be a commutative ring with unity and let A be an ideal of R. Then R/A
is a field if and only if A is maximal.

Proof: Let R/A is a field.

To show A is a maximal ideal of R, we need to show that for any ideal B of R such that
A ⊂ B ⊆ R implies B = R.
Consider x ∈ B − A, then x + A is non-zero element of R/A. Since R/A is field, there-
fore there exist a non-zero element y + A ∈ R/A such that (x + A)(y + A) = 1 + A =⇒
1 − xy ∈ A =⇒ 1 − xy ∈ B. Note that x ∈ B, so for y ∈ R, we have xy ∈ B. Hence
1 = (1 − xy) + xy ∈ B, which concludes B = R.

Conversely, assume that A is maximal ideal of R. To prove ”R/A is a field.”

Since R is commutative ring with unity, R/A is a commutative ring with unity. We just
need to show that every non-zero element of R/A is a unit.
Let x + A ̸= 0 + A =⇒ x ̸∈ A. Consider the ideal Rx + A which contains A. Since x ∈ Rx + A
and x ̸∈ A, we have A ⊂ Rx + A, therefore by maximality of A, we conclude that Rx + A = R.
Since 1 ∈ R = Rx + A =⇒ 1 = rx + a =⇒ 1 + A = rx + a + A =⇒ 1 = rx + A as
a ∈ A, hence 1 + A = (r + A)(x + A). Also, observe that r ̸= 0 as it was that the case
then 1 + A = 0 · x + A = A =⇒ 1 ∈ A =⇒ A = R, contradicting the fact that A is proper
maximal ideal. Hence x + A is a unit. Therefore R/A is a unit.

Corollary 1. Every maximal ideal is a prime ideal but converse is not true.

The ideal < x > is prime in Z[x] but not a maximal ideal. Note that < x >= {x f (x)| f (x) ∈
Z[x]} or simply < x > denote the ideal of all polynomials with constant term 0. Clearly,
< x > is a prime ideal. To see that < x > is not a maximal ideal observe that < x >⊂<
x, 2 >⊂ Z[x].

44. Show that in a Boolean ring B, every prime ideal P ̸= B is maximal.

Solution: Let P be prime ideal of Boolean ring B and let I be an ideal of R such that
P ⊂ I ⊆ B. Then there exist some x ∈ I such that x ̸∈ P. Since x ∈ B, we have x2 = x.

Let y ∈ B be arbitrary, then

x2 y = xy
=⇒ x(xy − y) = 0 ∈ P
=⇒ xy − y ∈ P as x ̸∈ P and P is prime ideal.

Therefore, xy − y = p for some p ∈ P. Therefore y = xy − p. Since y ∈ I =⇒ xy ∈ I and

p ∈ P ⊂ I, we get y = xy − p ∈ I. Hence, I = B and thus P is maximal ideal of B.

23
 Ring Homomorphism
Def. Let (R, +1 , ·1 ) and (S, +2 , ·2 ) be two rings. A ring homomorphism f from a ring R to
a ring S is a mapping from R to S that preserves the two ring operations; that is, for all a, b
in R,
f (a +1 b) = f (a) +2 f (b) and
f (a ·1 b) = f (a) ·2 f (b).

Def. A ring homomorphism that is both one-to-one and onto is called a ring isomorphism.

45. Let R and S be two rings. Consider the zero map φ : R → S given by φ (x) = 0 ∀ x ∈ R.
Prove that φ is a ring homomorphism.
Let x, y ∈ R be arbitrary, then
φ (x + y) = 0 = 0 + 0 = φ (x) + φ (y),

and
φ (xy) = 0 = 0 · 0 = φ (x)φ (y).

Hence, φ is a ring homomorphism.

46. Show that the mapping φ : C → C such that φ (a + ib) = a − ib is a ring homomorphism.
Solution: Given φ (z) = z. Since for z1 , z2 ∈ C, we have
φ (z1 + z2 ) = z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 = φ (z1 ) + φ (z2 )
φ (z1 · z2 ) = z1 · z2 = z1 · z2 = φ (z1 ) · φ (z2 ).
Hence, φ is a homomorphism from C to C.

47. Show that the mapping φ : C → C such that φ (a + ib) = a − ib is a ring isomorphism.
Solution: In the previous question, we have already shown that φ is a homomorphism.
Therefore, we just need to check whether φ is one-one onto map(bijection) or not.
Let z1 = a1 + ib1 , z2 = a2 + ib2 be such that φ (z1 ) = φ (z2 ) then,
z1 = z2
a1 − ib1 = a2 − ib2
=⇒ a1 = a2 and b1 = b2
=⇒ z1 = z2 .
Hence, φ is one-one map.

Also for each z ∈ C, ∃z such that φ (z) = z = z. Hence φ is onto and therefore a bijection.
Hence φ is an isomorphism.

24
48. Let R be a commutative ring of prime characteristic n. Show that the Frobenius map
φ : R → R given by φ (x) = xn is a ring homomorphism from R to R.
Solution: Let x, y ∈ R be arbitrary, then
     
n n n n−1 n n−2 2 n
φ (x + y) = (x + y) = x + x y+ x y +···+ xyn−1 + yn .
1 2 n−1
Note every term on the R.H.S. except xn and yn vanishes as they contain a factor n and
characteristic of R = n. Therefore,

φ (x + y) = (x + y)n = xn + yn = φ (x) + φ (y).

Next,

φ (xy) = (xy)n = xn yn = φ (x)φ (y).

Hence, φ is a ring homomorphism.

49. Consider the map φ : Z → Z such that φ (x) = 4x. Check whether φ is a ring homomor-
phism.
Solution: For x, y ∈ Z, we have

φ (x + y) = 4(x + y) = 4x + 4y = φ (x) + φ (y).

Next,

φ (xy) = 4xy ̸= φ (x)φ (y).

Hence, φ is not a ring homomorphism.

√ √ √
  
a 2b
50. Let Z[ 2] = {a + b 2 : a, b ∈ Z}. Let H = | a, b ∈ Z . Show that Z[ 2] and
b a
H are isomorphic as rings.
√ √
 
a 2b
Solution: Define a map φ : Z[ 2] → H such that φ (a + b 2) = .
b a
√ √ √
For a + b 2, c + d 2 ∈ Z[ 2], we have
√ √ √
φ [(a + b 2) + (c + d 2)] = φ [(a + c) + 2(b + d)]
 
a + c 2(b + d)
=
b+d a+c
   
a 2b c 2d
= +
b a d c
√ √
= φ (a + b 2) + φ (c + d 2)

and

25
 √ √ √
φ [(a + b 2) · (c + d 2)] = φ [(ac + 2bd) + 2(ad + bc)]
 
ac + 2bd 2(ad + bc)
=
ad + bc ac + 2bd
   
a 2b c 2d
= ·
b a d c
√ √
= φ (a + b 2) · φ (c + d 2)).

Hence, φ is a homomorphism.

√ √
   
a 2b c 2d
Let φ (a + b 2) = φ (c + d 2) =⇒ = =⇒ a = c and b = d, hence
b a d c
√ √
a + b 2 = c + d 2. Thus, φ is one one.

√ √ √
 
a 2b
Also,let ∈ H, then a, b ∈ Z and therefore a+b 2 ∈ Z[ 2] such that φ (a+b 2) =
  b a
a 2b
. Hence, φ is onto. Thus φ is an isomorphism.
b a

51. Show that for any positive integer n, the mapping k → k(modn) is a ring homomorphism
from Z onto Zn . This is called the natural homomorphism from Z to Zn .
Left as exercise.

Theorem 16. If φ : R → S be a ring homomorphism, then

i. φ (0R ) = 0S ; where 0R and 0S are additive identities of R and S respectively.

ii. φ (−x) = −φ (x) ∀ x ∈ R.

Proof:

i.

φ (0R ) = φ (0R + 0R ) = φ (0R ) + φ (0R ) ; since φ is a homomorphism

=⇒ φ (0R ) = 0S .

ii. Since φ (0R ) = 0S , then for x ∈ R, we have

φ (x + (−x)) = φ (0R )
=⇒ φ (x) + φ (−x) = 0S
=⇒ φ (−x) = −φ (x).

26
52. Show that the only homomorphisms from Z to Z are the identity and zero maps.
Solution: Let f : Z → Z be a ring homomorphism, then f (0) = 0. Also for n ∈ N, f (n) =
f (1 + 1 + · · · + 1) = n f (1). Similarly, f (−n) = −n f (1). Therefore, f (n) = n f (1) for all
n ∈ Z. Therefore, in order to know about map f , it is sufficient to know about the value of
f (1).

f (1) = f (1 · 1) = f (1) · f (1)

=⇒ f (1)[1 − f (1)] = 0.

Since, Z is an integral domain, therefore either f (1) = 0 or f (1) = 1.

If f (1) = 0, then from above f (n) = n f (1) = 0 for all n ∈ Z i.e. f is zero map.

If f (1) = 1, then from f (n) = n f (1) = n for all n ∈ Z i.e. f is the identity map.

53. Prove that the map φ : Z × Z → Z given by φ (a, b) = a is a homomorphism. Also show
that φ is not an isomorphism.
Solution:: Let (a1 , b1 ), (a2 , b2 ) ∈ Z × Z then

φ ((a1 , b1 ) + (a2 , b2 )) = φ (a1 + a2 , b1 + b2 )

= a1 + a2
= φ (a1 , b1 ) + φ (a2 , b2 ).

Next,

φ ((a1 , b1 ) · (a2 , b2 )) = φ (a1 · a2 , b1 · b2 )

= a1 · a2
= φ (a1 , b1 ) · φ (a2 , b2 ).

Therefore, φ is a homomorphism.

Clearly, (0, 0), (0, 1) ∈ Z × Z and φ (0, 0) = 0 = φ (0, 1) but (0, 0) ̸= (0, 1), therefore φ is
not 1 − 1 and hence φ is not an isomorphism.

54. Let φ : R → S be a ring homomorphism. Prove that if x is nilpotent in R then φ (x) is nilpo-
tent in S.
Solution: Since x is nilpotent, so there exist n ∈ N such that xn = 0.

To show φ (x) is nilpotent, it is sufficient to show that [φ (x)]n = 0.

Since,

[φ (x)]n = φ (xn ) = φ (0) = 0,

φ (x) is nilpotent.

27
55. Show by an example that a ring homomorphism may not map unity into unity of other ring.
Solution: The zero map φ : Z → Z such that φ (x) = 0 ∀ x ∈ Z. Clearly, φ is ring homo-
morphism. Unity of Z is 1 but φ (1) = 0.

Theorem 17. If φ : R → S be an onto ring homomorphism and 1 is unity of R, then φ (1) is

unity of S.

Proof: Let α ∈ S be arbitrary.

To show: φ (a) · α = α · φ (1) = α.

Since φ is onto map, there exist x ∈ R such that φ (x) = α. Now,

α · φ (1) = φ (x) · φ (1) = φ (x · 1) = φ (x) = α.

Similarly, φ (1) · α = α. Hence, φ (1) is unity of S.

56. Show that ring of real numbers is not isomorphic to ring of complex numbers.
Solution: If possible, assume that ring of real numbers and ring of complex numbers are
isomorphic and φ : C → R be an isomorphism (one-one onto homomorphism) and there-
fore unity of C to is mapped to unity of R i.e. φ (1) = 1. Also

φ (0) = 0
=⇒ φ (1 − 1) = 0
=⇒ φ (1) + φ (−1) = 0
=⇒ φ (−1) = −1
=⇒ φ (i2 ) = −1
=⇒ [φ (i)]2 = −1

which is a contradiction as φ (i) is a real number and square of a real number cannot be
negative. Hence, there cannot be any isomorphism between rings R and C.

57. Let φ be a ring homomorphism from a ring R to a ring S. Let A be a subring of R. Prove
that φ (A) = {φ (a)|a ∈ A} is a subring of S.
Solution: Let φ (x), φ (y) ∈ φ (A) then x, y ∈ A. Since A is an subring, so by subring test
x − y, xy ∈ A.

φ (x) − φ (y) = φ (x − y) ∈ φ (A)

and

φ (x)φ (y) = φ (xy) ∈ φ (A).

Therefore, by subring test φ (A) is a subring of S.

28
58. Let R and S be rings and let φ : R → S be an homomorphism. If R is commutative ring,
prove that φ (R) is also commutative ring.
Solution: Assume R is commutative ring. Clearly, φ (R) is a subring of S. To prove φ (R) is
commutative, we proceed as follows.

Let α, β ∈ φ (R), then there exist x, y ∈ R such that φ (x) = α and φ (y) = β . Then

α ·β = φ (x) · φ (y)
= φ (xy) since φ is homomorphism
= φ (yx) since R is commutative
= φ (y) · φ (x)
= β · α.

Hence, φ (R) is commutative.

59. Let φ : R → S be a ring homomorphism and let A be an ideal of R. Show that φ (A) is an
ideal of φ (R). Further show by an example that φ (A) need not be an ideal of S.
Solution: Let φ (x), φ (y) ∈ φ (A) then x, y ∈ A. Since A is an ideal, so by ideal test x − y ∈ A.

φ (x) − φ (y) = φ (x − y) ∈ φ (A)

Let φ (x) ∈ φ (A) and φ (r) ∈ φ (R) then x ∈ A, r ∈ R. Since A is ideal therefore, xr, rx ∈ A.

φ (x) · φ (r) = φ (xr) ∈ φ (A).

Similarly, φ (rx) ∈ φ (A). Hence, by ideal test φ (A) is ideal of φ (R).

Consider the map φ : Z → Q given by φ (x) = x for all x ∈ Z, then φ (Z) = Z, which is not
an ideal of Q as 2 ∈ Z, 1/3 ∈ Q, but 2 · 1/3 = 2/3 ̸∈ Z.

60. Let φ : R → S be a ring homomorphism. Show that image of an ideal of ring R need not be
an ideal in ring S unless φ is an onto map.
Hint: Note that this question is exactly same as above.

61. Let φ : R → S be a ring homomorphism. Let B an ideal of S, prove that φ −1 (B) = {r ∈ R :

φ (r) ∈ B} is an ideal of R.
Solution: Let α, β ∈ φ −1 (B), then φ (α), φ (β ) ∈ B. Since B is an ideal, φ (α) − φ (β ) ∈
B =⇒ φ (α − β ) ∈ B =⇒ α − β ∈ φ −1 (B).

Next, let α ∈ φ −1 (B) then φ (α) ∈ B. Let r ∈ R. Since φ is a map from R to S, so φ (r) ∈ S.
Since B is an ideal of S, we have φ (r) · φ (α), φ (α) · φ (r) ∈ B =⇒ φ (rα), φ (αr) ∈ B =⇒
rα, αr ∈ φ −1 (B). Hence by ideal test φ −1 (B) is an ideal of R.

29
 Def. Let φ be a ring homomorphism from a ring R to a ring S. The KERNEL OF Ring
Homomorphism is defined as Ker(φ ) = {r ∈ R|φ (r) = 0}.

Theorem 18. Let φ be a ring homomorphism from a ring R to a ring S. Then ker(φ ) is an
ideal of R.

Proof: Clearly, φ (0) = 0, so ker(φ ) is non-empty.

Let x, y ∈ ker(φ ) then φ (x) = φ (y) = 0. Then
φ (x − y) = φ (x) − φ (y) = 0 − 0 = 0,
therefore, x − y ∈ ker(φ ).

Let x ∈ ker(φ ) and r ∈ R, then

φ (rx) = φ (r)φ (x) = φ (r) · 0 = 0,
therefore, rx ∈ ker(φ ). Similarly, xr ∈ker(φ ). Hence by ideal test ker(φ ) is an ideal of R.

Theorem 19. Let I be an ideal of a ring R. Then I is an ideal of R if and only if I is the
kernel of some homomorphism f : R → S for a suitable ring S.

Proof: Suppose I is an ideal of R. Then take S to be factor ring R/I. Now, define a map
φ : R → R/I such that φ (r) = r + I for all r ∈ R. Then for x, y ∈ R, we have
φ (x + y) = (x + y + I) = (x + I) + (y + I) = φ (x) + φ (y)
φ (x · y) = (x · y + I) = (x + I) · (y + I) = φ (x) · φ (y)

Hence, φ is a homomorphism. Now, we have

ker(φ ) = {x ∈ R | φ (x) = 0 + I}
= {x ∈ R | x + I = 0 + I}
= {x ∈ R | x ∈ I}
= I.

Conversely, suppose that R and S are rings and φ is a homomorphism of rings. Let
I =ker(φ ). Since, kernel of ring homomorphism is an ideal, therefore I is an ideal.

62. Let f : R → S and g : S → T are ring homomorphisms. Show that g ◦ f is a ring homomor-
phism is ring homomorphism from R to T . Also show that ker f ⊂ ker(g ◦ f ).
Solution: Since f : R → S is a ring homomorphism, so for all x, y ∈ R, we have
f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y)
f (xy) = f (x) f (y).

30
 .
Since g : S → T is a ring homomorphism, so for all p, q ∈ S, we have

g(p + q) = g(p) + g(q)

g(pq) = g(p)g(q).

.
Let x, y ∈ R, then

(g ◦ f )(x + y) = g( f (x + y))
= g( f (x) + f (y))
= g( f (x)) + g( f (y))
= (g ◦ f )(x) + (g ◦ f )(y)

. and

(g ◦ f )(xy) = g( f (xy))
= g( f (x) f (y))
= g( f (x)) g( f (y))
= (g ◦ f )(x) (g ◦ f )(y).

.
Hence, (g ◦ f ) is a homomorphism from R to T .

Let x ∈ ker( f ) then f (x) = 0S . Then, (g ◦ f )(x) = g( f (x)) = g(0S ) = 0T (as g : S → T is a

ring homomorphism). Hence, x ∈ ker(g ◦ f ) and ker( f ) ⊂ ker(g ◦ f ).

63. If R, S and T are three rings and R is isomorphic to S, S is isomorphic to T , show that R is
isomorphic to T .

Theorem 20. Let φ : R → S be a ring homomorphism. Then prove that ker(φ ) = {0R } if
and only if φ is 1 − 1 map.

Proof: Let ker(φ ) = {0}. Let φ (a) = φ (b) =⇒ φ (a − b) = 0 =⇒ (a − b) ∈ ker(φ ) =

{0} =⇒ a = b, hence φ is one one map.

Conversely, assume that φ is one one. For x ∈ ker(φ ), we have φ (x) = 0 = φ (0). Since φ
is one one so, we conclude that x = 0 and hence ker(φ ) = {0}.

31
64. If R is a ring with unity and S be an integral domain. Let φ : R → S be a ring homomorphism
such that ker(φ ) ̸= R, then show that φ (1) is unity of S.
Solution: For any s ∈ S,

φ (1) · s = φ (1 · 1) · s
=⇒ φ (1) · s = φ (1) · φ (1) · s
=⇒ φ (1)[φ (1) · s − s] = 0
=⇒ [φ (1) · s − s] = 0
=⇒ φ (1) · s = s,

as if φ (1) = 0, then ker(φ ) = R. Hence φ (1) is unity of S.

65. Let R and S be rings and let φ : R → S be an isomorphism.

i Show that φ −1 : S → R is also a ring homomorphism.

ii. r ∈ R is a unit if and only if φ (r) is a unit of S.
iii. r ∈ R is a zero divisor if and only if φ (r) is a zero divisor of S.

Solution:

i. Since φ : R → S is an isomorphism, φ is one one onto map which implies φ −1 is also

one one onto map. Therefore, it is sufficient to prove that φ −1 : S → R is a homomor-
phism.

Let α, β ∈ S be arbitrary, then there exist x, y ∈ R such that φ (x) = α and φ (y) = β ,
equivalently, we can say x = φ −1 (α) and y = φ −1 (β ). Now,

φ (x + y) = φ (x) + φ (y) = α + β as φ is a homomorphism

=⇒ x + y = φ −1 (α + β )
=⇒ φ −1 (α) + φ −1 (β ) = φ −1 (α + β )

and

φ (xy) = φ (x)φ (y) = αβ

=⇒ xy = φ −1 (αβ )
=⇒ φ −1 (α)φ −1 (β ) = φ −1 (αβ ).

Hence, φ −1 is a homomorphism and thus φ −1 is an isomorphism.

ii. Let r ∈ R is unit implies then exist r′ ∈ R such that rr′ = 1R (unity of R). Then φ (rr′ ) =
φ (1R ) = 1S (unity of S). But φ (rr′ ) = φ (r)φ (r′ ), therefore we have φ (r)φ (r′ ) = 1S .
Hence, φ (r) is unit in S.

32
 Conversely, assume that for r ∈ R, φ (r) is a unit in S. Since φ is onto then there exist
t ∈ R such that φ (r)φ (t) = 1S =⇒ φ (rt) = 1S . Since φ : R → S is one one map and
φ (1R ) = 1S , we have rt = 1R , implies r is unit in R.

iii. Let r ∈ R − {0} is a zero divisor, then there exist r′ ∈ R − {0} such that rr′ = 0R . Also,
implies φ (r) ̸= 0 and implies φ (r′ ) ̸= 0 as φ is one one. Then φ (rr′ ) = φ (0R ) = 0S .
Since φ (rr′ ) = φ (r)φ (r′ ), therefore we have φ (r)φ (r′ ) = 0S . Hence, φ (r) is zero
divisor in S.

Conversely, assume that φ (r) is a zero divisor of S for some r ∈ R. Since φ is

onto therefore there exist t ∈ R − {0} such that φ (r)φ (t) = 0S =⇒ φ (rt) = 0S =⇒
rt ∈kerφ = {0}.
Since, φ is one one map, ker(φ ) = {0R }. Therefore, we must have rt = 0R but neither
r = 0 nor t = 0, therefore r is a zero divisor.

66. Show that the polynomials rings Z[x] and R[x] are not isomorphic.
Solution: If R is any ring then units in R[x] are exactly the units of R. Therefore, Z[x] has
exactly two units i, −1 while R[x] has uncountable units as R has uncountable units.

Theorem 21. First Isomorphism theorem(Fundamental theorem of ring homomorphism):

Let f : R → S be an onto ring homomorphism then R/ker(φ ) is isomorphic to S. In nota-
tion, we write R/ker(φ ) ∼
= S.

Proof: Let ψ : R → R/ker( f ) be the natural ring homomorphism given by ψ(x) = x +

ker( f ). If y + ker( f ) ∈ R/ker( f ), then y ∈ R such that ψ(y) = y + ker( f ). Therefore ψ is
an onto map.

Define a map η : R/ker( f ) → S such that η(x + ker( f )) = f (x). We claim that η is an
isomorphism.

For, (x + ker( f )), (y + ker( f )) ∈ R/ker( f ), we have

η [(x + ker( f )) + (y + ker( f ))] = η [x + y + ker( f )]
= f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y)
= η(x + ker( f )) + η(y + ker( f ))
and
η [(x + ker( f )) · (y + ker( f ))] = η [xy + ker( f )]
= f (xy) = f (x) f (y)
= η(x + ker( f )) · η(y + ker( f ))

Hence, η is a ring homomorphism.

33
 If

η(x + ker( f )) = η(y + ker( f ))

=⇒ f (x) = f (y)
=⇒ f (x) − f (y) = 0S
=⇒ f (x − y) = 0S
=⇒ x − y ∈ ker( f )
=⇒ x + ker( f ) = y + ker( f ).

Hence, η is one one map. Since, f : R → S is onto, for each y ∈ S there exist x ∈ R such
that f (x) = y and x + ker( f ) ∈ R/ker( f ) such that η(x + ker( f )) = f (x) = y. Hence, η is
onto. Therefore, η is an isomorphism and we get our desired result.

Z
67. Show that the two rings and Zn are isomorphic.
nZ
Solution: Clear.y, nZ is an ideal of Z. Consider the map φ : Z → Zn given by φ (k) =
k(modn).
Clearly,φ is onto and φ (x + y) = φ (x) + φ (y) and φ (xy) = φ (x)φ (y). Hence, φ is an onto
ring homomorphism. Moreover, ker(φ ) = nZ, hence by fundamental theorem of ring ho-
momorphism(first isomorphism theorem), we have
Z ∼
= Zn .
nZ

Theorem 22. Second Isomorphism theorem: If I and J are ideals of a ring R with I ⊂ J
then
R/I ∼
= R/J.
J/I

Proof: Define a map φ : R/I → R/J such that, φ (x + I) = x + J for x ∈ R. We claim that φ
is an onto ring homomorphism.

Let (x + I), (y + I) ∈ I then

φ [(x + I) + (y + I)] = φ (x + y + I)
= x+y+J
= (x + J) + (y + J)
= φ (x + I) + φ (y + I)

and

φ [(x + I) · (y + I)] = φ (xy + I)

= xy + J
= (x + J) · (y + J)
= φ (x + I) · φ (y + I).

34
 Hence, φ is a homomorphism. Also, let r + J ∈ R/J then r ∈ R which implies r + I ∈ R/I
and φ (r + I) = r + J. Hence φ is onto too. Hence by, first isomorphism theorem, we have

R/I ∼
= R/J.
ker(φ )

Claim: ker(φ ) = J/I.

ker(φ ) = {x + I ∈ R/I : φ (x + I) = 0 + J}
= {x + I ∈ R/I : x + J = 0 + J}
= {x + I ∈ R/I : x ∈ J}
= {x + I ∈ R/I : x + I ∈ J/I}
= J/I.

Hence,
R/I ∼
= R/J.
J/I

68. Let R be a commutative ring and A be an ideal of R. Show that A[x] is ideal of R[x].
n n
Solution: Let ∑ aixi ∈ A[x], then ai ∈ A and since A ⊆ R, we have ∑ aixi ∈ R[x]. Thus
i=0 i=0
A[x] ⊆ R[x].

n m
Let ∑ aixi, ∑ b j x j ∈ A[x], then the coefficients ai, b j ∈ A. Then
i=0 j=0

n m s
∑ aixi − ∑ b jx j = ∑ (ak − bk )xk
i=0 j=0 k=1

where s is maximum of m and n, ak = 0 for k > n and bi = 0 for k > m. Since ak , bk ∈

A =⇒ ak − bk ∈ A. Hence, ∑ni=0 ai xi − ∑mj=0 b j x j ∈ A[x].

Next, let ∑ni=0 ai xi ∈ A[x] and ∑mj=0 c j x j ∈ R[x] then

! !
n m n+m
∑ ai x i · ∑ c jx j = ∑ dk x k ;
i=0 j=0 k=0

where dk = ak c0 + ak−1 c1 + ak−2 c2 + · · · + a1 ck−1+ a0 ck . Since

 ai ∈ A, c j ∈ R and A is
ideal, ai c j ∈ A and hence dk ∈ A and ∑ni=0 ai xi · ∑mj=0 c j x j ∈ A[x]. Thus, A[x] is ideal

of R[x].

35
69. Let R be a commutative ring with unity. Let A be an ideal of R. Show that

R[x] ∼ R
= [x].
A[x] A

Hence, prove that if A be prime ideal of R then A[x] is prime ideal of R[x].

Solution: Define a map φ R[x] → RA [x] such that

φ (a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn ) = (a0 + A) + (a1 + A)x + · · · + (an + A)xn ; ai ∈ R

n m
Let ∑ aix , ∑ b j x j ∈ R[x]. WLOG assume m ≤ n then
i
i=0 j=0
" # " #
n m m n
φ ∑ ai x i + ∑ b j x j = φ ∑ (ai + bi)xi + ∑ ai x i
i=0 j=0 i=0 i=m+1
m n
= ∑ (ai + bi + A)xi + ∑ (ai + A)xi
i=0 i=m+1
m n
= ∑ [(ai + A) + (bi + A)]xi + ∑ (ai + A)xi
i=0 i=m+1
m m n
= ∑ (ai + A)xm + ∑ (bi + A)]xi + ∑ (ai + A)xi
i=0 i=0 i=m+1
n m
= ∑ (ai + A)xi + ∑ (bi + A)]xi
i=0 i=0
! !
n m
= φ ∑ ai x i ) +φ ∑ b jx j .
i=0 j=0

Also,
" ! !# !
n m m+n
φ ∑ aixi · ∑ b jx j = φ ∑ ai b j xi+ j
i=0 j=0 i+ j=0
m+n
= ∑ (ai b j + A)xi+ j
i+ j=0
m+n
= ∑ (ai + A)(b j + A)xi+ j
i+ j=0
! !
n m
= ∑ (ai + A)xi · ∑ (b j + A)x j
i=0 j=0
! !
n m
i j
= φ ∑ ai x φ ∑ b jx .
i=0 j=0

36
 R
Hence, φ is a homomorphism. Clearly, each (a0 + A) + (a1 + A)x + · + (ak + A)xk ∈ [x],
A
there exist polynomial a0 + a1 x + · · · + ak xk ∈ R[x] such that
φ (a0 + a1 x + · · · + ak xk ) = (a0 + A) + (a1 + A)x + · + (ak + A)xk .

Hence, by first isomorphism theorem, we have

R[x] ∼ R
= [x].
ker(φ ) A

Claim: ker(φ ) = A[x].

Let f (x) = c0 + c1 x + · · · + cn xn ∈ R[x], then

f (x) ∈ ker(φ ) ⇔ φ ( f (x)) = 0 + A
⇔ (c0 + A) + (c1 + A)x + · · · + (cn + A)xn = 0 + A
⇔ (ci + A) = 0 + A ∀ i ∈ {1, · · · , n}
⇔ ci ∈ A ∀ i ∈ {1, · · · , n}
⇔ f (x) ∈ A[x].

Hence, ker(φ ) = A[x]. Therefore, we have

R[x] ∼ R
= [x].
A[x] A

70. Suppose that R and S are commutative rings with unities. Let φ be a ring homomorphism
from R onto S and let A be an ideal of S. Prove that
(a) If A is prime ideal in S, show that φ −1 (A) = {x ∈ R|φ (x) ∈ A} is prime ideal in R.
(b) If A is maximal ideal is S, show that φ −1 (A) is maximal in R.
Solution:
(a) Let x, y ∈ R such that xy ∈ φ −1 (A).
To prove: x ∈ φ −1 (A) or y ∈ φ −1 (A).
Since, xy ∈ φ −1 (A) implies φ (xy) ∈ A =⇒ φ (x) · φ (y) ∈ A. Since A is prime ideal,
φ (x) ∈ A or φ (y) ∈ A =⇒ x ∈ φ −1 (A) or y ∈ φ −1 (A). Hence φ −1 (A) is prime ideal.

(b) Next, assume that A is maximal ideal is S. Clearly, φ −1 (A) is an ideal of R. We need
to show that φ −1 (A) is maximal in R.

Define a map f : R → S/A such that f (r) = φ (r) + A. Then for a, b ∈ R

f (a + b) = φ (a + b) + A
= φ (a) + φ (b) + A
= [φ (a) + A] + [φ (b) + A]
= f (a) + f (b)

37
and

f (ab) = φ (ab) + A
= φ (a)φ (b) + A
= [φ (a) + A] · [φ (b) + A]
= f (a) f (b).

Hence, f is a homomorphism. Let y + A ∈ S/A, then y ∈ S. Since φ : R → S is onto,

there exist x ∈ R such that φ (x) = y but then f (x) = φ (x) + A. Hence f is an onto
homomorphism. So, by first theorem of isomorphism, we have
R ∼
= S/A.
ker( f )

Since,

ker( f ) = {x ∈ R| f (x) = 0 + A}
= {x ∈ R|φ (x) + A = 0 + A}
= {x ∈ R|φ (x) ∈ A}
= {x ∈ R|x ∈ φ −1 (A)}
= φ −1 (A).

Thus,
R ∼
= S/A.
φ −1 (A)

R
Since, A is maximal ideal of S, S/A is a field and therefore is a field which
φ −1 (A)
implies φ −1 (A) is maximal ideal of R.

38
 FIELD OF QUOTIENTS

Def. Embedding of a ring: Let R and R′ be rings. A one one homomorphism from R → R′
is called embedding of R into R′ .

Theorem 23. Every integral domain can be embedded in a field.

Proof: Let D be an integral domain. Consider the set

S = D × D − {0} = {(a, b) : a, b ∈ D & b ̸= 0}.

Define a relation R on S such that (a, b)R(c, d) if and only if ad = bc; where (a, b), (c, d) ∈
S. Clearly, R is an equivalence relation on S. Let [a, b] denote the equivalence class of
(a, b) ∈ S.

Let F be set of all such equivalence classes. We define addition and multiplication in F as
follows:

[a, b] + [c, d] = [ad + bc, bd] ∀ [a, b], [c, d] ∈ F

& [a, b] · [c, d] = [ac, bd] ∀ [a, b], [c, d] ∈ F.

Claim: F is a field under the defined operations.

Clearly, addition and multiplications are well defined. Moreover as a, b, c, d ∈ D, ad +

bc, ac, bd ∈ D. Also b, d ∈ D − {0} and D is integral domain, thus bd ∈ D − {0}. There-
fore [ad + bc, bd] ∈ F. Also for [a, b], [c, d] ∈ F − {0} =⇒ all a, b, c, d are non zero
elements of D, then ac ̸= 0 which implies [ac, bd] ∈ F − {0}. Hence, + is binary maps on
F and · is binary on F − {0}. Clearly, associative laws holds for + and ·.

For x ∈ D − {0}, [0, x] is additive identity of F as

[a, b] + [0, x] = [ax + 0 · b, bx]

= [ax, bx]
= [a, b] as (ax, bx)R (a, b).

Note that [0, x] is unique as if [0, y] is also additive identity where y ̸= 0, then (0, x) R (0, y),
which implies that the equivalence classes [0, x] and [0, y] are same.

For each [a, b] ∈ F, [−a, b] ∈ F and

[a, b] + [−a, b] = [ab − ab, b2 ] = [0, b2 ] = [0, b].

39
Therefore, [−a, b] is additive inverse of [a, b]. Also, it can be easily verified that additive
inverse is unique. Next, we see that addition is commutative in F as for [a, b], [c, d] ∈ F,
we have
[a, b] + [c, d] = [ad + bc, bd]
= [cb + ad, db]
= [c, d] + [a, b].
Hence, F is an abelian group under addition. Following similar steps, we readily see that
· follows commutative property. Also for x ̸= 0, [x, x] is unique multiplicative identity. Let
[a, b] be non-zero element of F, then a ̸= 0 and b ̸= 0, then [b, a] is non-zero element of F
and
[a, b] · [b, a] = [ab, ab]
= [x, x] as (x, x) R (ab, ab).

Hence, F − {0} is an abelian multiplicative group. Next, consider [a, b], [c, d], [e, f ] ∈ F,
then
[a, b] · ([c, d] + [e, f ]) = [a, b] · [c f + de, d f ]
= [a(c f + de), bd f ]
= [ac f + ade, bd f ]
= [acb f + bdae, b2 d f ]
= [ac, bd] + [ae, b f ]
= [a, b] · [c, d] + [a, b] · [e, f ].
Hence, distributive law holds in F. Hence, F is a field. The field F constructed from D is
known as Field of Quotients or fractions.

Now, define a map η : D → F such that η(α) = [αx, x] for all x ∈ D − {0}. Clearly, η
is well defined map. To show, η is an embedding, we proceed to show that η is one one
homomorphism.
Let α, β ∈ D, then
η(α + β ) = [(α + β )x, x] for all x ∈ D − {0}
= [(α + β )x2 , x2 ] as ((α + β )x, x)R((α + β )x2 , x2 )
= [αx2 + β x2 , x2 ]
= [αx, x] + [β x, x]
= η(α) + η(β )
and
η(α · β ) = [(α · β )x, x] for all x ∈ D − {0}
= [(α · β )x2 , x2 ] as ((α + β )x, x)R((α + β )x2 , x2 )
= [(αx · β x), x2 ]
= [αx, x] · [β x, x]
= η(α) · η(β ).

40
Hence, η is a homomorphism. Also For α, β ∈ D, assume that η(α) = η(β ) then
[αx, x] = [β x, x]
=⇒ αx = β x2
2

=⇒ x2 (α − β ) = 0
=⇒ α − β = 0 as x ̸= 0 and D is integral domain
=⇒ α = β.
Hence η is one one homomorphism. Thus η is one one homomorphism from D to F,
hence an integral domain can be embedded into a field.

Theorem 24. If K is any field which contains the integral domain D, then K contains a
subfield isomorphic to F; where F is the field of quotients of integral domain D.
This theorem can also be stated as ”Let F be field of quotients of an integral domain D. If
K is a field containing D then F ⊆ K.”
This theorem can also be stated as ”Field of quotients F of an integral domain D is the
smallest field containing D”.

Proof: Let F be field of quotients of integral domain D. Further assume that K is a field
containing D.
To prove: F ⊂ K.

Define a map φ : F → K such that φ ([a, b]) = ab−1 where a, b ∈ D and b ̸= 0. Let
[a, b], [c, d] ∈ F such that φ ([a, b]) = φ ([c, d]) then ab−1 = cd −1 =⇒ ad = bc =⇒ (a, b)
and (c, d) are related, which implies [a, b] = [c, d]. Hence, φ is one one.

Now, for [a, b], [c, d], we have

φ ([a, b] + [c, d]) = φ (ad + bc, bd)
= (ad + bc) · (bd)−1
= (ad + bc) · b−1 d −1
= ab−1 + cd −1
= φ ([a, b]) + φ ([c, d])
and

φ ([a, b] · [c, d]) = φ (ac, bd)

= (ac) · (bd)−1
= (ac) · b−1 d −1
= ab−1 · cd −1
= φ ([a, b]) · φ ([c, d])

Hence, φ is one one homomorphism. Therefore, K contains an isomorphic image of F i.e.

φ (F) ⊆ K. Hence, F is the smallest field which contains D.

41
 Theorem 25. If F is a field of characteristic p, then F contains a subfield isomorphic to
Z p . If F is a field of characteristic 0, then F contains a subfield isomorphic to the rational
numbers.

Proof: Clearly 1 is unity of Z. Let’s denote the unity of F by 1F . Define a map φ :

Z → F such that φ (1) = 1F . Then φ (n) = nφ (1) = n · 1F for all n ∈ Z. Clearly, φ is a
homomorphism. Then by first isomorphism theorem, we have
Z ∼
= φ (Z) ⊂ F. (4)
ker(φ )

By the application of the theorems ”If R is a ring with unity then char(R) = n if and only
if order of 1 under addition is n and char(R) = 0 if and only if order of 1 under addition is
infinity” and ”Order of an integral domain is either 0 or a prime p”, we have following two
cases.

i. If characteristic of F = 0 then order of 1F is infinity. Then φ (n) = n · 1F ̸= 0 for all

Z
n ∈ Z − {0}. Hence ker(φ ) = {0}. Then ker(φ ) ⊂ F is isomorphic to Z and since Q is
the smallest field containing Z, therefore F must contain a subfield isomorphic to Q.
ii. If characteristic of F = p for some prime p then order of 1F = p. Then

ker(φ ) = {n ∈ Z : φ (n) = 0F }
= {n ∈ Z : nφ (1) = 0F }
= {n ∈ Z : n · 1F = 0F }.

Since order of 1F = p, so n · 1F = 0 if and only if n is multiple of p i.e. p divides n.

Therefore,

ker(φ ) = {n ∈ Z : p divides n}.

= pZ.
Z
Thus ker(φ ) ⊂ F is isomorphic to Z p . Hence, F contains a subfield isomorphic to Z p .

71. Show that a homomorphism from a field onto a ring with more than one element must be
an isomorphism.
Solution: Let R be a ring and F be a field. Assume that there exist an onto homomorphism
from field F to ring R with more than one element.

To show φ is isomorphism, we just need to show that φ is one one map. Since a field has
only two ideals {0} and F itself, then ker(φ ) = {0} or F.

If ker(φ ) = F, then each element of F is mapped to 0 of R. Therefore φ (F) = {0} ≠ R as

R has more than one element. Hence, we conclude that ker(φ ) must be equal to {0}.
By the fact that a homomorphism is one one if and only if ker(φ ) = {0}, we conclude that

φ is a one one map. Hence φ must be an isomorphism.

42
In this section, our prime focus will be on irreducibility of polynomial in an integral
domain. Throughout the discussion, we will assume that R is an integral domain and
R⋆ = R − {0}.

Def. Let a, b ∈ R, a ̸= 0. We say that a divides b or a is a divisor (or factor) of b and written
a|b if there exists c ∈ R such that b = ac.

Def. Principal Ideal: Let R be a commutative ring with unity and a ∈ R. The set ⟨a⟩ =
{ra|r ∈ R} is an ideal of R called the principal ideal generated by a.
Def. Principal Ideal Domain(PID): An integral domain R is called principal ideal domain
if every ideal of R is principal ideal.

Remark 1. Let a, b ∈ R, a ̸= 0. Then a|b if and only if ⟨b⟩ ⊆ ⟨a⟩.

Proof: Assume that a|b, there there exist c ∈ R such that b = ac. Then b ∈ ⟨a⟩ =⇒ ⟨b⟩ ⊆
⟨a⟩.
Conversely, assume that ⟨b⟩ ⊆ ⟨a⟩, then b ∈ ⟨a⟩ i.e. b = ac for some c ∈ R. Hence a|b.

Def. Associates: Two elements a and b in R⋆ are said to associates of each other if a|b and
b|a.

For example, 2 and −2 are associates in the ring Z as one of them divides other, while 4
and 8 are not associates as 8 does not divide 4.

Theorem 26. Let a, b ∈ R⋆ . Then a and b are associates of each other ⇔ a = ub for some
unit u ∈ R ⇔ ⟨a⟩ = ⟨b⟩.

Proof: Suppose that a and b are associates of each other, i.e. a|b and b|a. Then a = bc and
b = ad for some c, d ∈ R∗ . Hence a = adc =⇒ a(1 − dc). Since R is an integral domain
and a ̸= 0, we have 1 − dc = 0 =⇒ dc = 1. Thus c is a unit.
Conversely, assume that a = ub for some unit u in R, then b|a. Also b = u−1 a and hence
a|b. Hence a and b are associates.

Next, assume that a = ub for some unit u in R, then a ∈ ⟨b⟩ which implies ⟨a⟩ ⊆ ⟨b⟩. Also,
we have b = u−1 a then b ∈ ⟨a⟩which implies ⟨b⟩ ⊆ ⟨a⟩. Hence ⟨b⟩ = ⟨a⟩.
Conversely, if ⟨b⟩ = ⟨a⟩, then ⟨b⟩ ⊆ ⟨a⟩ and ⟨a⟩ ⊆ ⟨b⟩ which implies b ∈ ⟨a⟩ and a ∈ ⟨b⟩
which further implies a = u1 b and b = u2 a. Hence, b|a and a|b. Therefore, a and b are
associates.

Def. Irreducible element: A non-zero non-unit a ∈ R is said to be irreducible if a = bc,

then either b is a unit or c is a unit i.e. if a can be written as product of two elements,
exactly one of them has to be a unit.

43
Def. Prime element: A non-zero non-unit a ∈ R is said to be prime element if a|bc(b, c ∈
R), then a|b or a|c.
Let’s focus on the ring Z for better understanding of irreducible and prime elements.
Note that 1 and −1 are the only units in Z. Since, irreducible and prime elements are

non-units, therefore the units 1 and −1 cannot be prime element or irreducible element.
Further, let p is a prime number. Now, if p|ab then p|a or p|b, therefore p is a prime
element. Also if p = ab, then only possibility is that one of a and b is p and other is 1.
Hence, prime numbers are also irreducible elements.

Now, let us consider a composite number say 6. Then 6 = 2 · 3, where neither 2 nor 3 is a
unit. So, 6 is not irreducible element.
Next, 6 divides 4 · 9 = 36 but neither 6 divides 4 nor 6 divides 9. Hence 6 is not a prime
element. In a similar manner, we can show that composite numbers are neither prime
element nor irreducible element.

It should be noted that prime elements and irreducible elements may not be same. We shall
see shortly that there exist a special type of integral domain in which prime elements and
irreducible elements are same.

Proposition 1. A prime element is always an irreducible element but converse is not true.

Proof: To show, p is irreducible element, we assume p = ab and a is not a unit. We need

to show either a or b must be a unit.
Clearly, p|ab and since p is a prime element, we have either p|a or p|b. WLOG, let p|a
then a = pc for some c ∈ R. Therefore, p = pcb =⇒ p(1 − cb) = 0 and since p ̸= 0, we
have 1 − cb = 0 =⇒ cb = 1, which implies b is a unit. Hence, prime element p is an
irreducible element.
√ √
To show converse
√ is not
√ true, consider the integral domain Z[i 3] = {a + i 3b|a, b ∈ Z}.
Claim: 1 + i 3 ∈ Z[i 3] is irreducible element but not prime element.
√ √ √ √
+ i 3 = (a +
Let 1 √ √ i 3b) · (c + i 3d). Taking conjugate both sides, we have 1 − i 3=
(a − i 3b) · (c − i 3d). Therefore
√ √ √ √ √ √
(1 + i 3) · (1 − i 3) = [(a + i 3b) · (c + i 3d)] · [(a − i 3b) · (c − i 3d)]
=⇒ 4 = (a2 + 3b2 ) · (c2 + 3d 2 ).

Hence (a2 + 3b2 ) divides 4, therefore, (a2 + 3b2 ) = 1, 2 or 4. Clearly, a2 + 3b2 ̸= 2 and
therefore a2 + 3b2 = 1 or 4. √ √
If a2 + 3b2 = 1, then a = ±1 and b = 0 and a + i 3b = ±1, therefore (a + i 3b) is unit.
Next,√if a2 + 3b2 = 4 then c2 + 3d 2 =
√ 1 which implies c = ±1 and d = 0 and therefore
c + i 3d = ±1, is a unit. Hence 1 + i 3 is irreducible.

44
 √ √ √ √
Also, 2 · 2 = 4 = (1 +√i 3) · (1 − i 3), so (1 + i 3) divides 2 · 2 but 1 + i 3 does not
divide 2. Hence, 1 + i 3 is not a prime element.

Theorem 27. Let a be a non-zero non-unit in an integral domain R, then

(i) The element a is irreducible in R if and only if the ideal ⟨a⟩ is maximal ideal among
all proper principal ideals of R.
ii. The element a is prime in R if and only if the ideal ⟨a⟩ is a non-zero prime ideal in R.

Proof:

i. If possible assume that there exist a principal ideal ⟨b⟩ ⊂ R such that ⟨a⟩ ⊆ ⟨b⟩. Since
⟨b⟩ ̸= R, b is not a unit. Also, a ∈ ⟨b⟩ and hence a = bc for some c ∈ R. Since a
is irreducible, therefore c must be a unit and b = ac−1 ∈ ⟨a⟩ =⇒ ⟨b⟩ ⊆ ⟨a⟩. Hence
⟨a⟩ = ⟨b⟩.

Conversely, assume that ⟨a⟩ is maximal among all proper principal ideals of R. As-
sume that a = bc and that b is not a unit. In order to prove a is irreducible, we must
prove that c is a unit.
Since a = bc, we have ⟨a⟩ ⊆ ⟨c⟩. Note that a and c are not associates as b is not a
unit. So ⟨a⟩ ̸= ⟨c⟩ and since ⟨a⟩ is maximal among all principal ideals, we must have
⟨c⟩ = R which means c is a unit.

ii. Suppose that a is prime element in R. Clearly ⟨a⟩ is non zero ideal as a ∈ ⟨a⟩. Since
a is a non-unit, ⟨a⟩ ̸= R. Assume xy ∈ ⟨a⟩ then xy = ar for some r ∈ R which implies
a|xy. As a is prime element, a|x or a|y . WLOG, assume a|x then x = ac for some
c ∈ R which in turn implies x ∈ ⟨a⟩. Hence ⟨a⟩ is a prime ideal.
Conversely, assume that ⟨a⟩ ̸= R is a non-zero prime ideal in R, therefore a ̸= 0.
Also ⟨a⟩ ̸= R implies a is not a unit. If a|xy then xy = ar for some r ∈ R, therefore
xy ∈ ⟨a⟩ =⇒ x ∈ ⟨a⟩ or y ∈ ⟨a⟩ which in turn implies x = al or y = am i.e. a|x or a|y.
Hence, a is a prime element in R.

Def. Euclidean Domain: An integral domain R is said to be a Euclidean domain if for

every a ̸= 0 in R there is defined a non-negative integer d(a) such that :

i. For all a, b ∈ R, both non-zero, d(a) ≤ d(ab).

ii. For any a, b ∈ R, both non-zero, there exist t, r ∈ R such that a = tb + r where either
r = 0 or d(r) < d(b).

We don’t assign any value to d(0). The map ”d” is also known as norm.

The ring of integers is an example of Euclidean domain with d(a) = |a|. Clearly, for two
non-zero a, b ∈ Z, we have d(a) = |a| ≤ |ab| = d(ab). The second condition is exactly the
division algorithm in Z.

45
72. Prove that a field is an Euclidean domain.
Solution: Let F be a field and define a map d : F − {0} → N ∪ {0} such that d(x) = 1 for
all x ∈ F. Then for a, b ∈ F − {0}, we have 1 = d(a) = d(ab), so d(a) ≤ d(ab).
Also, a = (ab−1 )b + 0, therefore, second condition for Euclidean domain is also valid.
Hence, F is an Euclidean domain.

73. Prove that a necessary and sufficient condition that an element a in a Euclidean domain R
is a unit is that d(a) = d(1); where 1 is unity of R.
Solution: Let a ∈ R be a unit then there exist b ∈ R such that ab = 1. Then d(a) ≤ d(ab) =
d(1). Also, d(1) ≤ d(1 · a) = d(a). Therefore, we have d(a) = d(1).
Conversely, assume that d(a) = d(1). Since R is an Euclidean domain, there exist q, r ∈ R
such that 1 = qa + r with either r = 0 or d(r) < d(a) = d(1) but later is not as possible as
d(1) ≤ d(1 · r) = d(r). Hence, we must have r = 0 and therefore, qa = 1. Hence, a is a unit.

74. Prove that the ring of Gaussian integers Z[i] = {a + ib : a, b ∈ Z} is an Euclidean domain.
Hint: Define a map d : Z[i] − {0} → N ∪ {0} such that d(a + ib) = (a + ib) × (a + ib) =
a2 + b2 .
Also note that for an element (a + ib) is a unit if and only if d(a + ib) = d(1) = 1 =⇒
a2 + b2 = 1 =⇒ either a = ±1, b = 0 or a = 0, b = ±1. Therefore, the only units in Z[i]
are ±1, ±i.

75. Show that in the ring Z[i], the elements 3 + 4i and 4 − 3i are associates.
Solution: 1, −1, i, −i are the only units in Z[i]. Since 3 + 4i = i(4 − 3i), 3 + 4i and 4 − 3i
are associates.

√ √
76. Show that 1 + 2i 5√ is irreducible√in Z[i 5].√Is it prime?
Solution: Let 1 + 2i 5 = (a + ib 5)(c + id 5). Then
√ √ √ √ √ √
(1 + 2i 5) · (1 + 2i 5) = (a + ib 5)(c + id 5) · (a + ib 5)(c + id 5)
√
=⇒ 12 + (2 5)2 = (a2 + 5b2 ) (c2 + 5d 2 )
=⇒ 21 = (a2 + 5b2 ) (c2 + 5d 2 )

Since there are two possible factorisation of 21, 1 · 21 and 3 · 7. First, let’s assume one of
(a2 + 5b2 ) and (c2 + 5d 2 2 2
√ ) is 1 and another is 21, WLOG, assume (a + 5b ) = 1, then b = 0
and a = ±1, so a + ib 5 = ±1, hence it is a unit.
Next, assume one of (a2 + 5b2 ) and (c2 + 5d 2 ) is 3 and another is 7, WLOG, assume
(a2 + 5b2 ) = 3 and (c2 + 5d 2 ) = 7, but
√ then there does not exist any integer a, b, c, d satis-
fying these conditions. Hence, 1 + 2i 5 must be irreducible.
√ √ √ √
+ 2i 5 is not a prime as 1 + 2i 5 divides (1 + 2i 5) · (1 + 2i 5) = 21 = 3 · 7, but
No, 1 √
1 + 2i 5 neither divides 3 nor 7.

46
77. Show that 1 − i is an irreducible in Z[i].
Solution: If possible, assume that (1 − i) = (a + ib)(c + id), where a, b, c, d ∈ Z. Then

(1 − i) × (1 − i) = (a + ib)(c + id)(a + ib)(c + id)

=⇒ 2 = (a2 + b2 ) (c2 + d 2 ).

Since, 2 is a prime number, it cannot be factored into smaller positive integers, therefore
one of a2 + b2 and c2 + d 2 is 1 and other is 2. WLOG, assume that (a2 + b2 ) = 1, but then
either a = ±1, b = 0 or a = 0, b = ±1, which in turn implies a + ib = ±1 or ±i. Hence
a + ib is a unit, a contradiction. Hence, (1 − i) is irreducible element.

Theorem 28. Every Euclidean domain is a Principal integral domain.

Proof: Let R be an Euclidean domain and A be an ideal of R. If A = {0} then A = ⟨0⟩. If

A ̸= ⟨0⟩, there exists an a ̸= 0 in A. Pick an a0 ∈ A such that d(a0 ) is minimal.
Suppose that a ∈ A be arbitrary. Since, R is Euclidean domain there exist t, r ∈ R such that
a = ta0 + r where r = 0 or d(r) < d(a0 ). Since a0 belongs to ideal A, so ta0 ∈ A, therefore
r = a − ta0 ∈ A. If r ̸= 0 then d(r) < d(a0 ), which is not possible as d(a0 ) is minimal.
Therefore, r = 0 and a = ta0 which implies A = ⟨a0 ⟩ and thus A is principal ideal.

Theorem 29. Let R be a P.I.D. Then

i. Every irreducible element is a prime element in R.

ii. Every non-zero prime ideal is maximal ideal in R.

Proof:

i. Let a ∈ R be an irreducible element. Then ⟨a⟩ is maximal ideal among all principal
ideals of R. Since R is P.I.D., all ideals are principal ideals, therefore, ⟨a⟩ is maximal
ideal of R. Therefore R/ ⟨a⟩ is a field and thus an integral domain. Hence ⟨a⟩ is prime
ideal which in turn implies a is prime element of R.

ii. Let P be a non-zero prime ideal in R. Since R is P.I.D., P is also a principal ideal say
P = ⟨p⟩ some prime element p ∈ R. Since every prime element is irreducible, p is
irreducible and hence ⟨p⟩ = P is maximal ideal.

Theorem 30. Let R be an integral domain, then following statements are equivalent.

i. R is a field.
ii. R[x] is E.D.
iii. R[x] is P.I.D.

Proof:

47
 i =⇒ ii. Let R be a field. Define a map d : R[x] → N ∪ {0} such that d( f (x)) = degree of f (x).
Then d[ f (x) · g(x)] = degree of [ f (x) · g(x)] = degree of f (x)+ degree of g(x) ≥ de-
gree of f (x) = d( f (x)).

By, division algorithm, for f (x) and g(x) ∈ R[x] with g(x) ̸= 0, there exist unique poly-
nomials q(x) and r(x) in R[x] such that f (x) = g(x)q(x) + r(x) and either r(x) = 0 or
d(r(x)) deg(r(x)) < degg(x). Hence, R[x] is a Euclidean domain.

ii =⇒ iii. Trivial.

iii =⇒ i. Let R[x] is a P.I.D. Claim: x ∈ R[x] is irreducible element.

If possible, let x = p(x) · q(x) then 1 = degree of (x) =degree of p(x)+ degree of
q(x). WLOG, say degree p(x) = 1 and degree of q(x) = 0. Then p(x) = a0 + a1 x and
q(x) = q. Therefore

x = (a0 + a1 x)q
= a0 q + a1 qx.

Equating the coefficients, we get a0 q = 0 and a1 q = 1 which implies a0 = 0 and

a1 = q = ±1. Therefore, q(x) = q is a unit. Hence, x is irreducible element of R[x].
R[x] ∼
Since R is P.I.D. so ⟨x⟩ is maximal ideal of R[x]. Thus, = R is a field.
⟨x⟩

Note that Z[x] is not a P.I.D. (or E.D.) as Z is not a field. In fact Z[x] is not an E.D. as
x, x + 1 are non zero elements of Z[x] but x + 1 does divide x.

Def. Factorisation Domain: An integral domain R is called a factorisation domain(F.D.)

is every non-zero element x ∈ R can be written as a unit times finite product of irreducible
elements.

Def. Unique Factorisation Domain: An integral domain R is called Unique factorisation

domain(U.F.D.) if:
i R is a factorisation domain.
ii. The factorisation of elements of R is unique upto order and associates.
For example, the ring of integers Z is a factorisation domain. in fact Z is a unique fac-
torisation domain as every non zero element can be uniquely written as unit times finite
product of prime numbers.

Theorem 31. Every P.I.D. is a U.F.D.

Proof: Let R be a P.I.D. Let x(̸= 0) be a non unit in R. If x is irreducible then we are done.
Therefore, assume that x is not irreducible, hence x = x1 x2 , where neither x1 nor x2 is a

48
unit. Then ⟨x⟩ ⊂ ⟨x1 ⟩ and ⟨x⟩ ⊂ ⟨x2 ⟩. If x1 and x2 are irreducible then we are done.
If either of them is not irreducible say x1 then x1 = x11 y11 ; neither x11 nor y11 is a unit, then
⟨x1 ⟩ ⊂ ⟨x11 ⟩ and ⟨x1 ⟩ ⊂ ⟨y11 ⟩. In this way, we can keep on factorising x till as long as we
don’t get all irreducible factors. Next, to show that the above process must end, we prove
the following lemma.

Lemma 0.1. In a P.I.D., we cannot have infinite strictly increasing chain of ideals I1 ⊂
I2 ⊂ I3 ⊂ · · ·

Proof: Let I = ∪∞j=1 I j , then I is an ideal. Let a, b ∈ I = ∪∞j=1 I j then a ∈ Ik and b ∈ Il for
some k and l. If k ≤ l then Ik ⊂ Il =⇒ a, b ∈ Il =⇒ ab ∈ Il . Since R is a P.I.D., I = ⟨c⟩
for some c in R, then c ∈ I = ∪∞j=1 I j =⇒ c ∈ Ir for some r, then
I = ⟨c⟩ ⊂ Ir ⊂ ∪∞j=1 I j = I,

Hence, I = Ir , a contradiction. Therefore, we cannot have infinite strictly increasing chain

of ideals.
Therefore, the chain must stop and hence every non unit can be written as a finite product
of irreducibles. Thus, we have proved that every P.I.D. is a factorisation domain.

Next, by process of mathematical induction, we will show that factorisation is unique upto
order and associates.
Let x ∈ R be a non zero non unit and
x = π1 π2 · · · πr = v1 v2 · · · vs ;
where πi ’s and v j ’s are irreducible.

If r = 1, then x = π1 is irreducible and π1 = v1 v2 · · · vs , then s = 1 as at least one of

v1 , v2 , · · · , vs must be a unit but they are non units, hence s = 1. Now, assume that the
result is true when some element is a product of r − 1 irreducibles.

Since, x = π1 π2 · · · πr = v1 v2 · · · vs =⇒ πr |v1 (v2 v3 · · · vs ) then πr |v1 or πr |(v2 v3 · · · vs ), so

finally πr |v j for some j. WLOG, we can assume that πr |vs , so vs = πr u. Since vs is
irreducible, so u is a unit and thus πr and vs are associates. Also, we have
(π1 · · · πr−1 − v1 · · · vs−1 u)πr = 0.
Since πr ̸= 0, we have π1 · · · πr−1 = v1 · · · vs−1 u and by induction hypothesis, we have
r − 1 = s − 1 =⇒ r = s. Also, every πi is associate of some v j , thus the theorem.

Theorem 32. In a U.F.D, every irreducible element is a prime.

Proof: Let a be an irreducible element in a U.F.D R. Let x, y ∈ R⋆ be such that a|xy. We

have to show that either a|x or a|y. Since a|xy, ∃b ∈ R⋆ such that ab = xy. Since R is a
U.F.D. , there exist units u, v and irreducibles pi , q j ; 1 ≤ i ≤ r, 1 ≤ j ≤ s such that
x = up1 p2 · · · pr and y = vq1 q2 · · · qs .

49
 Now, we have ab = xy = uvp1 p2 · · · pr q1 q2 · · · qs . Since the irreducible a occurs in one
factorisation of xy , it should be an associate of some irreducible occuring in any other
factorisation of xy into irreducibles. Hence a is an associate of some pi or a q j . Say,
aα = pi for some unit α. Thus we get that

x = up1 p2 · · · pr = up1 p2 · · · pi−1 aα pi+1 · · · pr

which gives x = ax′ for some x′ ∈ R⋆ and hence a|x, as required.

√ √
78. Show that the ring Z[i 5] = {a + ib 5} is a factorisation domain but not a unique factori-
sation domain. √ √
ring Z[i 5] is an integral domain. Define a map d : Z[i 5] →√N ∪
Solution: Clearly, the √
{0} such that d(a + ib 5) = a2 + b2 5. Notice that d(xy) = d(x)d(y) for all x, y ∈ Z[i 5].
√ √ √
Also, let a + ib 5 ∈ Z[i 5] is a unit, then d(a
√ + ib 5) = 1 =⇒ a2 + 5b2 = 1 =⇒ a = ±1
and b = 0. Therefore, the only units in Z[i 5] are ±1.
√ √ √
Claim: (1 + i 5) and√(1 − i 5) are√irreducible√elements in Z[i 5].
√ √
If possible, let (1 + i 5) = (a + ib 5)(c + id 5), where (a + ib 5) and (c + id 5) are
non units, then
√ √ √ √ √ √
(1 + i 5) × (1 + i 5) = (a + ib 5)(c + id 5)(a + ib 5)(c + id 5)
=⇒ 1 · 6 = 2 · 3 = 6 = (a2 + 5b2 ) (c2 + 5d 2 ).
√
If (a2 + 5b2 ) = 1 and (c2 + 5d 2 ) = 6, then a = ±1, b = 0 and hence (a + ib 5) = ±1,
which is a unit, a contradiction. Next, let a2 + 5b2 = 2 and c2 + 5d 2 = 3, but there does
√
contradiction. Hence, (1 + i 5)
not exist any integer satisfying these conditions, again a √
is irreducible element. Similarly, we can show that (1 − i 5) is irreducible element.
√ √
Z[i 5] is not U.F.D. as 6 ∈ Z[i 5] have two different factorisation of non-units:
√ √
6 = 2 · 3 = (2 + 0 · i 5)(3 + 0 · i 5)
√ √
&6 = (1 + i 5) · (1 − i 5).

50
 Polynomial Factorisation

Def. Let F is a field. A non zero polynomial p(x) in F[x] is said to be irreducible over
F if whenever p(x) = f (x) · g(x) with f (x), g(x) ∈ F[x] then one of f (x) and g(x) must
have degree 0 i.e. one of f (x) and g(x) must be a non zero constant polynomial. We say a
polynomial is reducible if it is not irreducible.

Irreducibility depends upon the field, for example the polynomial x2 + 1 is irreducible over
the field of real numbers, while it is not irreducible in the field of complex numbers as
x2 + 1 = (x + i)(x − i).

79. Show that x2 − 2 is irreducible over Q but reducible over R.

80. A polynomial f (x) ∈ C[x] is irreducible if and only if deg f (x) = 1.

Hint: Fundamental theorem of algebra.

81. Show that x2 + 1 is irreducible over R but reducible over field Z2 ?

Solution: The roots of x2 + 1 = 0 are ±i, which does not belong to R. Hence x2 + 1 is
irreducible over R.
Next, assume f (x) = x2 + 1. Then f (1) = 2 = 0 in Z2 . Therefore, x − 1 divides x2 + 1.
Moreover, x2 + 1 = x2 − 2x + 1(x − 1)2 . Hence, x2 + 1 is reducible over Z2 .

Lemma 0.2. Let F is a field. Then any polynomial in F[x] can be written in a unique
manner as product of irreducible polynomials in F[x].

Proof: F is a field implies F[x] is an E.D =⇒ F[x] is P.I.D. =⇒ F[x] is U.F.D.

Lemma 0.3. Let F be a field and f (x) ∈ F[x]. Then ⟨ f (x)⟩ is a maximal ideal if and only
if f (x) is irreducible polynomial.

Proof: Since F is a field, F[x] is a P.I.D. Then f (x) is irreducible implies ⟨ f (x)⟩ is maxi-
mal.
Conversely, assume ⟨ f (x)⟩ is maximal. If possible f (x) is not irreducible, say f (x) =
g(x) · h(x); where g(x) and h(x) are non-unit non-constant polynomials with degree less
that degree of f (x). But then, ⟨ f (x)⟩ ⊂ ⟨g(x)⟩ and ⟨ f (x)⟩ ⊂ ⟨h(x)⟩. Since, g(x) and h(x)
are not units, ⟨g(x)⟩ ̸= R[x] and ⟨h(x)⟩ ̸= R[x], a contradiction to maximality of ⟨ f (x)⟩.
Hence, f (x) must be irreducible.

Polynomials over Q

Def. Content of a polynomial: The content of a polynomial an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a0 ;

where a′i s are integers, is the greatest common divisor of the integers a0 , a1 , · · · , an .

51
Def. Primitive Polynomial: The polynomial f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn , where a′i s are
integers is said to be primitive if the gcd(a0 , a1 , · · · , an ) = 1 i.e. a polynomial with integer
coefficients is called primitive if content of polynomial is 1.

The content of polynomial 5x3 − 4x2 + 7 is gcd(5, −4, 7) = 1, hence 5x3 − 4x2 + 7 is prim-
itive polynomial.
The content of polynomial 2x3 − 4x2 + 8 is gcd(2, −4, 8) = 2, hence 2x3 − 4x2 + 8 is not a

primitive polynomial.

Lemma 0.4. If f (x) and g(x) are primitive polynomials then f (x)g(x) is a primitive poly-
nomial.(i.e. product of primitive polynomials is primitive.)

Proof: Let f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn and g(x) = b0 + b1 x + · · · + bm xm . Suppose that the

lemma was false; then all the coefficients of f (x)g(x) would be divisible by some integer
larger than 1, hence by some prime number p. Since f (x) is primitive, p does not divide
all ai . Let a j be the first coefficient of f (x) which p does not divide. Similarly, let bk be
the first coefficient of g(x) which p does not divide. Then p does not divide a j bk .

Let ck denote the coefficient of x j+k , then

ck = a j bk + (a j−1 bk+1 + a j−2 bk+2 + · · · + a0 b j+k ) + (a j+1 bk−1 + a j+2 bk−2 + · · · + a j+k b0 ).

Since, all the coefficients of f (x)g(x) is divisible by p, ck is divisible by p. Moreover, by

our choice of a j and bk , p divides each al and bs for all 0 ≤ l < j and 0 ≤ s < s. Therefore,
p divides a j bk = ck −[(a j−1 bk+1 +a j−2 bk+2 +· · ·+a0 b j+k )+(a j+1 bk−1 +a j+2 bk−2 +· · ·+
a j+k b0 )], a contradiction. Hence, product of primitive polynomials is primitive.

Theorem 33. (Gauss’ Lemma) If the primitive polynomial f (x) can be factored as the
product of two polynomials having rational coefficients, it can be factored as the product
of two polynomials having integer coefficients. (The theorem can also be stated as ”Let
f (x) ∈ Z[x]. If f (x) is reducible over Q, then it is reducible over Z”.)

Proof: Suppose that f (x) = u(x)v(x), where u(x) and v(x) have rational coefficients. By
clearing out of denominators and taking out common factors, we can write f (x) = (a/b)λ (x)µ(x)
where a and b are integers and where λ (x) and µ(x) have integer coefficients and are prim-
itive. Thus b f (x) = aλ (x)µ(x). Since f (x) is primitive, the content of the left hand side
is b. Since λ (x) and µ(x) are primitive polynomials and product of primitive polynomials
is primitive, λ (x)µ(x) is primitive, so the content of right hand side is a. Therefore, a = b
i.e. (a/b) = 1 and f (x) = λ (x)µ(x) where λ (x) and µ(x) have integer coefficients.

A polynomial is said to be Integer Monic polynomial:integer monic if all its coefficients

are integers and its highest coefficient is 1.
For example, x3 + 3x2 − 2x + 1 is a monic integer polynomial as the coefficient of highest
degree term x3 is 1.

52
 Corollary 2. If an integer monic polynomial factors as the product of two nonconstant
polynomials having rational coefficients then it factors as the product of two integer monic
polynomials.

Theorem 34. (Eisenstein Criteria) Let f (x) = a0 +a1 x+a2 x2 +· · ·+an xn be a polynomial
with integer coefficients. Suppose that for some prime number p, p|ai ; 0 ≤ i ≤ n − 1, p ̸ |an
and p2 ̸ |a0 . Then f (x) is irreducible over the rationals.

Proof: WLOG, we may assume that f (x) is primitive, for taking out the greatest common
factor of its coefficients does not disturb the hypothesis, as p ̸ |an .

If possible, assume that f (x) factors as a product of two rational polynomials, then by
Gauss’ lemma it factors as the product of two polynomials having integer coefficients. Let
a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn = f (x) = (b0 + b1 x + · · · + br xr ) (c0 + c1 x + · · · + cs xs ),
where the b’s and c′ s are integers and where 0 < r < n and 0 < s < n. Comparing the
coefficients, we have a0 = b0 c0 . Since p|a0 and p2 ̸ |a0 , p must divide exactly one among
b0 and c0 . Assume p|b0 and p ̸ |c0 .
Note that p does not divide all b′i s otherwise all the coefficients of f (x) would be divisible
by p and f (x) wouldn’t be primitive. Let bk be the first among the coefficients b0 , b1 , · · · , br
which is not divisible by p i.e. for 0 ≤ i < k p, p divides all bi and p does not divide bk .
But,
ak = bk c0 + bk−1 c1 + bk−2 c2 + · · · + b0 ck
and p|ak , p|bi for 0 ≤ i < k, therefore p divides bk c0 = ak − (bk−1 c1 + bk−2 c2 + · · · + b0 ck ),
a contradiction as p neither divides bk nor c0 . Hence f (x) is irreducible over the rationals.

Example 5. The polynomial 3x5 + 15x4 − 20x3 + 10x + 20 is irreducible over Q because
5 ̸ |3 and 52 ̸ |20 but 5 divides 15, −20, 10 and 20.

xp − 1
Def. For each prime p, the polynomials = x p−1 + x p−2 + · · · + x + 1 are called pth
x−1
cyclotomic polynomials.
xp − 1
82. Show that the pth
cyclotomic polynomial = x p−1 + x p−2 + · · · + x + 1 is irreducible.
x−1
xp − 1 p−1 p−2
Solution: Let f (x) = =x +x + · · · + x + 1.
x−1
If possible, let f (x) is reducible then f (x) = g(x)h(x). Then f (x + 1) = g(x + 1)h(x + 1),
so f (x + 1) is also reducible. Also,
(x + 1) p − 1
f (x + 1) =
x+1−1
(x p + px p−1 + · · · + px + 1) − 1
=
x
p−1 p−2
= x + px + · · · + p.

53
 By, Eisenstein’s criteria, f (x + 1) is irreducible, a contradiction. Hence, cyclotomic poly-
xp − 1
nomials = x p−1 + x p−2 + · · · + x + 1 are irreducible.
x−1

83. If p is a prime number, prove that the polynomial xn − p is irreducible over the rationals.
Hint: a0 = p, a1 = a2 = · · · = an−1 = 0 and an = 1. Apply Eisenstein’s criteria.

Theorem 35. Mod(p) Irreducibility test: Let p be a prime and suppose f (x) ∈ Z[x] with
deg( f (x)) ≥ 1. Let f (x) be the polynomial in Z p [x] obtained from f (x) by reducing all the
coefficients of f (x) modulo p. If f (x) is irreducible over Z p and deg( f (x)) =deg ( f (x)),
then f (x) is irreducible over Q.

Proof: If possible, assume that f (x) is reducible over Q, then by Gauss’ lemma, we f (x)
factors over Z, say f (x) = g(x)h(x); where g(x), h(x) ∈ Z[x] and degree of g(x) and h(x)
is strictly less that degree of f (x). Let f (x), g(x), and h(x) be the polynomials obtained
from f (x), g(x) and h(x) by reducing all the coefficients modulo p. Since deg f (x) = deg
f (x), we have deg g(x) ≤deg g(x) <deg f (x) and deg h(x) ≤deg h(x) <deg f (x). But,
f (x) = g(x)h(x), a contradiction to the fact that f (x) is irreducible over Z p .

Example 6. Let f (x) = 21x3 − 3x2 + 2x + 9. Then, over Z2 [x], we have f (x) = x3 + x2 + 1
and since f (0) = 1 and f (1) = 1, we see that f (x) is irreducible over Z2 . Thus, f (x) is
irreducible over Q.
Note that over Z3 , f (x) = 2x is irreducible but we cannot apply modp test, degree f f (x) ̸=degree
f (x).

84. Provide an example to show that converse of mod p test does not hold.
3 −1
Solution: Consider the polynomial f (x) = 1 + x + x2 = xx−1 . By Einstein criteria, f (x) is
2
irreducible. But the f (x) = 1 + x + x is not irreducible over Z3 as f (1) = 0, so x − 1 is a
factor of f (x), in fact f (x) = (x − 1)2 . Hence f (x) is not irreducible.

54