CONTENTS

Topic Page No

Measurement Systems and Error Analysis 01 - 10

Previous Questions 11 - 16

Electromechanical Indicating Type Instruments 17 – 22

Previous Questions 22 - 25

Key 26

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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 1. Measurement Systems and Error Analysis
Measurement is the process of determining the magnitude of a quantity in
comparison with another quantity.

Introduction
● The advancement of science and technology is dependent upon a parallel
progress in measurement techniques.
● As science and technology move ahead, new phenomena and relationships are
discovered and these advances make new types of measurements imperative.

Measurements:
● The measurement of a given quantity essentially an act or the result of
comparison between the quantity (whose magnitude is known) and a
predefined standard.
● In fact, measurement is the process by which one can convert physical
parameters to meaningful numbers.
o In order that the results of measurement are meaningful, there are two
basic requirements:
1) The standard used for comparison purposes must be accurately defined and
should be commonly accepted.
2) The apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable.

Instruments

Absolute Instruments Secondary Instrument

Give the quantity to be Give the magnitude of

measured in terms of electrical quantity to be
instrument constant and its measured directly.
deflection Ex:Ammeter, voltmeter,
Ex: Tangent galvanometer, pressure gauge, glass
Rayleigh‟s current balance thermometer.

Instruments:
● Measurement generally involves using an instrument as a physical means of
determining a quantity or variable.
● An instrument may be defined as “a device for determining the value or
magnitude of a quantity or variable”.

Measurement System Performance:

The treatment of instrument and measurement system characteristics
can be divided in to,
1. Static Characteristics
2. Dynamic Characteristics

Static Characteristics of Measuring System:

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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 ● Static characteristics refer to the characteristics of the system when the input is
either held constant or varying very slowly. The items that can be classified
under the heading static characteristics are mainly,
♦ Range (or span)
♦ Sensitivity
♦ Linearity
♦ Hysteresis
♦ Resolution
♦ Accuracy
♦ Precision
♦ Drift
♦ Threshold
♦ Reproducibility
♦ Repeatability
♦ Static Error
♦ Dead zone

Dynamic Characteristics of Measuring System:

● Dynamic characteristics refer to the performance of the instrument when the
input variable is changing rapidly with time.
● The dynamic performance of an instrument is normally expressed by a
differential equation relating the input and output quantities.
● Commonly available sensor characteristics can usually be approximated as
either zero-th order, first order or second order dynamics.
● Here are few such examples:
♦ Potentiometer
♦ Thermocouple
♦ Seismic Sensor
♦ Step response performance
♦ Frequency Response Performance
♦ Bandwidth and Natural Frequency

Range (or span)

It defines the maximum and minimum values of the inputs or the outputs for
which the instrument is recommended to use. For example, for a temperature
measuring instrument the input range may be 100-500 o C and the output range may
be 4-20 mA.
Linearity
Linearity is actually a measure of nonlinearity of the instrument. When we talk
about sensitivity, we assume that the input/output characteristic of the instrument to
be approximately linear. The linearity is defined as the maximum deviation from the
linear characteristics as a percentage of the full scale output. Thus,

∆Q= max(∆O1, ∆O2)

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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
Hysteresis
Hysteresis is a phenomenon which depicts different output effects when loading and
unloading whether it is a mechanical system or an electrical system and for that matter
any system. Hysteresis is non-incidence of loading and unloading curves. Hysteresis,
in a system, arises due to the fact that all the energy put into the stressed parts when
loading is not recoverable upon unloading. The hysteresis is expressed as the
maximum hysteresis as a full scale reading, i.e., referring fig.,

X 100

Resolution
● Resolution indicates the minimum change in input variable that is detectable.
● Resolution is also defined in terms of percentage as:

● The quotient between the measuring range and resolution is often expressed
as dynamic range and is defined as:

Note:
Resolution of the instrument can be improved by recalibrating it but sensitivity
cannot be, because it is designed with respect to time characteristics.

Accuracy
● It is degree of closeness of conformity in which measured value approaches a
true value of quantity under measurement.
● The accuracy of an instrument is often stated as a percentage.

(i) Point Accuracy

(ii) Accuracy as percentage of scale range:
(iii) Accuracy as percentage of true value:

Precision
● It may be defined as the degree of closeness with which reading is produced
again and again for the same value of input quantity.
● In other words, precision is measure of consistency of the result.
● A quantity called “precision index” describes the dispersion of repeated result
about a central value.
● Precision indicates the repeatability or reproducibility of an instrument (but
does not indicate accuracy).
● Quantitatively, the precision can be expressed as:

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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
Note:
⮚ High precision does not means high accuracy. In other words, a highly
précised instrument may be inaccurate.
⮚ Accuracy of the instrument can be improved by the recalibration but precision
of instrument cannot improved because, it is designed with respect to time
characteristics (or inherent).

Sensitivity
● It can be defined as the ratio of the incremental output and the incremental
input.

Threshold
● It is a particular case of resolution.
● It is defined as the minimum value of input below which no output can be
detected.

Drift
● Variation in output of an instrument from the desired value for a particular
value of the input.
● Perfect reproducibility means that the instrument has no drift.
● No drift means that with a given input the measured values do not vary with
time.
Zero drift:
● If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage, permanent set, or due
to undue warming up of electronic tube circuits, zero drift sets in. This can be
prevented by zero setting.

Span drifts or Sensitivity drifts:

● If there is proportional change in the indication all along the upward scale, the
drift is called span drift or sensitivity drift. These are due to stray fields.

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 Zonal drift:
● When the drift occurs only over a portion of span of an instrument, it is called
zonal drift.
Note:
⮚ The quantities like accuracy, sensitivity and reproducibility are desirable
but drift, static error and dead zone are undesirable.
⮚ Drift is an undesirable quantity in industrial instrument because it is rarely
apparent and cannot be easily compensated for Drift is due to many
environmental factors. This may be stray electric and magnetic fields,
thermal emfs, mechanical terms etc.
⮚ Thus it must be carefully guarded against by continuous prevention,
inspection and maintenance.

Reproducibility
● It is the degree of closeness in which a given value is measured with an
instrument over a specified period of time.

Repeatability
● It is the degree of closeness in which input quantity is measured again and
again for a given set of an instrument.
● This is specified in terms of scale reading over a given period of time.

Errors and Statistical Analysis:

Error:
● It is measure of deviation from the true value of the measured variable.
Absolute error or static error:
● This is defined as the difference between the measured value and true value of the
quantity.
i.e
= absolute static error of quantity „A‟
= measured value of quantity „A‟
= True value or Nominal value of quantity „A‟
Relative Error
● It is defined as.

If absolute static error is very-very small then,

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 ● % Error

%
● For finding the % error at reading “X” is equals,

.
Limiting Error or Guarantee Errors:
The limits of the deviations from the specified values are defined as Limiting
Errors or Guarantee Errors.
Aactual = Aspecified
Where is the limiting error.
Eg. A = 100 10 or A 90 and A 110
Relative Limiting Errors:

Limiting error for combination of quantities:

Sum of the quantities
The relative increment of the function is given by.

% error =
Difference of quantities

The relative increments of component quantities,

% error =

Multiplication of quantities

% error =

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 ⮚ From above equation we conclude that the limiting of multiplication of
quantities is equal to the sun of relative limiting errors of individual quantity.

Division of quantity
Relative limiting error in X (For unknown errors)

% error =
⮚ From above equation we conclude that the limiting error of division of
quantity is equal to the sum of relative limiting errors individual quantity.

Composite factors

% error =
Types of Errors:
● No measurement can be made with perfect accuracy, but it is important to find
out what the accuracy actually is and how different errors have entered into the
measurement.
● Errors may come from different sources and are usually classified as:

Error

Gross error Systematic Random

error error

Instrumental Environmental Observational

error error error
Gross errors:
● Largely human errors among them misreading of instruments, incorrect
adjustment and improper application of instrument and computational mistakes.
Systematic errors:
● Short comings of the instruments such as defective or worn parts and effects of the
environment on the culpment or the user.

Random errors:
● Those due to causes that cannot be directly established because of random
variations in the parameter or the system of measurement.
● These errors remain even after the systematic errors have been taken care of, we
call these errors as Random errors.

Statistical Analysis:
● A statistical analysis of measurement data is common practice because it allows
an analytical determination of the uncertainty of the final test result.
● LetX1,X2 ……… Xn are the „n‟ no. of readings of an instrument then,

(i) Mean value:

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 (ii) Deviation:
● Deviation is the departure of a reading from the arithmetic mean of the group
of readings.
● Let the deviation of first reading X1 be „d1‟ and that of reading X2 be „d2‟ and
so on then deviation from the mean value can be expressed as,

(iii) Mean deviation or average deviation:

=
● The average deviation is an indication of the precision of the instruments used
in making the measurement
● Highly precise instruments yield will a low average deviation between
readings.
Note:
⮚ The deviation from the mean may have a (+)ve or (-) ve value and that the
algebraic sum of all the deviation must be zero.

(iii) Standard deviation (σ) or RMS deviation: (S.D)

● Standard deviation in statistical analysis of random errors is the root mean
square deviation.
● By definition, the S.D (σ) of an infinite no. of data is the square root of the
sum of all the individual deviations squared, divided by the no. of readings (n).

for n > 20,

for n < 20,

(iv) Variance :
● The variance is the mean square deviation.
● It is same as S.D. except that the square root is not extracted.

for n > 20,

for n < 20,

⮚ Relation between precision index (h) and standard deviation (σ).

i.e.

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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
Probable Error (r):
● Probable error (r) is proportional to the standard deviation ( ) as

CLASS ROOM OBJECTIVES

1. Three resistors R1, R2, R3 where R1 = 37 5%, R2 = 75 5%, R3 = 50 5% are
connected in series. Find the magnitude of resistance, limiting error in and
in %.

2. The resistance of the circuit is measured by power fed in to the circuit and
current passing through it. The relative limiting errors in the measurement of
power and current are 1.5% and 1% respectively. Find the % limiting
error in the measurement of resistance.

3. A variable „w‟ is related to three other variables x, y, z as w = xy/z. The

variables are measured with meters of accuracy 0.5% reading, 1% of full
scale value and 1.5% reading the actual readings of the three meters are 80,
20 and 50 with 100 being the full scale value for all three. The maximum
uncertainty in the measurement of „w‟ will be
(a) 0.5% rdg (b) 5.5% rdg (c) 6.7% rdg (d)
7.0 rdg

4. A (0-150) V full scale voltmeter has an accuracy specification of 1% of the

full scale value. Find the relative limiting error in percentage if it is measuring
75 V in (0-150) V range.

5. A 0 to 1000 W wattmeter has an error specification of 1% of full scale

deflection.
(a) Find out the range of readings if it measures 100W
(b) If the error is specified as % of true value, what should be the range of
readings.

6. Four ammeters M1, M2, M3 and M4 with the following specifications are
available, (Full scale, accuracy value as percentage of FS)
M1 = 20 0.10; M2 = 10 0.20; M3 = 5 0.50; and M4 = 1 1.00
A current of 1 A is to be measured. To obtain minimum error in the reading
one should select meter
(a) M1 (b) M2 (c) M3 (d) M4

PREVIOUS QUESTIONS
ERRORS

TWO MARKS QUESTIONS

01. A variable „w‟ is related to three other variables x, y, z as w = xy/z. The variables
are measured with meters of accuracy 0.5% reading, 1% of full scale value
and 1.5% reading the actual readings of the three meters are 80, 20 and 50

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 with 100 being the full scale value for all three. The maximum uncertainty in the
measurement of „w‟ will be
(GATE-EE-2006)
(a) 0.5% rdg (b) 5.5% rdg (c) 6.7% rdg (d)
7.0 rdg

02. Suppose that resistors R1 and R2 are connected in parallel to give an equivalent
resistor R. If resistors R1 and R2 have tolerance of 1% each, the equivalent
resistor R for resistors R1 =300 and R2=200 will have tolerance of

(GATE-EE-2014)
(a) 0.5 % (b) 1 % (c) 1.2 % (d) 2 %
03. The resistance of a circuit is found by measuring current flowing and the power
fed into the circuit. If the limiting errors in the measurement of power and current
are 1.5% and 1.0% respectively, the limiting error in the measurement of
resistance will be (IES-EE-1992)

(a) 1% (b) 1.5% (c) 2.5% (d) 3.5%

04. A 150V moving iron voltmeter of accuracy class 1-0 reads 75V when used in a
circuit under standard condition. The maximum possible percentage error in the
reading is
(IES-EE-1993)
(a) 0.5 (b) 1.0 (c) 2.0 (d) 4.0

05. If the practical units of voltage and current were each made 20 times as large as
they are at present, what would be the consequent alteration in the size of the unit
of capacitance ?
(IES-EE-1994)
(a) 200 times (b) 60 times (c) 20 times (d) Nil

06. The circuit given in the figure, the limiting error in the power dissipation I2, R‟ in
the resistor R is
(IES-EE-1995)

(a) 1.2% (b) 5.2% (c) 10.2% (d) 25.2%

07. The limiting errors of measurement of power consumed by and the current
passing through a resistance are 1.5% and 1% respectively. The limiting
error of measurement of resistance will then be (IES-EE-1997)
(a) 0.5% (b) 1.0% (c) 2.5% (d) 3.5%

08. The current „I‟ through a resistance R is measured with the following
uncertainties I = 4A 0.5%, R = 100 0.2%. If power is computed form these
two measured quantities, the uncertainty in the power computed will be

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 (IES-EE-1998)
(a) 0.01% (b) 0.29% (c) 0.7% (d) 1.2%

09. The total current I = I1 + I2 in a circuit is measured as I1 = 150 1A,

I2 = 250 2A, where the limits of error are given as standard deviations. I is
measured as
(IES-EE-2002)
(a) (400 3)A (b) (400 2.24)A (c) (400 1.5)A (d)(400 1)A

10. The difference between the indicated value and the true value of a quantity is
(IES-EE-2003)
(a) Gross error (b) Absolute error (c) Dynamic error (d)Relative error

11. Which one of the following statements is correct ? (IES-EE-

2004)
The application of the instrument in wrong manner in the procedure of
measurement results in a/an
(IES-EE-2004)
(a) systematic error (b) random error
(c) gross error (d) instrument error

12. Which one of the following statements correctly represents the systematic errors?
(a) These errors can be calculated from the details of the instruments
(b) These are the residual errors
(IES-EE-2004)
(c) These errors may occur under controlled conditions
(d) These are the errors committed by the experimenters
13. A 0 to 200V voltmeter has a guaranteed accuracy of 1% of full scale reading. The
voltage measured by this instrument is 50V. What is the limiting error ?
(a) 4% (b) 2% (c) 1% (d) 0.25%
(IES-EE-2004)

14. A set of independent current measurements taken by four observers was recorded
as; 117.02mA, 117.11mA, 117.08mA and 117.03mA. What is the range of error?
(IES-EE-2005)
(a) 0.045 (b) 0.054 (c) 0.065 (d) 0.056

15. To measures 5 volts, if one selects a 0-100 volt range voltmeter which is accurate
with in 1%, then the error in this measurement may be up to (IES-EE-2005)
(a) 1.5% (b) 2.5% (c) 7.5% (d) 20%

16. Assertion (A) : It is always desirable to take the reading of an

indicating instrument very close to the full scale reading.
Reason (R) : Accuracy of an indicating instrument is maximum at the full
scale deflection and error increases as reading comes closer to the beginning of
the scale
(IES-EE-2006)
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A

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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true

17. When reading is taken at half scale in the instrument, the error is (IES-EE-2006)
(a) exactly equal to half of full-scale error
(b) equal to full-scale error
(c) less than full-scale error
(d) more than full-scale error

18. The errors introduced by an instrument fall in which category ? (IES-EE-

2008)
(a) Systematic error (b) Random errors
(c) Gross errors (d) Environmental errors

19. Assertion (A) : Random errors can be minimized by statistical methods

Reason (R) : These are caused by arithmetic error while taking readings
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false (d) A is false but R is true (IES-EE-2009)

20. A 0 to 300V voltmeter has an error of 2% of FSD. What is the range of

readings if true voltage is 30V ? (IES-EE-2009)
(a) 24V – 36V (b) 20V – 36V (c) 29.4V – 30.6V (d) 20V - 30V

21. A (0-25) A ammeter has a guaranteed accuracy of 1 percent of full scale reading.
The current measured by this ammeter is 10A. The limiting error in percentage
for this instrument is
(IES-EE-2010)
(a) 2.5% (b) 0.5% (c) 80% (d) 0.025%

22. A (0-250)V voltmeter has a guaranteed accuracy of 2 per cent of full scale
reading. The voltage measured by this voltmeter is 150V. The limiting error in
percentage is (IES-EE-2010)
(a) 2.5% (b) 0.05% (c) 3.33% (d) 5.0%

23. A 0-100V voltmeter has an accuracy of 1 percent at full-scale reading. What will
be the error if it reads 50V ?
(IES-EE-2011)
(a) 1 percent (b) 2 percent (c) 0.5 percent (d) 4 percent

24. What are the causes of gross error in the instruments ?

1. Misreading of instruments
(IES-EE-2011)
2. Incorrect adjustment of instruments
3. Errors due to defective instrument
4. Errors due to effect of environment on the instrument
Codes :
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 3 and 1 (d) 4 and 1

25. Which of the following types of errors come under systematic errors ?

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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 1. Irregular spring tension
2. Improper readings
3. Loading effects
4. Error due to the presence of electric field or magnetic field (IES-EE-2011)
Codes :
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 3 and 1 (d) 4 and 1

26. The value of a quantity and its uncertainty are given as 26455 3754 without
rounding off. Only two significant digits are relevant for error. Value of error
rounded off to two significant figures is (IES-EE-2011)
(a) 26500 3800 (b) 26400 3800
(c) 26460 3750 (d) 26400 3700
27. Systematic error of an instrument for measurement can be minimized by
(a) selecting a proper measuring device for the particular application
(b) calibrating the measuring device against a standard device
(c) applying correction factors for change of ambient conditions
(d) carrying out all of the above
(IES-EE-2012)

28. The unknown resistance R4 measured in a Wheatstone bridge by the formula

with R1 = 100 0.5% , R2 = 1000 0.5% ,

R3 = 842 0.5%
Resulting in R4
(IES-EE-2013)
(a) 8420 0.5% (b) 8420 1.0%
(c) 8420 1.5% (d) 8420 0.125%

29. Four ammeters M1, M2, M3 and M4 with the following specifications are
available, (Full scale, accuracy value as percentage of FS) (IES-EE-2014)
M1 = 20 0.10; M2 = 10 0.20; M3 = 5 0.50; and M4 = 1 1.00
A current of 1 A is to be measured. To obtain minimum error in the reading one
should select meter
(a) M1 (b) M2 (c) M3 (d) M4

PRECISION:

30. A resistance of 105 ohms is specified using significant figures as indicated

below:
(IES-EE-1994)
1. 105 ohms
2. 105.0 ohms
3. 0.000105 Mega ohms
Among these,
(a) 1 represents greater precision than 2 and 3
(b) 2 represents greater precision but 1 and 3 represent same precision
(c) 2 and 3 represent greater precision than 1
(d) 1, 2 & 3 represent same precision

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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
31. Assertion (A) : Precision is a necessary prerequisite of accuracy
Reason (R) : Precision guarantees accuracy (IES-EE-
1994)
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true

32. Which one of the following has the highest accuracy (IES-EE-
1998)
(a) Standard resistance (b) Standard inductance
(c) Standard capacitance (d) Standard mutual inductance

33. Assertion (A) : The precision instruments are always accurate

Reason (R) : Precision indicates the degree of agreement within a set of
measurements of the same quantity by the instrument and accuracy refers to
the degree of closeness true value of the quantity to be measured.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(IES-EE-2007)
(d) A is false but R is true

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS:

34. The voltage of a standard cell is monitored daily over a period of one year. The
mean value of the voltage for every month shows a standard deviation of 0.1 mv.
The standard deviation of the set constituted by the monthly mean values will be
(IES-EE-1999)

(a) 0 (b) (c) (d) 0.1

35. Statement (I) : For random error with normal distribution, Probable
error = 0.6745 , where is the standard deviation (IES-EE-
2013)
Statement (II) : Probable error is that error value where there is a 50%
chance that any observation has a random error no greater than
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false

(d) A is false but R is true

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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
36. The technique used to check quantitatively whether the given data distribution is
close to Gaussian distribution is
(IES-EE-2013)
(a) Curve fitting (b) Method of least squares
(c) Chi-square test (d) Standard deviation of mean

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. The reliability of the instrument refer to:
a) Measurement of changes due to temperature variations
b) Degree to which repeatability continues to remain within specified limits
c) The life of the instrument
d) The extent to which the characteristics remain linear
2. The damping torque must operate only when the moving system of the indicating
instrument is:
a) Actually moving b) Stationary
c) Just starting to move d) Near its full deflection
3. In spring control instruments, controlling torque:
a) can be adjusted easily b) cannot be adjusted easily
c) remains the same d) varies with the load

4. A _____ device prevents the oscillation of the moving system and enables the
latter to reach its final position quickly
(a) deflecting
(b) controlling
(c) damping
(d) any of the above

5. The spring material used in a spring control device should have the following
property.
(a) Should be non-magnetic
(b) Most be of low temperature co-efficient
(c) Should have low specific resistance
(d) All of the above

2. Electromechanical Indicating Type Instruments

Analog instruments

Based on operation Based on comparison

Indicating Recording Integrating Direct Comparison

type type type measuring type
type
Indicating Instruments :
● Those instruments which indicate the magnitude of a quantity being measured
● They generally make use of a dial and a pointer for this purpose
● Example Ordinary voltmeters, ammeters and watt meters.

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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 Indicating Instruments

Electromechanical Electronic
Type Type
⇒ Electronic types of instruments are manufactured by addition of electronic
circuits to electromagnetic indicators in order to increase the sensitivity and
input impedance.
Recording Instruments:
● It gives a continuous record of quantity being measured over a certain period
of time.
● Example: Recorders.
Integrating Instruments:
● Ampere hour meter and watt hour meter (Energy meter) are the example of
this type.
●
Direct Measuring Instruments:
● Ammeters, voltmeters, watt meters and energy meters are the examples of this
type.
Comparison Instruments :

Effects name Instruments name

Electromagnetic effect PMMC, Moving iron type, EMMC(Watt meters),
Dynamometer types etc.
Induction effect Energy meters
Electrostatic effect Electrostatic type voltmeters
Heating effect Thermocouple Hotwire, Bolometer
Hall effect Flux meter, Ammeters, Poynting vector voltmeters

Types of operating forces:

● Deflecting force
● Controlling force
● Damping force
1. Deflection force
● It is responsible for deflection in moving system.
● It is proportional to quantity under measurement.
2. Controlling force
● It is used to counter balanced to deflecting force.
● It is responsible for steady deflection on pointer.
3. Damping force
● It is responsible for damping of oscillation in the pointer.

Constructional details of Indicating type Instrument.

● It consist of:
⇒ Moving system or Deflecting system
⇒ Controlling system

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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 ⇒ Damping system
Deflecting System:
● It produces the deflecting force.
● The deflecting or operating force is required for moving the pointer from its
zero position.
● The deflecting system of an instrument converts the electric current or
potential into a mechanical force called deflecting force.

Controlling System:
● This system producing a “Controlling force”
● This system is responsible for the generation of “Controlling Torque” which is
counter balance the “Deflecting torque” in order to have steady deflection of
the pointer in order that the current produces deflection of the pointer
proportional to its magnitude.
● This system has function to bring the moving system back to zero position
when the force causing the instrument moving stem to deflect is removed.
Spring Control:
⇒

Where K = spring constant

= angular deflection
Gravity control:
● In this control system, weight produces a controlling torque due to gravity.
● In below figure (a) shows the pointer at zero position and here the control
torque is zero. Suppose the system deflects through an angle as shown in
figure (b).
▪ The weight acts at a distance from the centre, the component of weight
trying to restore the pointer back to zero position is W sin . Therefore,
controlling torque is

Where,

● Thus the controlling torque is proportional to sine of angle of deflection of

moving system.
Note:
⇒ Gravity control is used in panel type or wall mounted type of instruments.
⇒ It controlling force is absent, the pointer during beyond the full scale.

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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
Damping System
● This system produces a “Damping Torque‟ (TD) with should be of such
magnitude that the pointer of moving system quickly and smoothly to its final
steady position, without any oscillations.
● Damping torque (TD)α velocity of moving system but independent of the
operating current.
● If damping force is absent the pointer will oscillates around the mean position.

Various damping used in the instruments:

Types of damping Used instruments
Air friction damping Moving iron and Electro Dynamometer type
Fluid friction damping Electrostatic type
Eddy current damping PMMC, Hot wire and Induction type (Energy meter)

Analog Ammeter and Voltmeter:

● These instruments which are essentially called “Current measuring devices” are
classed together because there are no fundamental differences in their operating
principles (except electrostatic type of instruments).

● Types of instruments Types of measurement

used as Voltmeters and Ammeters (AC or DC)
1. PMMC ⮚ DC purpose only
2. Induction type ⮚ AC purpose only
3. Moving iron type
4. Electrodynamometer type
5. Electrostatic type AC and DC both purposes
6. Rectifier type
7. Electro-thermic type

LAST MINUTE REVISION

● Measurement is the process by which one can convert physical parameters to
meaningful numbers.
● An instrument may be defined as “a device for determining the value or
magnitude of a quantity or variable”.
● Static characteristics refer to the characteristics of the system when the input is
either held constant or varying very slowly.
● Dynamic characteristics refer to the performance of the instrument when the
input variable is changing rapidly with time.
● Resolution indicates the minimum change in input variable that is detectable.

18
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 ● Resolution of the instrument can be improved by recalibrating it but sensitivity
cannot be, because it is designed with respect to time characteristics.
● Accuracy is degree of closeness of conformity in which measured value
approaches a true value of quantity under measurement.

● Percentage of full-scale deflection =

● Percentage of true value =

● Precision may be defined as the degree of closeness with which reading is
produced again and again for the same value of input quantity.

●
● Variation in output of an instrument from the desired value for a particular
value of the input is called Drift.
● Zero drift can be prevented by zero setting.
● The limits of the deviations from the specified values are defined as Limiting
Errors or Guarantee Errors.

Aactual = Aspecified
● Probable error (r) is proportional to the standard deviation ( ) as

● Comparison Instruments :

Effects name Instruments name

Electromagnetic effect PMMC, Moving iron type, EMMC(Watt meters),
Dynamometer types etc.
Induction effect Energy meters
Electrostatic effect Electrostatic type voltmeters
Heating effect Thermocouple Hotwire, Bolometer
Hall effect Flux meter, Ammeters, Poynting vector voltmeters

Various damping used in the instruments:

Types of damping Used instruments
Air friction damping Moving iron and Electro Dynamometer type
Fluid friction damping Electrostatic type
Eddy current damping PMMC, Hot wire and Induction type (Energy meter)
PREVIOUS QUESTIONS
01. To achieve the optimum transient response, the indicating instruments are so
designed as to (IES-EE-
2000)

19
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (a) be critically damped (b) be undamped
(c) provide damping which is slightly more than the critical value
(d) provide damping which is slightly less than the critical value

02. A first order instrument is characterized by (IES-EE-

2003)
(a) Time constant only
(b) Static sensitivity and time constant
(c) Static sensitivity and damping coefficient
(d) Static sensitivity, damping coefficient and natural frequency of oscillations

03. Which one of the following decides the time of response of an indicating
instrument?
(IES-EE-2004)
(a) Deflecting system (b) Controlling system
(c) Damping system (d) pivot and Jewel bearings

04. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given
below the lists : (IES-EE-2009)
List-I List-II
A. Indicating 1. Wattmeter
B. Absolute 2. Tangent
C. Recording 3. Aneroid
barometer
D. Integrating 4. Energy meter
Codes :
A B C D
(a) 1 2 3 4
(b) 4 2 3 1
(c) 1 3 2 4
(d) 4 3 2 1

05. Consider the following statements regarding the controlling torque :

1. It is not present in power factor meter
2. It opposes the deflecting torque
3. It is provided by air friction or by fluid friction
Which of these statements are correct ? (IES-EE-
2011)
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 anb 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1 and 2 only

06. The following is not essential for the working of an indicating instrument
(IES-EE-2012)
(a) Deflecting torque (b) Braking torque
(c) Damping torque (d) Controlling torque

20
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
07. Two resistances R1 = 100 and R2 = 300 are connected in
services. The resulting limiting error of the services combination is
(IES-EE-
2012)
(a) 5 (b) 15 (c) 25 (d) 30
MISCELLANEOUS:

08. When, C1, C2, C3, C = Capacitance,

L = self inductance
M1, M2, M = Mutual inductances
= angular frequency
r, R, R1, R2, R3, R4 = Resistances.
Which of the following is dimensionally incorrect ? (IES-EE-

1992) (a) (b)

(c) (d)

09. A circuit draws a current I when a single phase ac voltage V is applied to it. If the
power factor is cos , then the dimensions of VI cos would be (IES-EE-1997)
(a) ML3T2 (b) ML2T3 (c) ML3T3 (d) ML2T3
10. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given
below the lists : (IES-EE-
1999)
List-I List-II
A. Sensitivity 1. Closeness to the true value
B. Resolution 2. A measure of reproducibility of the instrument
C. Accuracy 3. Ratio of response to the change in the input signal.
D. Precision 4. Smallest change in input to which the instrument can
respond
Codes :
A B C D
(a) 3 4 1 2
(b) 3 4 2 1
(c) 4 3 2 1
(d) 4 3 1 2
11. In the SI system, the dimension of emf is (IES-EE-1999)
(a) ML3T3I (b) ML3T3I-1 (c) ML2T3I-1 (d) M-
1 2 3
LTI

12. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given
below the lists : (IES-EE-2000)
List- I List- II

21
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 A. Resistance 1. [M-1L-2T4I2]
B. emf 2. [M-1L-2T2I2]
C. Capacitance 3. [ML2T3I-1]
4. ML2T3I2]

Codes :
A B C
(a) 1 2 3
(b) 4 2 1
(c) 3 4 2
(d) 4 3 1

13. Match List-I (Error parameters) with List-II (Values) and select the correct answer
using the codes given below the lists ( is the standard deviation of Gaussian
error) : (IES-EE-2001)
List-I
A. Precision index
B. Probable error
C. Error limit
D. Peak probability density of error

List- II

1. 0.67 2. 3 3. 4.

Codes :
A B C D
(a) 4 2 1 3
(b) 4 1 2 3
(c) 3 1 2 4
(d) 3 2 1 4

14. Match List-I (Accuracy) with List-II (Type of the standard) and select the correct
answer using the codes given below the lists : (IES-EE-2004)
List-I (Accuracy) List-II (Type of the
standard)
A. Least accurate 1. Primary
B. More accurate 2. Secondary
C. Much more accurate 3. Working
D. Highest possible accurate 4. International
Codes :
A B C D
(a) 3 4 1 2
(b) 1 4 3 2
(c) 3 2 1 4
(d) 1 2 3 4
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
01. The use of _____ instruments is merely confined within laboratories as
standardizing instruments.

22
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (a) absolute (b) indicating (c) recording (d)
integrating

02. Which of the following instruments indicate the instantaneous value of

the electrical quantity being measured at the time
at which it is being measured ?
(a) Absolute instruments (b) Indicating instruments
(c) Recording instruments (d) Integrating instruments
03. _____ instruments are those which measure the total quantity of electricity
delivered in a particular time.
(a)Absolute
(b)Indicating
(c)Recording
(d) Integrating
04. Which of the following are integrating instruments ?
(a)Ammeters
(b)Voltmeters
(c)Wattmeters
(d) Ampere-hour and watt-hour meters
05. Which of the following essential features is possessed by an indicating instrument
?
(a) Deflecting device (b) Controlling device
(c) Damping device (d) All of the above

KEY
1. Measurement Systems and Error Analysis
PREVIOUS QUESTIONS
1. D 2. B 3. D 4. C
5. D 6. C

7. D 8. D 9. B 10. B 11.
D 12. A

13. C 14. A 15. D 16. A 17. D 18.

A

19. C 20. A 21. A 22. D 23. B 24.

A

25. C 26. A 27. D 28. C 29. D 30.

B

31. C 32. A 33. D 34. D 35. A 36.

D

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1.B 2.A 3.D 4.C
5.D

23
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 2. Electromechanical Indicating Type Instruments
PREVIOUS QUESTIONS
1. D 2. A 3. C 4. A
5. D 6.B

7.C 8. D 9. D 10. A
11. C 12. D

13. C 14. C
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1.A 2.B 3.D 4.D
5.D

24
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 CONTENTS

Topic Page No

Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments 01 – 21

Moving Iron Instruments 21 – 26

Electrodynamometer Instruments 27 – 29

Key 29 – 30

1
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 ANALOG INSTRUMENTS
1. PMMC (Permanent Magnet Moving Coil) Type Instruments:

● In this instrument the strong magnetic field produced is provided by the high
permeability iron core (stationary).
● Operating field (B) is produced by the permanent magnetic material and it may
vary from 0.1 wb/m2.
● It consist of fixed magnet made up of Al NiCO (Al + Ni + CO).
● Concentric magnetic construction is used to get longer angular movement of the
pointer.
● Angular displacement can be over 3000.
● In Voltmeter, PMMC is mounted on metallic frame to provide electromagnetic
damping whereas in Ammeter, PMMC is wound on non-magnetic former
because the electromagnetic damping is provided by coil of the ammeter shunt.
● The moving coil is sustained by control spring which is made up of “Phosphor
Bronze” Provides:
● Controlling torque (Restoring torque)
● Lead current in and out of the coil.
● Al-former (Moving) is attached to the spindle is responsible for Eddy current
damping.

Note:
● The current through the PMMC instrument is range in 20 mA. The large current
can damage the moving system of instrument.
● If spring of P.M.M.C. instrument is broken the reading is zero because the
current does not flow in coil but in moving coil it shows full scale. Whereas in
moving iron type spring broken the reading will be beyond full scale.

Expression of Torque Produced in PMMC:

1
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 Force of conductor = F = NBIl sin 900 = NBIl
since two equal and opposite forces are produced on MC, so a deflecting torque (To)
is developed.

Also
where, N = No. of turns in coil
B = Magnetic flux density (wb/m2)
I = Current through coil
A= = area of cross section of coil
G = (NBA) = Galvanometer constant

Now the restraining torque (controlling torque ) provide by spring control is.

At final or null deflection or at steady deflection,

(where, = deflection produced in instrument)

and
Hence, the scale in PMMC is linear

Ammeter Shunt in PMMC:

● The basic movement of a d.c. ammeter is a PMMC d‟Arsonal galvanometer.
● This is used to raise the current range of ammeter.

Apply current division rule,

= multiplying factor.

2
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 Where, = Shunt resistance (Ω)
= Internal resistance of coil (Ω)
= Full scale deflection current (A)
I = Current to be measured (A)

● The ratio of total current to the current in the movement is called multiplying
power(m)

Properties of Ammeter Shunt:

● Ammeter shunt should have only temperature coefficient, small size and low
thermal e.m.f. with copper
● The copper shunts are not used because of its bulky size and its high resistivity.
● The most commonly used material for D.C shunt is “Manganin” because it has
low thermal e.m.f. with copper and low temperature coefficient.
● The resistance of shunts should not vary with time.
Note:
“Constantan” is a useful material which is used for the construction of a.c
measuring instrument.

Error in PMMC Ammeters:

Errors due to magnets:
In order to have permanence in magnetism, magnets are aged by heat and
vibration treatment. This process results in the loss of initial magnetism but that
remains is strongly held.

Error due to springs:

The weakening of magnets tends to decrease the deflection for a particular value
of current, while the weakening of springs tends to increase the deflection.

Error due to Variation in Temperature.

● Since material of shunt and moving coil are not same therefore their resistance
varies at different rate with change in temperature The results is change in current
through ammeter for fixed input current, this change of current through ammeter
is error of the instrument.
⇒ Error due to variation in temperature can be eliminated by connecting a
resistance known as swamping resistance made up of manganin in series with
moving coil.
⇒ The value of swamping resistance is 20 to 30 times of moving coil resistance
and it is made up of same material as of shunt i.e. manganin.
● Swamping resistance is only used in PMMC type instrument.

Multi-range Ammeters:

3
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
● The current range of a d.c ammeter may be further extended by a number of
shunts, selected by a range switches which is called multi range ammeter.
● They are used for ranges from 1 to 50 A.
● Multi range ammeter can be obtained by
(i) Separate shunt / individual shunt
(ii) By using universal or Ayrton shunt

By using separate shunt / individual shunt:

Let m1, m2, m3 and m4 be shunt multiplying powers for current I1, I2, I3, and I4
respectively.

where,

and

where, and so on.

By using universal shunt or Ayrton shunt:

, where,

PMMC as Voltmeter:
● This has main purpose to increase the voltage range of voltmeter.
● A d‟Arsonal basic PMMC is converted into a voltmeter by connecting a series
resistance (Rs) with it and this resistance is called multiplier resistance (Rs).
●

By using voltage division rule we get,

4
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
Where, = multiplier resistance
V = extended full range voltage (Volt)
= full scale the meter at full deflection.
and voltage across the meter movement for current

Now,
where, mv is the multiplying factor for multiplier.
● Resistance of multiplier for voltmeter

● Hence for the measurement of voltage m-times the voltage range of instrument,
the should be (m – 1) times the meter resistance.
● Resistance of multiplier for ammeter,

Sensitivity:
● Voltmeter sensitivity

full scale deflection current.

● Multiplier Resistance in terms of Sensitivity

(since

Properties of multipliers:
● Their resistance should not change with time.
● They should be non inductively wound for AC meters.
● Variation of resistance with respect to temperature should be small and it is
eliminated by “swamp resistance”.
Materials used for multipliers are as,
For DC application Manganin
For AC application Constantan

5
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
Multi range Voltmeter:
It can be obtained by using separate multiplier or by using potential
divider.
Separate multiplier arrangement

and so on.

Potential divider arrangement:

From figure, we have

=
=

also,

=
=
=
R2 =
Similarly =
= and so on
Loading Effect:
Loading Effects due to Shunt Connected Instruments:

● Ideally when the load is connected across terminals A & B the output voltage
should remain the same.
● However, the load impedance is not infinite and therefore when a voltmeter with
an input impedance ZL is connected across A & B, the current IL flows. This
causes a voltage drop ILZ0.
Output voltage under loaded conditions is,
EL = E0 - ILZ0 = ILZL or E0 = IL(ZL+Z0)

6
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 Actual voltage measured, EL =
● Thus the voltage which is measured is modified both in phase and magnitude.
This means that the original voltage signal is distorted on account of connection
of measuring instrument across it.
Loading Effects due to Series Connected Instruments:

● The value of current flowing between terminals A & B under ideal conditions is
I0. It is the current that flows when terminals A & B are shorted.
E0 = I0Z0
● However, when we actually measure the current, a current measuring device has
to be introduced between terminals A & B.
● It is usually an ammeter. When an ammeter is placed in between output
terminals, it adds to the impedance of circuit.
● This added impedance modifies the value of the current.

● Measured value of current IL =

● Also IL =
● In other words the input admittance of the series elements should be very large as
compared with the output admittance of the source in order to reduce loading
effect.
Advantage of PMMC instruments
● Rectifier meters
● Ohm meters
● Scale is linear i.e. uniformly divided
● Sensitivity is very high because of high torque to weight ratio
● Accuracy is high
Disadvantage of PMMC instruments
● It is used only for DC measurement
● Cost is higher than moving iron instruments
Note:
⇒ It AC supply is given in PMMC then it indicate zero because of inertia of coil.

Rectifier Type Instrument:

7
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 ● These instruments employ a rectifier for the rectification (converts AC to
unidirectional DC) and PMMC for detection.
● These instruments use PMMC for display and measure RMS value by calibrating
the scale of instruments.
● These type of instruments are mostly used in “Communication circuits” or “High
current application circuits” with maximum current application 1 mA, so that
there should no any loading effects occurs.
● It has sensitivity ranges from 1000 to (PMMC has highest
sensitivity).
Half – wave Rectifier Type:

= rms signal of input voltage

when only d.c. input of magnitude „V‟ is applied. Current in PMMC meter
will be

from above equations it can be calculated that AC sensitivity of half-wave rectifier

instrument is 0.45 times d.c. sensitivity.

sensitivity of d.c.

Full-wave Rectifier Type:

Here,

8
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
Note:
● Rectifier type instrument respond to average value of rectifies signal but their
scale is to be calibrated for RMS value of the input signal.

● Extension of range of rectifier type instrument as Voltmeters can be done by

adding a multiplier resistance in series.
Half wave rectifier:
For DC input:

Since,
where, = full scale reading of current of PMMC

For AC input:

Full-wave rectifier
For DC input:

where, rd is diode resistance.

Factors affecting the performance of rectifier type instrument:

● Waveform of input signal
● Diode resistances
● Diode capacitances
● Effect of temperature changes
● Decrease in sensitivity
Advantages of Rectifier type Instruments:
● The frequency ranges extends from about 20 Hz to High audio frequency.
● They have a practically uniform scale for most ranges.

9
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 ● These may be used for both AC and DC operation.
● They are of high sensitivity.
Disadvantages of Rectifier type Instruments:
● Loading effect is more for AC than DC.
● They responds to Average value of input waveform applied but these are
calibrated to RMS value of sinusoidal waveform.

CLASS ROOM OBJECTIVES

1. A (0 to 10) mA PMMC ammeter reads nearby 4 mA in a circuit, its bottom spring
snaps suddenly the reading will non near by be,
(a) 10 mA (b) 2 mA (c) 8 mA (d) 0
2. A Galvanometer with full scale current of 10 mA has a resistance of 1000Ω. The
multiplying power of a 100Ω shunt with this galvanometer is ____________
(a) 110 (b) 100 (c) 11 (d) 10
3. The current i(t) passing through 10 resistor as shown in fig A. as a waveform as
shown in fig B. Then the reading of the d.c. voltmeter is connected across 10
resister is

4. The ammeter shown in the figure can measure in (0-1) mA range. Now it has to
be used in 10V & 50V range with the help of switch K. Design the meter. Given
that the internal resistance is 10Ω.

5. A moving coil instrument when resistance is 25Ω gives a full scale deflection with
a current of 1mA. The instrument is to be used with a manganin shunt to extent
its range to 100mA. Calculate the error caused by 100C rain in temperature when
(i) copper moving coil is connected across a manganin shunt.
(ii) A 75Ω manganin resistance is used in series with the moving coil.
The temperature coefficient of copper is 0.004/0C and that of manganin is
0.00015/0C.

10
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
6. Two PMMC ammeters with 100μA full scale current are to be used in 10V &
100V range respectively. The figure of merit (sensitivity) of these meters in kΩ/V
is _____
(a) 10, 10 (b) 10, 1 (c) 1, 10 (d) 10, 100

7. A PMMC meter has a sensitivity of 1000Ω/V, when it is measuring half the full
scale in 100V range, the meter current is _______
(a) 1mA (b) 10mA (c) 0.5mA (d) 50mA
8. Two PMMC voltmeters with 100V full scale for both and with sensitivities 10
kΩ/V & 20 kΩ/V respectively are connected in series, the maximum voltage that
can be measured by this series combination is _______. Also find the readings of
individual meters when this combination is reading maximum.
9. A DC source of 35V is connected across a series combination of 600Ω & RX. A
voltmeter having 1200Ω as internal resistance when connect across 600Ω
resistance reads 5V. Find RX.
10. A DC circuit can be represented as a 50V source and with an output resistance of
100 kΩ. In order to measure the voltage across its terminals with an accuracy of
99%, the resistance of voltage measuring device should be nearly ________
(a) 10 kΩ (b) 100 kΩ (c) 1 MΩ (d) 10MΩ
11. A resistance is measured by the circuit shown in the figure. The voltmeter and
ammeter reading are 180V & 2A given a measured resistance of 90Ω. The
internal resistance of both the meters are 2000Ω & 0.01Ω respectively. The %
error in the measurement of resistance is __________

(a) 2.25% (b) 3.35% (c) 4.5% (d) 4.71%

PREVIOUS QUESTIONS
ONE MARK QUESTIONS
01. A (0-10) mA PMMC ammeter reads 4 mA in a circuit. Its bottom control spring
snaps suddenly. The meter will now read nearly (GATE-EE-1994)
(a) 10 mA (b) 8 mA (c) 2 mA (d) zero
02. Two 100V full scale PMMC type D.C voltmeter having figure of merits (FOM)
of 10 k /V and 20 k /V are connected in series. The series Combination can
be used to measure a maximum dc voltage of _______ (GATE-EE-1995)
03. An advantage of a permanent magnet moving coil instrument is that it is
(a) free from friction error
(GATE-EE-1996)
(b) has high (torque/weight of the moving parts) ratio

11
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (c) has low (torque/weight of the moving parts) ratio
(d) can be used on both a.c. and d.c.
04. A d.c. voltmeter has a sensitivity of 1000 /Volt. When it measures half full
scale in 100 V range, the current through the voltmeter is (GATE-EE-1998)
(a) 100 mA (b) 1 mA (c) 0.5 mA (d) 50 mA
05. A manganin swamping resistance is connected in series with a moving coil
ammeter consisting of a multi-ammeter and a suitable shunt in order to

(a) minimize the effect of temperature variation (GATE-

EE-2003)
(b) obtain large deflecting torque
(c) reduce the size of the meter
(d) minimize the effect of stray magnetic fields
06. A galvanometer with a full scale current of 10 mA has a resistance of 1000 .
The multiplying power (the ratio of measured current to galvanometer current) of
a 100 shunt with this galvanometer is
(GATE-EE-2004)
(a) 110 (b) 100 (c) 11 (d) 10
07. A PMMC voltmeter is connected across a series combination of a DC voltage
source V1 = 2V and an AC voltage source V2(t) = 3 sin(4t) V. The meter reads

(GATE-EE-2005)

(a) 2 V (b) 5 V (c) (d)

08. An ammeter has a current range of 0-5A, and its internal resistance is 0.2 . In
order to change the range to 0-25 A. We need to add a resistance of

(GATE-EE-2010)
(a) 0.8 in series with the meter (b) 1.0 in series with the meter
(c) 0.04 in parallel with the meter(d) 0.05 in parallel with the meter

09. A periodic voltage waveform observed on an oscilloscope across a load is shown.

A permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC) meter connected across the same load
reads
(GATE-EE-2012)

12
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (a) 4 V (b) 5 V (c) 8 V (d) 10 V
10. The input impendance of the permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC) voltmeter
is infinite. Assuming that the diode shown in the figure below is ideal, the
reading of the voltmeter in Volts is
(GATE-EE-2013)

(a) 4.46 (b) 3.15 (c) 2.23 (d) 0

TWO MARKS QUESTIONS
11. An ac voltmeter uses the circuit shown below, where the PMMC meter has an
internal resistance of 100 and requires a dc current of 1 mA for full scale
deflection. Assuming the diodes to be ideal, the value of Rs to obtain full scale
deflection with 100 V (ac rms) applied to the input terminal would be

(GATE-EE-2003)

(a) 80 K (b) 89 K (c) 89.9 K (d) 90 K

12. A 1000 V DC supply has two 1-crore cables as its positive and negative leads:
their insulation resistances to earth are 4 M and 6 M , respectively, as shown
in the figure. A voltmeter with resistance 50 K is used to measure the
insulation of the cable. When connected between the positive core and earth, then
voltmeter reads
(GATE-EE-2005)

(a) 8 V (b) 16 V (c) 24 V (d) 40 V

13. An analog voltmeter uses external multiplier settings. With a multiplier setting of
20 k , it reads 440 V and with a multiplier setting of 80 k , it reads 352 V. For

13
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 a multiplier setting of 40 k , the voltmeter reads (GATE-
EE-2012)
(a) 371 V (b) 383 V (c) 394 V (d) 406 V

14. Two ammeters X and Y have resistances of 1.2 Ω and 1.5 Ω respectively and
they give full-scale deflection with 150 mA and 250 mA respectively. The ranges
have been extended by connecting shunts so as to give full scale deflection with
15 A. The ammeters along with shunts are connected in parallel and then placed
in a circuit in which the total current flowing is 15A. The current in amperes
indicated in ammeter X is __________. (GATE-
EE-2014)
15. If one of the central springs of a Permanent Magnet Moving Coil ammeter is
broken then, when connected it will read (IES-EE-
1992)
(a) zero (b) half of the correct value
(c) twice the correct value (d) an infinite value
16. Swamping resistance is a resistance which is added to the moving coil of a meter
to
(IES-EE-1998)
(a) reduce the full-scale current (b) reduce the temperature error
(c) increase the sensitivity (d) increase the field strength
17. An indicating instrument is more sensitive of its torque to weight ratio is (a)
much larger than unity (b) of the order of unity (IES-EE-
1998)
(c) much less than unity (d) made deflection-dependent
18. In a flux meter, the controlling torque is (IES-EE-1998)
(a) produced by weights attached to the moving coil
(b) produced by spring (c) not provided at all
(d) provided by crossed coil mechanism
19. In a PMMC instrument, the control spring stiffness and the strength of the
magnet decrease by 0.04% and 0.02% respectively due to a rise in temperature by
10C. With a rise in temperature of 100C, the instrument reading will

(IES-EE-1999)
(a) increase by 0.2% (b) decrease by 0.2%
(c) increase by 0.6% (d) decrease by 0.6%

20. In a permanent magnet moving coil instrument, if the control spring is replaced
by another one having a higher spring constant, then the natural frequency and
damping ratio will
(IES-EE-2000)
(a) decrease (b) increase and decrease
respectively

14
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (c) decrease and increase respectively (d) increase
21. The reflecting mirror mounted on the moving coil of a vibration galvanometer is
replaced by a bigger size mirror. This will result in (IES-EE-
2002)
(a) lower frequency of resonance and lower amplitude of vibration
(b) low frequency of resonance but the amplitude of vibration is unchanged
(c) higher frequency of resonance and lower amplitude of vibration
(d) higher frequency of resonance but the amplitude of vibration is unchanged
22. Torque/Weight ratio of an instrument indicates (IES-EE-2003)
(a) Selectivity (b) Accuracy (c) Fidelity (d) Sensitivity
23. Which one of the following materials is used in the fabrication of swamping
resistance of a PMMC instruments? (IES-EE-
2004)
(a) Copper (v) Aluminium (c) Manganin (d) Tungsten
24. Which one of the following statements is correct?
Spiral springs are used in instruments to (IES-EE-
2004)
(a) provide controlling torque (b) provide damping torque
(c) lead the current to moving coil as well as to provide the controlling torque
(d) provide linear deflection
25. Which of the following factors limit the deflection of the pointer of a PMMC
instrument of about 900?
1. Its damping mechanism
2. Linearity of the magnetic field in which the coil moves
3. Control spring arrangement
4. Shape of the pole shoe of the horseshoe magnet
Select the correct answer using the code given below : (IES-EE-2006)
Codes :
(a) Only 1 and 3 (b) Only 2 and 4
(c) Only 2 and 3 (d) Only 1 and 4

26. Assertion (A) : A PMMC instrument is used for reading both dc and ac signals
Reason (R) : The deflecting torque in a PMMC instrument is directly
proportional to the current in the moving coil. (IES-EE-2008)
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true

27. What is the „swamping‟ resistance which is connected in series with the working
coil of a voltmeter to drastically reduce the error in measurement caused due to
variation in temperature, made of ? (IES-EE-2008)
(a) Constantan (b) Eureka (c) Manganin (d) Nichrome

28. Due to which one of the following reasons bearings of PMMC instrument are
made of jewel ? (IES-
EE-2008)
(a) To avoid wear and tear of the moving system

15
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (b) To provide a small support
(c) It can be easily replaced (d) To make the system robust
29. When a steady current is passed through a ballistic galvanometer, then the
deflection will be (IES-EE-2012)
(a) Maximum (b) Zero
(c) Twice the normal value as it depends on Hibbert magnetic standard
(d) None of the above
30. An angular deflection type indicating PMMC meter is provided with spring
control and
(IES-EE-2012)
(a) damping by air dashpot
(b) electromagnetic damping in the aluminum former only
(c) electromagnetic damping in the aluminum former and the moving
coil as well
(d) no damping

31. An advantage of PMMC instrument is that it (IES-EE-

2012)
(a) is free from friction error
(b) has high torque-to-weight ratio of moving parts
(c) has low torque-to-weight ratio
(d) can be used on both AC and DC

32. The galvanometer is protected during transport by (IES-EE-

2013)
(a) connecting critical damping resistance across the galvanometer terminals
(b) shorting the galvanometer terminals
(c) keeping the galvanometer terminals open-circuited
(d) connecting a capacitor across the galvanometer terminals.

33. If one of the control springs of a permanent magnet coil ammeter is broken, then
on being connected it will read. (IES-EE-
2013)
(a) Zero (b) Half of the correct
value
(c) Twice of the correct value (d) An infinite value

34. The working of a PMMC (Permanent magnet moving coil) meter is described by
a second order differential equation

Where
J = Moment of inertia of the system
D = Damping coefficient,

16
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 S = Spring constant
= Angular deflection and
T = Activating torque
Assuming D = 0, undamped natural angular frequency is (IES-EE-
2013)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

35. Statement (I) : A permanent magnet moving coil instrument is always slightly
under damped.
Statement (II) : The pointer of the PMMC instrument should overshoot a little
beyond the steady-state position to give the accurate reading. (IES-EE-2014)
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
36. A galvanometer has a current sensitivity of 1 A/mm and a critical damping
resistance of 1 k . The voltage sensitivity and the meg-ohm sensitivity
respectively are
(IES-EE-2014)
(a) 1 mV/mm and 1 M (b) 1 mV/mm and 2 M
(c) 2 mV/mm and 2 M (d) 2 mV/mm and 1 M
37. A moving coil instrument of resistance 5 requires a potential difference of 75
mV to give a full deflection. The value of shunt resistance needed to give a full
scale deflection at 30 A is (IES-EE-2014)
(a) 2.5 m (b) 9.99 m (c) 5 (d) 9.95

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
01. A PMMC instrument with a 300-turn coil has a magnetic flux density in its air
gaps of B = 200 mT. The coil dimensions are d = 2 cm and l = 1.5 cm. Calculate
the torque produced on the coil for a current of 1 mA, and determine the
controlling torque constant if the 1 mA current produces 400 deflection.
02. A PMMC instrument has an air gap flux density of 50 mT, and the 150-turn coil
has dimensions of d = 2.5 cm and l = 3 cm. The spring controlling torque is
3 10-6 Nm/degree. Determine the coil current that will produce a 500 deflection.
03. An ammeter (as in Fig.) has a PMMC instrument with a coil resistance of
Rm = 99 and FSD current of 0.1 mA. The shunt resistance is RS = 1 .
Determine the total current passing through the ammeter at (a) FSD, (b) 0.5
FSD, and (c) 0.25 FSD.

17
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
04. A PMMC instrument with 100 A FSD and a 1 k coil resistance is to be used
in an ammeter. Calculate the required shunt resistance for (a) FSD =
100 mA, and (b) FSD = 1 A

05. A PMMC instrument has a three-resistor Ayrton shunt connected in parallel

with it to make an ammeter, as in Fig. The resistance values are : R 1 = 0.05 ,
R2 = 0.45 , and R3 = 4.5 . The meter has Rm = 1 k and FSD = 50 A.
Calculate the three ranges of the ammeter.

06. A dc ammeter is constructed of a 133.3 resistance in parallel with a PMMC

instrument. If the instrument has a 12 k coil resistance and 30 A FSD,
determine the measured current at FSD, 0.5 FSD, and 0.33 FSD.
07. A PMMC instrument with 100 A FSD and 1 k and resistance is to be
converted into a voltmeter. Determine the required multiplier resistance if the
voltmeter is to measure 50 V at full scale. Also calculate the applied voltage
when the instrument indicates 0.8, 0.5, and 0.2 of FSD.
08. A PMMC instrument with FSD = 50 A and Rm = 1700 is to be employed as
a voltmeter with ranges of 10 V, 50 V, and 100 V/ Calculate the required values
of multiplier resistors for the circuits of Figs. (a) and (b).

09. A PMMC instrument with a 900 coil resistance and an FSD of 75 pA is to be

used as a dc voltmeter as in Fig. 4-6(a). Calculate the individual multiplier
resistance to give an FSD of (a) 100 V, (b) 30 V, and (c) 5 V. Also, determine
the voltmeter sensitivity.

10. A PMMC instrument with FSD = 100 A and Rm = 1 k is to be employed as

an ac voltmeter, as in Fig. 4-7. FSD is to be 100 V (rms), and silicon diodes are
to be used. Calculate the required multiplier resistance value.

18
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 11. Calculate the pointer indications for the voltmeter in Problem 09, when the rms
input voltage is (a) 75 V and (b) 50 V.
12. Calculate the sensitivity of the voltmeter in Problem 09.
2. Moving Iron Type Instrument
● The most common Ammeters and Voltmeters for laboratory or switch board used as
power frequencies are the Moving iron instruments.
M.I. type instrument may be of
1. Attraction type moving iron
2. Repulsion type moving iron.
1. Attraction type M.I. instruments

● Attraction type consist of movable iron vane attached to the spindle iron vane
is always attracted towards the centre of fixed coil.
● When the current flows through the coil, a magnetic field is produced and MI
moves from weaker field outside the coil to the stronger field inside it or in
other words the MI is attracted.
● The controlling torque (Tc) is provided by springs but gravity control can be
used for panel of instruments.
● Damping is provided by “Air-friction damping” with the help of “Light Al-
piston” which moves in a fixed chamber closed at one end as shown in above
figure .
● The operating magnetic field in MI is very weak so, eddy current damping in
not used.
Range of magnetic field is 0.0062 to 0.0075 wb/m2
● If frequency of input is large the eddy current induced in iron vane may distort
the main flux or field of the coil. Therefore frequency of signal in moving iron
type instrument is restricted to 0 – 125 Hz.

Expression for deflecting torque in MI type:

Deflecting torque = (for DC)

(for AC)
where,
L = inductance of coil.

19
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 I = current through the coil
= deflection of the pointer
And control torque,

At balance condition or at final deflection

● The scale is non-linear or non-uniform because .

Note:
● Moving iron type instrument measures RMS value of input quantity.
● MI type instruments are less accurate but cheaper.

Ammeter Shunt for Moving Iron:

● It is used to increase the range of currents.

● The currents in meter and shunt are in inverse ratio of their impedances.

If,

then
● For DC purpose, Lm is short circuited then,

● For AC purpose.

20
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 ● The distribution of current between shunt and meter changes with change in
frequency resulting in an error called frequency error.
● This frequency error can be eliminated when time constant of shunt and time
constant of meter are same i.e.
Multipliers for Moving from Voltmeter:

where,

= voltage multiplying factor

= resistance of meter.
= inductance of meter.
= meter current for full scale defection.
= angular frequency.
⇒ With change infrequency, reading of instrument changes. This is called frequency
error.

⇒ Frequency error can be eliminated by multiplier resistance (Rs) is shunted by

capacitor (C).

⇒ To make would be independent of frequency we should note that.

Limited upto 125 Hz.

● M.I. (Moving iron) types are used for frequency range 0 to 125 Hz Beyond this
frequency, eddy current become large which can distort the main magnetic field.
● To minimize or avoid the error due to “Hysterisis and Eddy current loss” the iron
piece used in MI type is taken as “Soft iron” (i.e. Ni-Fe alloy).

Advantages of M.I. type

● These are inexpensive, robust and rugged. Therefore, these are widely used in
industries.

21
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
● These instruments can be used for both AC and DC.
● Less frictional errors.

Disadvantages of M.I. type

● Their scale is non-linear and reading of instrument is affected by stray magnetic
field.
● Sensitivity is poor.

CLASS ROOM OBJECTIVES

1. A MI voltmeter reads correctly on 250V DC. Find the reaching of the instrument
if it is connected to 250V AC, 50Hz supply, given that the meter resistance is
500Ω and the inductance is 1H and the meter is connected with a non inductance
series resistance of 2KΩ.

2. The inductance of certain MI instrument is expressed as L = 10 + 30 - μH

-6
where „θ‟ is deflection in radians. The control spring torque 25 x 10 N-m/rad.
The deflection of pointer when the meter carries a current 5A in rod is ______.
(a) 2.4 (b) 1.2 (c) 2 (d) 1
3. A current of -8+6 Sin (Cot+30) is passed through 3 meters; they are centre
zero PMMC meter, MI meter and true RMS meter. The readings of these meters
are respectively__________
(a) 8, 6, 8 (b) 8, 10, 10 (c) -8, 10, 10 (d) -8, 2, 2

4. A PMMC meter with a sensitivity of 1KΩ/V is to be used in (0-100)V range.

Find the total resistance in the voltmeter given that meter full scale current is
0.1mA.
(a) 10KΩ (b) 1000KΩ (c) 100KΩ (d) None

PREVIOUS QUESTIONS
ONE MARK QUESTIONS
01. An unshielded moving iron voltmeter is used to measure the voltage in an a.c.
circuit. If a stray d.c. magnetic field having a component along the axis of the
meter coil appears, the meter reading would be (GATE-EE-1992)
(a) unaffected
(b) decreased
(c) increased
(d) either decreased or increased depending on the direciton of the d.c. field
02. The effect of stray magnetic fields on the actuating torque of a portable
instrument is maximum when the operating field of the instrument and the stray
fields are (GATE-
EE-2003)
(a) perpendicular (b) parallel
0
(c) inclined at 60 (d) inclined at 300

22
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
03. The saw-tooth voltage waveform shown in the figure is fed to a moving iron
voltmeter. Its reading would be close to ___________. (GATE-EE-2014)

TWO MARKS QUESTIONS

04. The inductance of a certain moving-iron ammeter is expressed as

L = 10 + 3 - , where is the deflection in radians from the zero

position. The control spring torque in 25 x 10-6 Nm/radian. The deflection of the
pointer in radian when the meter carries a current of 5A, is (GATE-EE-
2003)
(a) 2.4 (b) 2.0 (c) 1.2 (d) 1.0
05. Consider the following statements associated with moving iron instruments:
1. These can be used in d.c. as well a.c. circuits
2. The scale is non-uniform
3. The moving iron is placed in a field of a permanent magnet
Which of these statements are correct ? (IES-EE-
2002)
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3
06. A spring controlled moving iron voltmeter draws a current of 1mA for full scale
value of 100V. If it draws a current of 0.5mA, the meter reading is(IES-EE-
2002)
(a) 25V (b) 50V (c) 100V (d) 200V
07. In moving iron instruments, eddy current damping cannot be used as
(a) They have a strong operating magnetic field
(IES-EE-2014)
(b) They are not normally used in vertical position
(c) They need a large damping force, which can only be provided by air
friction
a. The introduction of a permanent magnet required for eddy current
damping would distort the existing weak operating magnetic field.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
01. The self inductance of a moving-iron instrument increases by 2.23 mH when the
pointer deflects from zero to 800. If the controlling springs produce a torque of 10
Nm/degree, calculate the coil current.
02. A moving-iron instrument produces a 500 deflection when the coil current is
500 mA. The controlling torque exercised by the springs is 8 Nm/degree.
Calculate the increase in the coil self inductance from the zero current level.

23
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 3. Electrodynamometer Type instrument

● Electrodynamometer type instrument consists of two coil, fixed coil (FC) and
Moving coil (MC).
● Fixed coil is split into two parts in order to have uniform distribution of flux
around moving coil.
● FC is used to provide operating field.
● MC is a current carrying coil on which deflection torque is produced.
● For measurement of voltage and current both coils are connected in series.
Deflection produced in moving coil is same for a.c and d.c. and is proportional
to the r.m.s. value of a.c. Therefore, these are first calibrated on d.c. This
calibration is then transferred to the a.c. instrument on alternating current.
● Spring control is used and Control spring is provided for dual purposes as,
* To generate spring control torque.
* Provide path for current to the moving coil.
● If spring is broken, controlling torque is zero and Meter reads zero.
● Air friction damping is used
● Since operating field is weak so shielding is to be provided against stray
magnetic field.
● At frequencies below 15 Hz pointer of electro dynamometer instrument start
pulsating, therefore these instruments are used above the 15 Hz.

Expression of Torque in ED type Instruments:

● Instantaneous torque in dynamometer is given by

Instantaneous current in the fixed coil (FC)

Instantaneous current in the moving coil (MC)
M= the mutual inductance between FC and MC.

And

24
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
For spring control

Now, at final deflection

Caste –I
For d.c. current application.

Case –II
For a.c. current application
Let,

So,

PREVIOUS QUESTIONS

01. For a certain dynamometer ammeter the mutual inductance (M) varies with
deflection as M = -6 cos ( + 300) mH. Find the deflecting torque produced a
direct current of 50 mA corresponding to a deflection of 600. (IES-EE-2013)

(a) 10 N-m (b) 20 N-m (c) 15 N-m (d) 1.5 N-m

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
01. An electrodynamic instrument displays a 900 deflection when It = Im = 100 mA.
The controlling torque exercised by the springs is 0.067 Nm/degree. Calculate
the increase in the mutual inductance from I = 0.

02. An electrodynamic instrument has It = Im = 1000 deflection, and the mututal

inductance increase from zero deflection is measured as 23..3 mH. The controlling
torque exercised by the springs I 0.75 Nm/degree. Calculate the measured
current.

KEY
1. Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments
PREVIOUS QUESTIONS
1. D 2. 150 3. B 4. C
5. A 6. C

25
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 7. A 8. C 9. A 10. A 11.
C 12. A

13. D 14. 10 15. A 16. B 17. A 18.

C

19. A 20. B 21. B 22. B 23. C 24.

C

25. C 26. D 27. C 28. A 29. B 30.

B

31. B 32. A 33. C 34. A 35. A 36.

A

37. A
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1.0.45 x 10-6 Nm/deg 2. 27 mA 3. 10 mA, 5mA, 2.5mA

4. 1.001, 0.10001 5. 10 mA, 100mA, 1mA

6. 300μA, 150μA, 100μA 7. 499 kΩ, 40 V, 25 V, 10

V

8. R1 = 198.3 kΩ, R2 = 998.3 KΩ, R3 = 1.9983 kΩ

R1 = 198.3 kΩ, R2 = 800.0 KΩ, R3 = 1 MΩ

9. 1.33 MΩ, 399 kΩ, 65.8 kΩ, 13.3 kΩ/V

2. Moving Iron Instruments

PREVIOUS QUESTIONS
1. D 2. B 3. 58 4. C
5. B 6. A

7. D
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. A 2. 2.8 mH
3. Electrodynamometer Instruments
PREVIOUS QUESTIONS
1. C
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. 947 μH 2. 75 mA

26
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 CONTENTS

Topic Page No

Measurement of Power 1 – 24

Measurement of Energy 25 – 31

Measurement of R, L & C 32 – 70

Potentiometers 71 – 75

Key 76 – 77

1
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 1. MEASUREMENT OF POWER
Introduction
Watt meters are the instruments which indicate power consumed in electrical circuits.
At any instant of time the power consumed by an electrical network is the product of
the voltage across and current through the circuit.

Ammeter – voltmeter method for the measurement of power in D.C. circuits:

(i)Ammeter connected near to load:

Let RA= internal resistance of the ammeter

True power =
Measured power Voltmeter reading x Ammeter reading

Power indicated by instrument = power loss in ammeter + power consumed in load.

Also

% error

Also,

Note:
● This above circuit in figure above (4.1) is preferred for large value of load
resistances because in this case error would be reduced .
Voltmeter connected near to Load.

Let internal resistance of voltmeter

Measured power = Voltmeter reading Ammeter reading

1
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
Power indicated by instrument = Power loss in voltmeter + Power consumed in load

Also

% error

Also,
Note:
This above circuit in figure above is preferred for low value of load resistances
because in this case error would be reduced.

Power Measurement in A.C. Circuit by Wattmeter Method.

3 general types of wattmeters are:
Dynamometer type
Induction type
Electrostatic type
Average power over a cycle in an AC circuits in given by.

Where, value of voltage

value of current
And Power factor of the load
Electrodynamometer type Wattmeter:
It consists of two coils, the “Fixed coil” or “Field coils” or “Current coils” (C.C) are
connected in series with the load.
And the other coils is “Moving coil or “Pressure coil” or “Voltage coil” or “Potential
coil (PC)”.
The CC is made up of thick conductor because it has to carry the higher load current.
The PC is made up thin conductor because it is designed to carry low load current.
Spring control is used in this instrument.
Air friction damping is used.

Let rp and Lp are the resistance and inductance of the pressure coil or moving coil
respectively

2
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
and total resistance of PC circuit
I=current in CC circuit

Since,

also , = impedance of PC circuit.

Let load p.f. lagging i.e I lags behind V by an angle .

Deflecting torque

and controlling torque

At null deflection,

Since, it indicates the uniform scale.

Errors in electrodynamometer type wattmeter
1. Due to inductance of pressure coil i.e. “Lp”
2. Due to pressure coil capacitance
3. Due to mutual inductance
4. Due to connections.
5. Due to eddy currents
6. Due to stray magnetic fields.
7. Due to temperature variation.

1. Error due to PC inductance (Lp)

Since,

Where

Also,
Phasor diagram for Lagging p.f.

Deflecting torque.

3
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
Lagging p.f. indicates inductive load

At final deflection,

Phasro diagram of leading p.f.

Leading p.f. indicates capacitive load

Finally

● Due to “Lp” wattmeter reading is Higher at Lagging p.f.

● Due to “Lp” wattmeter reading is Lower at Leading p.f.
Correction Factor (CF):

For lagging power factor,

Also if then

Measured or reading
Power = true power
Error due to “Lp” in wattmeter is given by,
Error

Also

4
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
Now, for leading p.f.,

Compensation for “Lp” of PC:

Error due to Lp can be eliminated by connecting a Capacitor „C‟ parallel with “R” or
the main circuit as in figure, then new circuits becomes.

Let a portion of series resistance R i.e. “r” is shunted with capacitor „C‟ then,

At power frequency we assume, then,

If we make, Lp= Cr2 then Zp Rp and then there is no “ ” obtained.

So by this compensation method error due to “Lp” is eliminated y shunt capacitor (C)
and is given by

Note:
The frequency range over which the above compensation holds good is 10 KHz.
Error due to connections:

5
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
From left figure,

But, reading

Note:
This connection is suitable for Lower load current i.e., load power .
From right figure,

(Where RP= resistance of PC)

and reading

Note:
This connection is suitable for Large load current.

POWER MEASUREMENT IN POLYPHASE SYSTEM

Blondel’s Theorem:

● If a network is supplied through n-conductors the total power is measured by

summing the readings of n-wattmeterrs so arranged that a current element of a
wattmeter is in each line and the corresponding voltage element is connected
between that line and a common point.
● If the common point is located on one of the lines then the power may be
measured by (n-1) wattmeters.

6
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 Sum of the wattmeter reading
Measurement of 3-Phase power with two wattmeter method:
In a three phase, three wire system, we require 3-elements, but if we make te common
points of the pressure coils coincide with one of the lines, then we will require only,
n-1=3-1=2, elements.
Instantaneous power consumed by load is given by,

Let us consider two watt meters connected to measure power in three phase circuit as
shown in figure (star connection). Instantaneous reading of W1 wattmeter

Instantaneous reading of W2 wattmeter

Sum of instantaneous reading of two wattmeter is,

From KCL at node „o‟

or
Sum of instantaneous readings of two wattmeters

The phasor diagram for a balanced star connected load as shown in figure.

Since the load is balanced, therefore,

Phase voltages,
Line voltages,
Phase currents,
and, Power factor =

Actually phase currents and line currents both are same in star connection.
Then reading of wattmeter W1 is,

7
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
And reading of wattmeter W2 is,

Sum of reading of two wattmeter is,

This shows the total power consumed by the load.

Since,

From this equation we have also find pf=

Effects of Power Factor on the readings of Wattmeters;
When power factor =

Then,

Total power
At unity power factor (UPF), both wattmeter readings are equal.

When power factor

Then,

And

So,
Total power

At , the reading of one of the wattmeter is double than that of other

wattmeter.
When power factor

8
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
Then,

Total power
At power factor 0.5, one wattmeter reads total power and another wattmeter reads
zero.
When power factor

then,

Total power
At zero power factor (ZPF) i.e. both wattmeter reads equal but with
opposite sign.
Measurement of Reactive Power
● The reactive power in a circuit is Q = 3VI sin . It is often convenient and even
essential that the reactive power be measured.
● The current coil of the wattmeter is connected in one line and the pressure coil is
connected across the other two lines.

Current through the current coil = I2

Voltage across the pressure coil = V13
The reading of watt meter = V13 I2 cos(90+ ) = VI cos(90+ )

=- VI sin
Total reactive volt amperes of the circuitQ = 3VIsin
=(- ) x reading of watt meter

Phase angle =

CLASS ROOM OBJECTIVES

9
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
01. The reactance of pressure coil of a wattmeter is 1% of its resistance. The % error
in the measurement, while measuring a load at 0.5 pf lagging is?
02. A dynamometer wattmeter measures power in a 50 Hz, 1-Ф circuit without error
at all power factors. The resistance of the voltage coil and its series resistance are
400 Ω and 10000 Ω respectively. The series coil has a distributed self capacitance
equivalent to a shunt capacitance of 20 pF. What is the self inductance of
pressure coil.
03. A water boiler at home is switched on to the a.c. mains supplying power at
230 v/ 50 Hz. The frequency of instantaneous power consumed by the boiler is
(a) 0 Hz (b) 50 Hz (c) 100 Hz (d) 150 Hz
04. Electro dynamic type watt meters have large errors while measuring power in a.c.
circuits at low power factor conditions, since the voltage across and the current
though the
(a) current coil are not in phase (b) current coil are not in quadrature
(c) pressure coil are not in phase (d) pressure coil are not in quadrature
05. The line to line input voltage to the 3 phase, 50Hz, ac circuit shown in fig is
100V r.m.s. Assuming that the phase sequence is RYB the wattmeter would read

(a) W1 = 886w and W2 = 896w (b) W1 = 500w and W2 = 500w

(c) W1 = 0w and W2 = 1000w (d) W1 = 250w and W2 = 750w
06. The circuit in fig is used to measure the power consumed by the load. The current
coil and the voltage coil of the watt meter have 0.02 and 1000 resistance
respectively. The measured power compared to the load power will be

(a) 0.4% less (b) 0.2% less (c) 0.2% more (d) 0.4% more

07. A wattmeter is connected as shown in the fig. the wattmeter reads

10
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (a) zero always (b) Total power consumed by Z1 & Z2
(c) power consumed by Z1 (d) power consumed by Z2
08. A wattmeter reads 400 W when its current coil is connected in the R phase and its
pressure coil is connected between this phase and the neutral of a symmetrical 3-
phase system supplying a balanced star connected 0.8 p.f. inductive load. The
phase sequence is RYB. What will be the reading of this wattmeter if its pressure
coil alone is reconnected between the B and Y phases, all other connections
remaining as before ?
(a) 400.0 (b) 519.6 (c) 300.0 (d) 692.8
09. A single-phase load is connected between R and Y terminals of a 415 V,
symmetrical, 3-phase, 4-wire system with phase sequence RYB. A wattmeter is
connected in the system as shown in figure. The power factor of the load is 0.8
lagging. The wattmeter will read

(a) -795 W (b) -597 W (c) +597 W (d) +795 W

10. The figure shows a three phase delta connected load supplied from a 400 V, 50
Hz, 3 balanced source. The pressure coil and current coil of a wattmeter are
connected to the load as shown. With the coil polarities suitably selected to
ensure a positive deflection. The wattmeter reading will be.

(a) 0 (b) 1600 Watt (c) 800 Watt (d) 400

Watt
11. A 3 V DC supply with an internal resistance of 2 Ω supplies a passive nonlinear
resistance characterized by VNL = INL2 . The power dissipated in the nonlinear
resistance is
(a) 1W (b) 27W (c) 1W or 27 W depending on current direction
(d) 3 W
12. Two types of connections of Wattmeter pressure coil are shown in the figure. The
value of the Wattmeter current coil resistance r, which makes the connection
errors the same in the two cases is

11
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (a) 0.05 (b) 0.1 (c) 0.01 (d) 0.125
13. Two wattmeters, which are connected to measure the total power on a three-
phase system supplying a balanced load, read 10.5 kW and -2.5 kW, respectively.
The total power and the power factor, respectively, are

(a) 13.0 kW, 0.334 (b) 13.0 kW, 0.684

(c) 8.0 kW, 0.52 (d) 8.0 kW, 0.334

PREVIOUS QUESTIONS

01. VRN, VYN and VBN are the instantaneous line to neutral voltages and iR, iY and iB
are instantaneous line currents in a balanced three-phase circuit, the computation,
VRN (iY – iB) – (VYN – VBN) iR will yield a quantity proportional to

(GATE-EE-1993)
(a) The active power (b) The power factor
(c) The reactive power (d) The complex power
02. A water boiler at home is switched on to the a.c. mains supplying power at
230 v/ 50 Hz. The frequency of instantaneous power consumed by the boiler is
(GATE-EE-1996)
(a) 0 Hz (b) 50 Hz (c) 100 Hz (d) 150 Hz
03. The moving coil in a dynamometer wattmeter is connected (GATE-EE-1996)
(a) in series with the fixed coil (b) across the supply
(c) in series with the load (d) across the load
04. A dynamometer type wattmeter responds to the (GATE-EE-1997)
(a) average value of active power (b) average value of reactive power
(c) peak value of active power (d) perak value of reactive power

05. Electro dynamic type watt meters have large errors while measuring power in a.c.
circuits at low power factor conditions, since the voltage across and the current
though the
(GATE-EE-1999)
(a) current coil are not in phase (b) current coil are not in quadrature
(c) pressure coil are not in phase (d) pressure coil are not in quadrature
06. The minimum number of wattmeters (s) required to measure 3 – phase, 3 – wire
balanced or unbalanced power is (GATE-EE-2001)
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
07. The line to line input voltage to the 3 phase, 50Hz, ac circuit shown in fig is
100V r.m.s. Assuming that the phase sequence is RYB the wattmeter would read
(GATE-EE-

12
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 2002)

(a) W1 = 886w and W2 = 896w (b) W1 = 500w and W2 = 500w

(c) W1 = 0w and W2 = 1000w (d) W1 = 250w and W2 = 750w
08. The circuit in fig is used to measure the power consumed by the load. The current
coil and the voltage coil of the watt meter have 0.02 and 1000 resistance
respectively. The measured power compared to the load power will be
(GATE-EE-2004)

(a) 0.4% less (b) 0.2% less (c) 0.2% more (d) 0.4% more
09. A sampling wattmeter (that computes power from simultaneously sampled values
of voltage and current) is used to measure the average power of a load. The peak
to peak voltage of the squre wave is 10V and the current is triangular wave of 5A
p-p as shown in the figure. The period is 20ms. The reading in w will be
(GATE-
EE-2006)

(a) 0W (b) 25W (c) 50W (d) 100W

10. A wattmeter is connected as shown in the fig. the wattmeter reads
(GATE-EE-
2010)

(a) zero always (b) Total power consumed by Z1 & Z2

(c) power consumed by Z1 (d) power consumed by Z2
11. For the circuit shown in the figure, thand current expressions are v(t) = E1 sin (
t) + E2 sin (3 t) and i(t) = I1 sin ( t - ) + I3 sin (3 t - ) + I5 sin (5 t). The
average power measured by the Wattmeter is (GATE-EE-2012)

13
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (a) (b)

(c) (d)
12. Power consumed by a balanced 3-phase, 3-wire load is measured by the two
wattmeter method. The first wattmeter reads twice that of the second. Then the
load impedance angle in radians is
(GATE-EE-2014)
(a) /12 (b) /8 (c) /6 (d)
/3
13. While measuring power of a three-phase balanced load by the two-wattmeter
method, the readings are 100 W and 250 W. The power factor of the load is
_________.
(GATE-EE-2014)
14. An LPF wattmeter of power factor 0.2 is having three voltage settings 300 V, 150
V and 75 V, and two current settings 5 A and 10 A. The full scale reading is 150.
If the wattmeter is used with 150 V voltage setting and 10 A current setting, the
multiplying factor of the wattmeter is _________. (GATE-EE-
2014)

Two Marks Questions

15. The two wattmeter method is used to measure active power on a three phase,
three wise system. If the phase voltage is unbalanced, then the power reading is
(GATE-EE-2000)
(a) affected by both negative sequence and zero sequence voltages
(b) affected by negative sequence voltage but not by zero sequence voltages
(c) affected by zero sequence voltages but not by negative sequence voltages
(d) not affected by negative or zero sequence voltages
16. A wattmeter reads 400 W when its current coil is connected in the R phase and its
pressure coil is connected between this phase and the neutral of a symmetrical 3-
phase system supplying a balanced star connected 0.8 p.f. inductive load. The
phase sequence is RYB. What will be the reading of this wattmeter if its pressure
coil alone is reconnected between the B and Y phases, all other connections
remaining as before ?
(GATE-EE-2003)

14
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (a) 400.0 (b) 519.6 (c) 300.0 (d)
692.8
17. A single-phase load is connected between R and Y terminals of a 415 V,
symmetrical, 3-phase, 4-wire system with phase sequence RYB. A wattmeter is
connected in the system as shown in figure. The power factor of the load is 0.8
lagging. The wattmeter will read (GATE-EE-2004)

(a) -795 W (b) -597 W (c) +597 W (d) +795 W

18. Two wattmeters, which are connected to measure the total power on a three-
phase system supplying a balanced load, read 10.5 kW and -2.5 kW, respectively.
The total power and the power factor, respectively, are (GATE-
EE-2005)
(a) 13.0 kW, 0.334 (b) 13.0 kW, 0.684 (c) 8.0 kW, 0.52 (d) 8.0
kW, 0.334
19. The figure shows a three phase delta connected load supplied from a 400 V, 50
Hz, 3 balanced source. The pressure coil and current coil of a wattmeter are
connected to the load as shown. With the coil polarities suitably selected to
ensure a positive deflection. The wattmeter reading will be. (GATE-EE-2009)

(a) 0 (b) 1600 Watt (c) 800 Watt (d) 400 Watt
20. Which of the following statement is true about two wattmeter method for power
measurement in three phase current. (IES-EE-1992)
(a) power can be measured using two wattmeter method only for star connected
three phase circuits
(b) when two meters show identical readings, thepower factor is 0.5
(c) when power factor is unity, one of the wattmeter reads zero
(d) when the readings of the two wattmeters are equal but of opposite sign, the
power factor is zero.
21. What are the other methods of measuring power in a three phase circuit without
using wattmeter.
(IES-EE-1992)
1. One voltmeter and one ammeter
2. Two voltmeter and two ammeters
3. Three voltmeters
4. Three ammeters

15
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 and 4 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 4 only
22. The resistances of two coils of a wattmeter are 0.01 ohm and 1000 ohms
respectively and both are non-inductive. The load current is 20A and the voltage
across the load is 30V. In one of the two way of connecting the voltage coil, the
error in the reading would be
(IES-EE-1993)
(a) 0.1% too high (b) 0.2% too high
(c) 0.15% too high (d) zero
23. In the statement “the wattmeter commonly used for power measurement at
commercial frequencies is of the X-type. This meter consists of two coil systems,
the fixed system being the Y-coil and moving system being the Z-coil”. X, Y and
Z stand respectively for (IES-EE-
1993)
(a) dynamometer, voltage and current (b) dynamometer, current and voltage
(c) induction, voltage and current (d) induction, current and
voltage
24. Two-wattmeter method is employed to measure power in a 3-phase balanced
system with the current coils connected in the A and C lines. The phase sequence
is ABC. If the wattmeter with its current coil in A-phase line reads zero, then the
power factor of the 3-phase load will be (IES-EE-1993)
(a) zero lagging (b) zero leading
(c) 0.5 lagging (d) 0.5 leading
25. The ratio of the readings of two wattemeters connected to measure power in a
balanced 3-phase load is 5:3 and the load is inductive. The power factor of load is
(IES-EE-1994)
(a) 0.917 lead (b) 0.917 lag (c) 0.6 lead (d) 0.6 lag

26. A compensated wattmeter has its reading corrected for error due to
(IES-EE-1995)
(a) the frequency (b) friction
(c) power consumed in current coil (d) power consumed in potential coil
27. While measuring power in a three-phase load by two-wattmeter method, the
reading of the two wattmeter will be equal and opposite when (IES-EE-1995)
(a) power factor is unity (b) load is balanced
0 0
(c) phase angle is between 60 and 90 (d) the load is purely inductive
28. Assertion (A) : General purpose dynamometer type wattmeter cannot indicate
the correct value of power at low power factors.
Reason (R) : The presence of self-inductance in the pressure coil circuit
introduces an error in the indicated value which increases appreciably with
decrease in power factor of the load. (IES-EE-
1996)
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A

16
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
29. In two-wattmeter mjethod of power measurement, one of the wattmeter will show
negative reading when the load pf angle is strictly (IES-EE-
1996)
(a) < 300 (b) < 600 (c) > 300 (d) > 600
30. An electrodynamometer type wattmeter is connected in a 3-phase supply and
having a 3-phase balanced load.E and I are the values of phase voltage and
current and is the phase angle between them. The wattmeter reading will be

(IES-EE-1996)
(a) Proportional to EI sin (b) Proportional to EI cos
(c) proportional to EI tan (d) zero
31. In the case of power measurement by two wattmeter method in a balanced
3-phase system with a pure inductive load, (IES-EE-
1997)
(a) both the wattmeters will indicate the same value but of opposite sign
(b) both the wattmeters will indicate zero
(c) both the wattmeters will indicate the same value and of the same sign
(d) one wattmeter will indicate zero and the other will indicate some non-zero
value
32. In a two-wattmeter method of measuring power, one of the wattmeter is reading
sero watts. The power factor of the circuits is (IES-EE-
1998)
(a) Zero (b) 1 (c) 0.5 (d) 0.8

33. If the readings of the two wattmeters are equal and positive in two wattmeter
method, the load pf in a balanced 3-phase 3-wire circuit will be (IES-EE-
1999)
(a) zero (b) 0.5 (c) 0.866 (d) unity
34. In the circuit shown in the given figure, the wattmeter reading will be
(IES-EE-
1999)

(a) 480 W (b) 640 W (c) 800 W (d) 1000 W

35. A wattmeter has a range of 1000 W with an error of 1% of full scale deflection.
If the true power passed through it is 100W, then the relative error would b
(IES-EE-2000)

17
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (a) 10% (b) 5% (c) 1% (d) 0.5%
36. In a single-phase power factor meter, the controlling torque is (IES-EE-2001)
(a) provided by spring control
(b) provided by gravity control
(c) provided by stiffness of suspension
(d) not required
37. In the measurement of power on balanced load by two-Wattmeter method in a
3-phase circuit, the readings of the Wattmeters are 3kw and 1kW respectively,
the latter being obtained after reversing the connections of the current coil. The
power factor of the load is
(IES-EE-2002)
(a) 0.277 (b) 0.554 (c) 0.625 (d) 0.866
38. Two types of connections of Wattmeter pressure coil are shown in the figure. The
value of the Wattmeter current coil resistance r, which makes the connection
errors the same in the two cases is (IES-EE-
2002)

(a) 0.05 (b) 0.1 (c) 0.01 (d) 0.125

39. In calibration of a dynamometer Wattmeter by potentiometer, phantom loading

arrangement is used because (IES-EE-
2002)
(a) The arrangement gives accurate results
(b) The power consumed in calibration work is minimum
(c) The method gives quick results
(d) The onsite calibration is possible
40. When two-Wattmeter method of measurement of power is used to measure power
in a balanced three phase circuit; if the Wattmeter reading is zero, then

(IES-EE-2002)
(a) power consumed in the circuit is zero
(b) power factor of the circuit is zero
(c) power factor is unity
(d) power factor is 0.5
41. The power of a three-phase three-wire balanced system was measured by two
Wattmeter method. The reading of one of the Wattmeter was found to be double

18
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 that of the other. What is the power factor of the system ? (IES-EE-
2004)
(a) 1 (b) 0.866 (c) 0.707 (d) 0.5
42. What is the effect of inductance in the pressure coil on performance of a
dynamometer type wattmeter ? (IES-EE-
2005)
(a) It reads low on lagging power factor and high on leading power factor
(b) It reads high on lagging power factor and low on leading power factor
(c) Its reading is not affected to all
(d) It always reads low
43. Which one of the following is the correct statement? (IES-EE-2007)
Due to inductance in the pressure coil the dynamometer wattmeter
(a) reads low on lagging p.f. and high on leading p.f
(b) reads high on lagging p.f and low on leading p.f
(c) reading is not affected at all
(d) always reads low
44. Which of the following statements are correct in case of a power factor meter?
1. The deflection is proportional to the phase angle between field coil and
crossed coil
2. The restoring torque is provided by a controlling torque
3. It consists of two coils mouned at right angles to each other
Select the correct answer using the code given below : (IES-EE-
2007)
Of these statements
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3

45. In a low power fator wattmeter, why is a compensating coil employed?

(IES-EE-2007)
(a) To neutralize the capacitive effect of pressure coil
(b) To compensate for inductance of pressure coil
(c) To compensate for the error caused by power loss in the pressure coil
(d) To compensate for the error caused by eddy currents
46. Which one of the following is used for the measurement of 3-phase power factor?
(IES-EE-2008)
(a) Power factor meter (b) Crossed coil power factor
meter
(c) Phase-angle watt hour meter (d) Polarised-vane power factor
meter
47. Consider the following statements regarding measurement of 3-phase power by
two-wattmeter method; one of the wattmeter reads negative employing
(IES-EE-2010)

19
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 1. Power factor is less than 0.5
2. Power flow is in the reverse
3. Load power fator angle is greater than 600
4. Load is unbalanced
Which of the above statements are correct
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
48. In the power measurement by ammeter – voltmeter method, if the voltmeter is
connected across the load, then the value of the power will be (IES-EE-2010)
(a) The power consumed by the load
(b) The sum of power consumedby the load and ammeter
(c) The sum of power consumed by the load and voltmeter
(d) The sum of power consumed by the load ammeter and voltmeter
49. The current and potential coil of a dynamometer type wattmeter were
accidentally interchanged while connecting. After energizing the circuit, it was
observed that the wattmeter did not show the reading. The could be due to the
(IES-EE-2011)
(a) Damage to potential coil (b) Damage to current coil
(c) Damage to both the potential and current coil (d) Loose contacts
50. A capacitor is connected across a portion of resistance of the muoltiplier in order
to make the pressure coil circuit of the wattmeter non-inductive. The value of this
resistance is r while the total resistance and inductance of the pressure circuit are
respectively Rp and L. The value of the capacitance C (IES-EE-2011)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

51. The magnetic field responsible for theproduction of the deflecting torque in an
accurate dynamometer type wattmeter, being very weak, the accuracy of the
measurement can be increased by providing a (IES-EE-
2011)
(a) Magnetic shiedl around the instrument
(b) Compensating winding along with the pressure coil
(c) Astatic arrangement to the moving system of the instrument
(d) Capacitance shunt across a portion of the pressure coil
52. Due to the effect of inductance in the pressure coil, a dynamometer type
wattmeter (IES-EE-2011)
(a) Reads low on lagging power Factor and high on leading power factor
(b) Reads high on lagging power factor and low on leading power factor
(c) Readings is independent of the power factor
(d) Always reads lower than the actual value
53. Assertion (A) : Electrodynamometer wattmeter is not suitable for low power
factor power measurement
Reason (R) : Many wattmeter are compensated for errors caused by inducatance
of voltage coil by means of a capacitor connected in parallel with a portion of
multiplier series resistance
(IES-EE-2011)

20
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
54. Statement (I) : Electrostatic Wattmeter is not widely used commercially because
of its inability to measure power of high value
Statement (II) : It is used mainly for very small power measurement at high
voltages and low power factors.
(IES-EE-2013)
55. A 3-phase moving coil type power factor meter has three fixed and symmetrically
spaced current coils, inside of which are three other similarly placed moving
potential coils. While in operation, rotating magnetic field is produced.
(a) in the current coils but not in the potential coils (IES-EE-
2013)
(b) in the potential coils but not in the current coils
(c) in both potential coils and the current coils
(d) in neither the potential coils nor the current coils.
56. The current and potential coil of a watt-meter were accidentally interchanged
while connecting. After energizing the circuit, it was observed that the watt-meter
did not show the reading. This would be due to (IES-EE-2013)
(a) damage done to the potential coil
(b) damage done to the current coil
(c) damage done to both potential and current coils (d) loose contact.
57. In the two-wattmeter method of measuring 3-phase power, the wattmeters
indicate equal and opposite readings when load power factor is (IES-EE-2013)
(a) 90 leading (b) 90 lagging (c) 30 leading (d) 30 lagging

58. If 3-phase power is measured with the help of two-wattmeter method in a

balanced load with the application of 3-phase balanced voltage, variation in
readings of wattmeters will depend on (IES-EE-
2013)
(a) Load only (b) Power factor only
(c) Load and power factor (d) Neither load nor power factor
59. In two-wattmeter method of measuring power in a balanced 3-phase circuit, the
readings of the two wattmeters are in the ratio of 1 : 2, the circuit power factor is
(IES-EE-2013)

(a) (b) (c) (d) 1

60. In a low power factor wattmeter, some times compensating coil is connected in
order to
(IES-EE-2013)
(a) neutralize the capacitive effect of pressure coil
(b) compensate for inductance of pressure coil
(c) compensate for power loss in the pressure coil
(d) reduce the error caused by eddy current

21
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
61. Statement (I) : The simplest method of power measurement is b means of
electrodynamic type wattmeters, having two fixed coils, and one moving coil.
Statement (II) : Either of the fixed and themoving coils can be used as the
current or the voltage coils (IES-
EE-2014)
62. Two wattmeters are used to measure the power in a 3-phase balanced system.
What is the power factor of the load when one wattmeter reads twice the other ?
(IES-EE-2014)
(a) 0 (b) 0-5 (c) 0.866 (d) 1
63. In a balanced 3-phase 200 V circuit, the line current is 115.5 A. When the power
is measured by two wattmeter method, one of the wattmeters reads 20 kW and
the other one reads zero. What is the power factor of the load ? (IES-EE-2014)
(a) 0.5 (b) 0.6 (c) 0.7 (d) 0.8
64. Two wattmeter method is employed to measure power in a 3-phase balanced
system with the current coil connected in the A and C lines. The phase sequence
is ABC. If the wattmeter with its current coil in A-phase line reads zero, then the
power factor of the 3-phase load will be (IES-EE-2014)
(a) zero laggin (b) zero leading (c) 0.5 lagging (d) 0.5 leading

2. MEASUREMENT OF ENERGY
● Energy is the total power delivered or consumed over a time interval, that is

Energy = power x time

● Electrical energy developed as work or dissipated as heat over an interval of time t

may be expressed as:

Note:
1. Units of electrical energy is kilowatt hours (kwh). Energy consumed when
power Is delivered at an average rate of 1000 w for one hour.
2. Motor meters are used for measurement of energy in both d.c. and a.c. circuits.
For d.c.circuits.The meters may be an ampere hour meter or watt hour meter.
3. Meter constant is defined as the number of revolutions made per kilowatt - hour
(kwh).
4. The total number of revolutions made by a watt hour meter in a given interval of
time is proportional to the energy supplied and in case of ampere hour meters, it
is to the total quantity of electricity supplied.

Construction and Principle of Single Phase Induction Energy Meter :

22
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
● The figure shows
construction
details of single phase induction energy meter.
● It mainly consists of two electromagnets. One electromagnet carries current coil in
which load current flows and other carries current proportional to supply voltage
since it applied across supply which is known as pressure coil, consequently the
two electromagnets are known as series and shunt magnets respectively.
Net driving torque is given as,
Where =phase between fluxes
=phase angle of eddy current paths.
These two fluxes will be produced by two currents which are described earlier.
At steady speed the driving torque must equal to the breaking torque.
K4 N=K3 V I sin

Note:

1. Copper shading band which are provided on the central iimb, are adjusted
such that A 90 , hence known as lag adjustment devices.
2. A permanent magnet positioned near the edge of aluminium disc, provides
required braking torque.

CREEPING:
● In some energy meters, slow but continuous rotations are obtained even when
there is no current flowing through the current coil and only pressure coil is
energized, this is called creeping.
● The major cause for creeping is over compensation for friction.

23
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 ● In order to prevent this creeping two diametrically opposite holes are drilled in
the disc, the disc will come to rest with one of the holes under the edge of a
pole of the shunt magnet.
● The rotation being thus limited to a maximum of a half a revolution.

Note:
1. In order to test an energy meter of high current rating the actual loading
arrangements would involve a considerable waste of power. These meters will
be tested by "Phantom" or "Fictitious" methods.
2. The maximum power taken by a consumer during a particular period, is given
by maximum demand indicator. Merz Price maximum demand indicator is
usually used type maximum demand indicators.

CLASS ROOM OBJECTIVES

01. An energy meter connected to an immersion heater (resistive) operating on an
AC 230 V, 50 Hz, AC single phase source reads 2.3 units (kWh) in 1 hour. The
heater is removed from the supply and now connected to a 400 V peak to peak
square wave source of 150 Hz. The power in kW dissipated by the heater will
be
(a) 3.478 (b) 1.739 (c) 1.540 (d)
0.870
02. The voltage-flux adjustment of a certain 1-phase 220 V induction watt-hour
meter is altered so that the phase angle between the applied voltage and the flux
due to it 850 (instead of this 900). The rrors introduced in the reading of this
meter when the current is 5 A at power factors of unity and 0.5 lagging are
respectively.
(a) 3.8 mW, 77.4 mW (b) -3.8 mW, -77.4 mW
(c) -4.2 W, -85.1 W (d) 4.2 W, 85.1 W
03. The voltage flux adjustment of energy meter is such that the flux due to shunt
magnet has an angle departure of 30 from ideal. The speed of the disc at full
load UPF is 40 rpm. At ¼ fill load, 0.5 pf lag, the speed of the disc will be?

PREVIOUS QUESTIONS
Two Marks Questions
01. The voltage-flux adjustment of a certain 1-phase 220 V induction watt-hour
meter is altered so that the phase angle between the applied voltage and the flux
due to it 850 (instead of this 900). The rrors introduced in the reading of this meter
when the current is 5 A at power factors of unity and 0.5 lagging are respectively.
(GATE-EE-2003)
(a) 3.8 mW, 77.4 mW (b) -3.8 mW, -77.4 mW
(c) -4.2 W, -85.1 W (d) 4.2 W, 85.1 W

24
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
02. A dc A-h meter is rated for 15 A, 250 V. A-sec/rev. The meter constant at rated
voltage may be expressed as
(GATE-EE-2004)
(a) 3750 rev/kWh (b) 3600 rev/kWh (c) 1000 rev/kWh (d) 960
rev/kWh

03. An energy meter connected to an immersion heater (resistive) operating on an

AC 230 V, 50 Hz, AC single phase source reads 2.3 units (kWh) in 1 hour. The
heater is removed from the supply and now connected to a 400 V peak to peak
square wave source of 150 Hz. The power in kW dissipated by the heater will be
(GATE-EE-2006)
(a) 3.478 (b) 1.739 (c) 1.540 (d) 0.870

04. The meter constant of a single-phase 240V induction watt-hour meter is

400 revolutions per kWh. The speed of the meter disc for a current of 10 ampere
at 0.8 p.f. lagging will be
(IES-EE-1993)
(a) 12.8 rpm (b) 16.02 rpm (c) 18.2 rpm (d) 21.1 rpm
05. The major cause of creepng in an energy meter is (IES-EE-
1995)
(a) over-compensation for friction
(b) mechanical-vibrations
(c) excessive voltage across the potential coil
(d) stray magnetic fields
06. Match List-I (Expression for torque) with List-II (Type of instrument) and select
the correct answer using the codes given below the lists : (IES-EE-1996)
List-I
A.
B. I1 I2 cos
C. ki
List-II
1. Ferrodynamic instruments
2. D‟ Arsonval instruments
3. Electrodynamometer instruments
Codes :
A B C
(a) 2 1 3
(b) 3 2 1
(c) 1 3 2
(d) 3 1 2
07. A single – phase energy meter is operating on 230V, 50Hz supply with a load of
20A for two hours at upf. The meter makes 1380 revolutions in that period. The
meter constant is (IES-EE-1996)
(a) 695 rev/kWh (b) 150 rev/kWh

25
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (c) 0.15 rev/kWh (d) 1/150 rev/kWh
08. Consider following statements : A „phantom‟ load used while testing a high
capacity energy meter,
1. Consist of inductances and capacitances so that there is no energy loss during
testing
2. saves energy during testing because its value changes very rapidly from the
highest to the lowest, thus enabling quick measurement
3. involves supplying the voltage circuit with the required voltage and the current
circuit form a separate low voltage supply
Of theses correct statements are (IES-EE-
1996)
(a) 1, 2 & 3 (b) 1 & 2 (c) 1 & 3 (d) 2 & 3
09. A 230V, 10A, single-phase energy meter makes 90 revolution in 3 minutes at half
load rated voltage and unity PF. If the meter constant is 1800 revolutions/KWh,
then its error at half load will be (IES-EE-1997)
(a) 13.04% slow (b) 1304% fast
(c) 15% slow (d) 15% fast
10. The disc of a house service energy meter of 230V, 1- , 50Hz, 5A, 2400 rev. per
KWh creeps at 1rev. per min. The creep error (in prcent) of full load unity pf is
(IES-EE-1999)

(a) + (b) -

(c) + (d) -
11. In a single-phase induction type energy meter, the lag adjustment is done to
ensure that (IES-EE-
2000)
(a) current coil flux lags the applied voltage by 900
(b) pressure coil flux lags the applied voltage by 900
(c) pressure coil flux is in phase with the applied voltage
(d) current coild flux lags the presssure coil flux by 900
12. If an inductance type energy meter runs fast, it can be slowed down by
(IES-EE-2001)
(a) lag adjustment (b) light load adjustment
(c) adjusting the position of braking magnet and moving it closure to the centre
of the disc
(d) adjusting the position of braking magnet and moving it away from the centre
of the disc
13. An energy meter having a meter constant of 1200 rev per kwh is found to make 5
revolution in 75s. The load power is (IES-EE-
2002)
(a) 500 W (b) 100 W (c) 200 W (d) 1000 W

26
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
14. The energy capacity of a storage battery is rated in (IES-EE-
2003)
(a) kwh (b) kw (c) Ampere hours (d) Jouls
15. The pressure coil of an induction type energy meter is (IES-EE-2003)
(a) Highly resistance (b) Highly inductive
(c) purely resistive (d) Purely inductive
16. Which one of the following defects is responsible for creeping in an induction
type energy meter ?
(IES-EE-2005)
(a) Imperfect lag compensation (b) Over friction compensation
(c) Imperfect overload compensation (d) Misalignment of brake
magnet
17. Assertion (A) : The rotating dise in an energy meter is made up of magnetic
material
Reason (R) : Braking takes place due to eddy current generated by the braking
magnet
(IES-EE-2006)
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false (d) A is false but R is true
18. The voltage coil of a single-phase house service energy meter (IES-EE-2006)
(a) is highly resistive (b) is highly inductive
(c) is highly capacitive (d) has a phase angle to load power factor angle
19. Which one of the following is the main cause of creeping in the induction type
energy meters?
(IES-EE-2007)
(a) Friction compensation (b) Lag/Lead compensation
(c) Overload compensation (d) Braking torque producing system
20. Consider the following statements associated with an energy meter :
1. It is an integrating type instrument
2. It is an induction type instrument
3. It uses a permanent magnet for rotation of aluminium disc
4. It employs a high control torque
Which of these statements are correct (IES-EE-
2011)
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 3 and 4 only
21. A single-phase energy meter having meter constant of 200 rev/kWh is operating
on 230V, 50 Hz supply with a load of 10A and at unity power factor for three
hours continuously. The number of revolutions shown by the meter during this
period is (IES-EE-
2012)

27
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (a) 13800 (b) 1380 (c) 276 (d)
138
22. The meter constant of a single-phase energy meter is 500rev/kWh. It is found that
with a load of 5kW, it makes 40 revolutions in 50 sec. The percentage error is
(IES-EE-2012)
(a) 5.25% (b) 10.5% (c) 15.25% (d)
20%
23. Statement (I) : A Watt-hour meter mustbe calibrated at both full rated load as
well as at 10% of rated load.
Statement (II) : The source of error at full load is inaccurate damping and at
light loads, the torque is not exactly proportional to load (IES-EE-
2013)
24. Creep error may occur in induction type energy meter due to (IES-EE-
2013)
(a) incorrect position of brake magnet
(b) incorrect adjustment of position of shading band
(c) over voltage across voltage coil
(d) increase in temperature.
25. Consider the following statements :
Adjustment is required in an induction type energy meter in the following
manner so that it can be compensated for slowdown of speed on the specified
load due to some unspecified reason :
1. Adjusting the Position of braking magnet and moving it away from the centre
of the disc
2. Adjusting the Position of braking magnet and moving it closer to the centre of
the disc.
3. Adjusting the load
Which of these statements are correct? (IES-EE-
2013)
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 only (c) 2 only (d) 3 only
26. One single-phase energy meter operating on 230 V and 5 A for 5 hours makes
1940 revolutions. Meter constant is 400 rev/kWh. Thepower factor of the load is
(a) 1.0 (b) 0.8 (c) 0.7 (d) 0.6
(IES-EE-2014)
27. The current oil of a single-phase energy meter is wound on (IES-EE-
2014)
(a) One limb of the laminated core
(b) Both the limbs of the laminated core with same number of turns
(c) Both the limbs of the laminated core with different number of turns
(d) The centre of the limb on the laminated core

28
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
28. For controlling the vibration of the disc of ac energy meter, damping torque is
produced by
(IES-EE-2014)
(a) Eddy current (b) Chemical effect
(c) Electrostatic effect (d) Magnetic effect
29. The meter constant of a single-phase 230 V induction watt hour meter is 400
revolutions per kW/h. The speed of the meter disc for a current of 10 A of 0.9 pf
lagging will be
(IES-EE-2014)
(a) 13.80 rpm (b) 16.02 rpm (c) 18.20 rpm (d) 21.10 rpm
30. In an induction type energy meter, the steady speed attained by the rotating disc
is
(IES-EE-2014)
1. Proportional to the deflecting torque.
2. Proportional to the resistance of the path of eddy currents
3. Inversely proportional to the effective readings of disc from its axis
4. Inversely proportional to the square of brake magnet flux.
Which of the above are correct ?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 1, 2 and 4 only
(c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

3. MEASUREMENT OF R, L & C
Measurement of Medium Resistances:
The different Methods used fro measurement of medium resistances are:
i. Ammeter voltmeter method
ii. Substitution method
iii. Wheatstone bridge method
iv. Ohmmeter method
Ammeter –Voltmeter Method
This method is very popular since the instruments required for this test are usually
available in the laboratory.
Measured value of resistance is given by

Ammeter connected near the load

Let be the resistance of the ammeter

Voltage across the ammeter,

29
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
Now measured value of resistance

True value of resistance,

Thus the measured value of resistance is higher than the true value. It is also clear
from above that the true value is equal to measured value only when the ammeter
resistance, Ra is zero.

● The error in measurements would be small if the value of resistance under

measurement is large as compared to the internal resistance of the ammeter.
● So this type of circuit should be used when measuring high resistance values.

Voltmeter connected near the load

In this circuit the voltmeter measures the true value of voltage but the ammeter
measures the sum of currents through the resistance R and the voltmeter V.

Let Rv be the resistance of the voltmeter

Current through the voltmeter,

Measured value of resistance,

If
then relative error is,

30
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
Note:
This method is used when measuring low resistance values.
The error in measurement would be small if the value of resistance under
measurement is very small as compared to the resistance of the voltmeter.
The relative errors for the both connections above are equal when:

then we may say;

In 1st case :
(when ammeter connected near the load)
In IInd case :
(when voltmeter connected near the load)
Substitution Method
Substitution method is more accurate method than the ammeter voltmeter method, as
it is not subject to the errors encountered in this method.

Let,

and there is a switch for putting R and S into the circuit alternately

Operation
The switch is put at position 1, and resistance R is connected in the circuit. The
regulating resistance r is adjusted till the ammeter pointer is at a chosen scale mark.
Now the switch is thrown to position 2. Putting the standard variable resistance S in
the circuit. The value of S is varied till the same deflection, as was obtained with R in
the circuit, is obtained. The settings of the dials of S are read.
Thus the value of unknown resistance R is equal to the dial settings of resistance S,

Where,
and
and G is the galvanometer

31
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
Note:
The substitution principle, however, is very important and finds many applications in
bridge methods and in high frequency AC measurements.
It is generally used for high resistance measurement.

Wheatstone Bridge Method:

The wheatstone bridge is an instrument for making comparision measurements and
operation upon a null deflection principle.
A very important device used in the measurement of medium resistance is the
wheatstone bridge.
It is highly accurate and reliable instruments, because the indication is independent of
the calibration of the null indicating instrument or any of its characteristics.
This method is extensively used in industry.

Where, R is the unknown resistance.

S is called the standard arm or known resistance of the bridge
The bridge
and P and Q are called the ratio arms
for bridge balance, we can write

Sensitivity of wheatstone bridge

The bridge sensitivity (SB) is defined as the deflection of the galvanometer per unit
fractional change in unknown resistance.

32
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
Where, is the deflection of the galvanometer and

and is the voltage sensitivity and “e” is the voltage difference between points d
and b:

For a bridge with equal arms i.e. then,

Carry – Foster Slide – wire Bridge

This method is used for the purpose of determining the difference between the
standard and the unknown resistances.

Exact balance is obtained by adjustment of the sliding contact on the side – wire
Let be the distance of the sliding contact from the left hand end of the slide wire.
The resistances R and S are then interchanged and balance is again obtained. Let the
distance now be
Ist case: For the Ist balance

where r is the resistance per unit length of the slide – wire.

IInd case : For the 2nd balance,

Thus the difference between S and R is obtained from the resistance per unit length of
the slide – wire together with the difference between the two slide – wire
lengths at balance.
The slide wire is calibrated i.e. r is obtained by shunting either S or R by a known

33
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
resistnaces and again determining the difference in length .
Suppose that S is known and S‟ is its value when shunted by known resistance, then

and

Equation shows that this method gives a direct comparision between S and R in terms
of lengths only, the resistances of P and Q contact resistances and the resistances of
connecting leads being eliminated.
Note:
This bridge is specially suited for the comparision of two nearly equal resistances.

Ohmmeter method
Ohm meter method is used for measuring resistnace of field coils of machines.
It is used for measurement of heating element resistance.
It is also used in measuring and sorting of resistors.

Measurement of Low Resistnace

Construction: These are provided with four terminal to eliminate the effect of contract
resistance. Out of four terminals, two terminals are used for current injection, these
are current terminals and remaining two terminals are used for measurement of
potential dropped across the resistances. These terminals are called voltage terminals.

Here, are current terminal V1 and V2 are voltage terminal.

Methods for measurements of low resistance
Ammeter – voltmeter method.
Kelvin‟s double bridge method.
Potentiometer method
Ammeter voltmeter methods are already discussed in this chapter previously.

Kelvin’s Double Bridge Method for Measurement of Low Resistnaces:

The Kelvin‟s bridge is a modification of the wheatstone bridge and provides greatly
increased accuracy in measurement of low value resistnaces.
The Kelvins‟ bridge arrangement are given in figure below.

34
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
The first set of ratio arms is P and Q. The second set is of ratio arms, p and q which is
used to connect the galvanometer to point d at the appropriate potential between
points m and n to eliminate the effect of connecting lead of resistance r between the
known resistance, R and standards resistance S.
The ratio p/q is made equal to P/Q. Under balance conditions there is no-current
through the galvanometer, the voltage drop between a and b i.e. Eab is equal to voltage
drop Eamd between a and c.

Now,

and

Note:
This equation shows the usual working equation for the Kelvin bridge.
It indicates that the resistance of connecting lead, r1 has no effect on the measurement,
provided that the two sets of ratio arms have equal ratios.

Potentiometer Method
This method is a comparison type method measurement using comparison methods
are capable of a high degree of accuracy deflection of a pointer, as is the case in
deflect ional methods, but only upon the accuracy with which the voltage of the
reference source is known.

Measurement of High resistance

The different methods employed are:
Direct deflection method
Loss of charge method
Mega ohm bridge method
Meggar method
High resistance of the order of hundreds or thousands of mega ohm are often
encountered in electrical equipment, and frequently must be measured.

Difficulties in Measuring High Resistances

Error due to leakage current
Error due to electrostatic effect or charges are gathered.
Error due to capacitive effect.

35
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
Loss of Charge Method:
● The voltage across the capacitor at any instant „t‟ after
the application of voltage is

or Insulation Resistance

AC BRIDGES
Introduction
● The „AC Bridges‟ is a natural outgrowth of the DC bridge (Wheatstone
bridge) in its basic form consists of Four bridge arms a source of excitation
and a null or balanced detector.
● These bridge methods are very useful for the measurement of
o Inductance (L)
o Capacitance (C)
o Frequency (f)
o Mutual inductance (M)
o Storage factor
o Loss factor, etc.
● Type of sources in AC Bridges
o For low frequency measurement the power line supply can serve as the
source of excitation.
o For high frequency measurement the electronic oscillator is used as
excitation voltage.
● Types of detectors in AC Bridges
● Head phones
o It is used a frequencies of 250 Hz and over upto 3 to 4 KHz.
o Most sensitive detector for this ranges of frequency.
● Vibration galvanometer
o It can be used from 5 Hz to 1000 Hz but suitable mainly upto 200 Hz.
o The are extremely useful for power and low AF ranges.
● Tuneable Amplifier Detector (TAD)
o It can be used at 10 Hz to 100 KHz.
● Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
● It is used for higher frequency more than 5 KHz

Note:
For a DC bridge, the “PMMC” instrument acts as a detector
General Theory for an AC Bridge Balance:

36
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
The condition for the bridge balance is that the PD from b to d i.e

So

Also, at balance condition,

and
Now, from equation we get

Incase of admittances we have

For balance bridge condition.

From equation it shows that two conditions are met simultaneously for the bridge to
be balanced and they are,
● The products of the magnitudes of the opposite arms must be equal.

i.e.
● The sum of the phase angles of the opposite arms must be equal.

i.e

AC Bridges through which inductance (L) is measured:

1. Maxwell‟s inductance bridge
2. Maxwell‟s inductance – capacitance bridge
3. Hay‟s bridge
4. Anderson‟s bridge
5. Owen‟s bridge

Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge

The bridge measures an unknown inductance by comparison with a variable standard
self inductance.

37
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
Let and are unknown quantity
= Variable inductance of fixed resistance
= Variable resistance connected in series with “L2”
R3= and R4 = Known non inductive resistances.
At balance condition.

Equating real and imaginary part we get

and

Maxwell’s Inductance capacitance Bridge

This bridge measures an unknown inductance in terms of a known capacitance.

At balance condition,

Equating real part we get,

and equating imag. Part we get,

38
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
Quality factor

This bridge is suitable for the measurement of “medium –Q coils” .

Advantages
● Circuit is simple.
● Obtained balance equations are free from the frequency term.
● Balance equations are independent if we choose R4 and C4 as variable
elements.
● It is very useful for measurement of a wide range of inductances at power and
audio frequencies
Disadvantages
● It requires variable standard capacitor which is very costly
● For high or low Q-coils, it is not suitable .
Hay’s Bridge
● It is a modification of Maxwell‟s bridge
● This bridge uses a resistances in series with the standard capacitor as shown in
figure below.

At balance condition,

Equating real and imaginary parts we get,

and

Quality factor

i.e.

39
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
Now and

In this bridge, the expression for the unknown inductance and resistance involves the
frequency term.
So, for the higher Q. (i.e. Q>10)

and then,

So, we can say this bride is suitable for high Q-coils (i.e Q>10)

Advantages
It gives a simple expression for Q-factor.
For high Q-coils it gives simple expression for unknown R1 and L1

Disadvantages
It is not suitable for medium or Low Q-coils

Anderson’s Bridge
It is modification of the Maxwell‟s inductance – capacitance bridge
In this bridge method, the self inductance is measured in terms of standard capacitor.

Let L1 = self-inductance to be measured

R1 = resistance of self inductor
r1 = resistance connected in series with self inductor
At balance, I1 = I3 and I2 = Ic + I4

Now I1R3 = Ic x

40
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
Writing the other balance equations and equating the real and imaginary parts,

And

Quality factor
For Low Q-coil, So, it is suitable for Low Q-coils (i.e Q<1).
Advantages
● It may be used for accurate estimation of capacitance in terms of inductance
● It is relatively cheaper because here fixed capacitance is used
● It is much easier to obtain the balance.
Disadvantages
● It is more complex circuit
● The balance equations are not simple and infact are much more tedious.
● An additional junction point increases the difficulty of shielding the bridge
network.
Owen’s Bridge
This bridge may also be used for the measurement of inductance in terms of
capacitance.

Let R1 and L1 are the unknown quantity

R2= Variable non inductive resistance
R3= Fixed non inductive resistance
C2= variable standard capacitor
C4 = Fixed standard capacitor
At balance condition.

Equating real and imaginary part we get,

and

41
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
Quality factor
Advantages
It has independent balance equations.
The unknown quantities expressions are free from frequency term.
This can be used over a wide range of measurement of inductances.
Disadvantages
It requires a variable capacitor so it is very costly network
Its accuracy is about only 1%

AC Bridge through which capacitances are measured

1. De Sauty‟s bridge
2. Schering bridge
De Sauty’s Bridge
It is the simplest method of comparing two capacitances.
It may also be used for determining the dissipation factor (D).
Note.

Considering ideal capacitor, the bridge circuit is,

Let C1= Unknown capacitor
C2= a standard capacitor
R3= R4 = non – inductive resistors
At balance condition

The advantage of this bridge is its simplicity but from this we can not determine
“Dissipation Factor (D)”, so some modification are needed in the above bridge.
Now we consider the lossy capacitor and bridge in figure becomes “Modified De-
Sauty‟s Bridge.

42
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 Given C2 so, and we have to estimate C1 and hence D1
At balance condition,

Equating real part we get,

Now equating imaginary part we have,

and

From the equation (3.18) and (3.19) we may obtained,

Also, we have,

This bridge can not determine the accurate result for dissipation factor because ewe
have,

Since is very – very small so it is difficult to determine “D1” accurately

Schering Bridge
It is widely used for the measurement of capacitance and dissipation factor (D)
In particular, it may be used in the measurement of relative permittivity, it may be
used in the measurement of relative permittivity, properties of insulators, capacitor
bushings, insulating oil .

Let C1 and r1 are the unknown quantities

C2= variable standard capacitor

43
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 C4 = Fixed standard capacitor
R3= a non inductive resistance
R4= a variable non inductive resistance
At balance condition.

Equating real part we get,

Equating imaginary part we get,

Here two independent balance equations (3.22) and (3.23) are obtained if C4 and R4
are chosen as the variable elements.

For the low value of unknown capacitance “C1” so, and then detector can not
detected.
For the detector to be detects the supply frequency “f” should be higher and higher. At
this stage, this type of Schering bridge is called “High voltage Schering bridge”.
Due to “High frequency effect”, “Stray capacitance of Earth” will be generated and so
leakage currents are significant so it can not be neglected. Finally there is an error in
measurement.

To eliminate this error, bridge should be balanced in such a manner that

i.e both „b‟ and „d‟ should be virtually grounded.
For this purpose a new arrangement is used and such device is called “Wagner‟s
Earthling Device”.
AC bridge through which frequency can be measured:
1. Wein‟s Bridge

Wein’s Bridge
It is primarily well known as a frequency determining bridge.
It may be employed in a “Harmonic distortion analyzer” where it is used as “Notch
filter”
They also finds applications in Audio and High frequency oscillators as the frequency
determining device (100Hz-100KHz).
At balance condition,

Equating real part we get,

44
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
Equating imaginary part we get,

also,

In most of the wein‟s bridges

and
Then, equation (3.24) becomes

And equation (3.25) and (3.26) becomes

The bridge may be used in “Frequency determining device” balanced by a single

control and this control may be calibrated directly in terms of frequency.
It may also be used for the measurement of “Capacitance”
Because of its “Frequency sensitivity”, the Wein‟s bridge may be difficult of balance
(unless the waveform of the supplied voltage is sinusoidal).
It is possible to obtain an accuracy of 0.1-0.5%

PREVIOUS QUESTIONS
One Mark Questions

01. A Kelavin double bridge is best suited for the measurement of (GATE-EE-1995)
(a) Inductance (b) capacitance
(c) Low resistance (d) high resistance
02. Kelvin double bridge is best suited for the measurement of (GATE-EE-2002)
(a) Resistances of very low value (b) Low value capacitance
(c) Resistance of very high value (d) High value capacitance
03. The bridge circuit shown in the fig below is used for the measurement of an
unknown element Zx. The bridge circuit is best suited when Zx is a
(GATE-EE-2011)

45
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (a) Low resistance (b) High resistance
(c) Low Q Inductor (d) lossy Capacitor

Two Marks Questions

04. Resistances R1 and R2 have, respectively, nominal values of 10 and 5 . And
tolerances of 5% and 10%. The range of values for the parallel combination
of R1 and R2 is (GATE-
EE-2005)
(a) 3.077 to 3.636 (b) 2.805 to 3.371
(c) 3.237 to 3.678 (d) 3.192 to 3.435
05. The set-up in the figure is used to measure resistance R. The ammeter and
voltmeter resistance are 0.01 and 2000 , respectively. Their readings are 2A
and 180 V, respectively, giving a measured resistance of 90 . The percentage
error in the measurement is (GATE-EE-2005)

(a) 2.25% (b) 2.35% (c) 4.5% (d) 4.71%

06. The items in List-I represent the various types of measurements to be made with a
reasonable accuracy using a suitable bridge. The items in List-II represent the
various bridges available for this purpose. Select the correct choice of the item in
List-II for the corresponding item in List-I from the following (GATE-EE-2003)
List-I
List-II
A. Resistance in the milli Ohm range 1. Wheatstone Bridge
B. Low values of Capacitance 2. Kelving Double
Bridge
C. Comparison of resistances 3. Schering Bridge
Which are nearly equal 4. Wien‟s Bridge
D. Inductance of a coil with a large 5. Hay‟s Bridge
time – constant 6. Carey –
Foster Bridge
Codes :
A B C D
(a) 2 3 6 5
(b) 2 6 4 5
(c) 2 3 5 4
(d) 1 3 2 6

46
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
07. A moving iron ammeter produces a full scale torque of 240 Nm with a
deflection of 1200 at a current of 10 A. The rate of change of self inductance (
H/radian) of the instrument at full scale is (GATE-EE-
2004)
(a) 2.0 H/radian (b) 4.8 H/radian
(c) 12.0 H/radian (d) 114.6 H/radian
08. R1 and R2 are the opposite arms of a wheatstone bridge as are R3 and R2. The
source voltage is applied across R1 and R3 under balanced conditions which one
of the following is true ?
(GATE-EE-2006)

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
09. The maxwell‟s bridge shown in the fig. is at balance the parameters of the
inductive coil are (GATE-EE-
2010)

(a) L = C4 R2 R3 (b) L = R = C4R2R3

(c) (d)
10. A strain gauge forms one arm of the bridge shown in the figure below and has a
nominal resistance without any load as Rs = 300 . Other bridge resistances are
R1 = R2 = R3 = 300 . The maximum permissible current through the strain
gauge is 20 mA. During certain measurement when the bridge is excited by
maximum permissible voltage and the strain gauge resistance is increased by 1%
over the nominal value, the output voltage V0 in mV is (GATE-EE-
2013)

(a) 56.02 (b) 40.83 (c) 29.85

(d) 10.02
11. A 100 A ammeter has an internal resistance of 100 . For extending its range
to measure 500 A, the shunt required is of resistance (in ) (GATE-EE-2001)
(a) 20.0 (b) 22.22 (c) 25.0 (d) 50.0
12. A DC ammeter has a resistance of 0.1 and its current range is 0-100A. If the
range is to be extended to 0-500A, then meter requires the following shunt

47
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 resistance (GATE-
EE-2005)
(a) 0.010 (b) 0.011 (c) 0.025 (d) 1.0
13. A wheatstone bridge requires a change of 6 ohms in the unknown arm of the
bridge to produce a change in deflection of 3mm of the galvanometer. The
sensitivity of the instrument is : (IES-EE-1992)
(a) 0.5 percent (b) 2.0 (c) 0.5 mm/ohm (d) 2.0 ohm/mm
14. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the Codes given
below the lists :
(IES-EE-1992)
List-I
A. Digital Counter B. Schering bridge
C. Megger D. Spectrum Analyzer
List-II
1. Measurement of harmonics
2. Measurement of frequency
3. Measurement of loss angle in a dielectric
4. Measurement of insulation resistance
Codes :
A B C D
(a) 1 2 3 4
(b) 4 3 2 1
(c) 2 3 4 1
(d) 4 1 2 3
15. A shunt type ohmmeter is shown in the figure. With Rx disconnected, the meter
reads full scale. „S‟ represents the meter current as a fraction fo full scale current
with Rx connected such that,
(IES-EE-1993)

S= , The value of Rp is given by

(a) Rm (b) R1 + Rm (c) (d)

16. The power in a resistor R is estimated by measuring the voltage and current using
the voltmeter-ammeter method. Two different arrangements can be used as
shown in circuits I and II. Less erroneous results are obtained by adopting

(IES-EE-1993)

48
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (a) circuit I for low values of R (b) circuit II for low values of R
(c) circuit I for high values of R (d) circuit II for low and high values of R
17. In the bridge shown in the figure (IES-EE-
1993)
Z1 = 450
Z2 = (300 – j600)
Z3 = (200 + j100)
The value of unknown impedance Z4 at balance is

(a) 100 + j150) (b) (100 – j150)

(c) (300 + j100) (d) (0 + j150)

18. Which of the following conditions are to be satisfied so that the common variable
shaft of resistance R1 and R3 can be graduated in frequency to measure the
frequency of E under balanced condition ?
1. R1 = R3 2. C1 = C3 3. R2 = 2R4 4. R2 = R4
Select the correct answer using the codes given below : (IES-EE-1993)

(a) 1 and 4 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 3

19. The shunt type ohmmeter is NOT suitable for high resistance measurements
because
(IES-EE-1993)
(a) very low resistance of the meter would short the high unknown resistance
(b) scale is highly cramped for high resistance values
(c) full scale value of the meter may be exceeded
(d) battery cannot supply the necessary current for proper meter deflection
20. The bridge network shown in the figure is connected up with a view to estimate
the increase in the resistance of a coil due to skin effect. The procedure involves

49
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 the following steps, not necessarily in that order : (IES-EE-
1993)
1. Switch on S2 with S1 off
2. Swit on S1 with S2 off
3. Adjust R4
4. Adjust R5
The correct sequence of these steps (a step could be repeated) is

(a) 1, 3, 2, 4, 3 (b) 2, 4, 1, 4, 3 (c) 1, 4, 2, 3, 4 (d) 2, 3, 1, 3, 4

21. The arms of a Wheatstone bridge are shown in the given figure. For the balanced
condition, the least tolerance value of R4 will be (IES-EE-
1994)

(a) 50 2% (b) 50 3% (c) 50 5% (d) 50 10%

22. The given figure shows Wien bridge connetion for frequency measurement. C
and R are variables and ganged together. For balanced condition, the expression

for frequency is f = when (IES-EE-

1994)

(a) R1 = R2 (b) R1 = 2R2 (c) R1 = (d) R1 =

3R2

50
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
23. The bridges suitable for the measurement of an unknown inductance in terms of a
known capacitance would include
(IES-EE-1995)
(a) Maxwell and Hay (b) Maxwell and Schering
(c) Hay and Schering (d) Maxwell, Hay and Schering
24. In the Maxwell bridge as shown in given figure, the values of resistance Rx and
inductance Lx of a coil are to be calculated after balancing the bridge. The
component values are shown in the figure at balance. The values of Rx and Lx
will respectively be (IES-
EE-1995)

(a) 375 , 75mH (b) 75 , 150mH

(c) 37.5 , 75mH (d) 75 , 75mH
25. In the bridge given inn figure, the reading of the high impedance voltmeter is
(IES-EE-1995)

(a) zero (b) 6.66 V (c) 4.20V (d) 3.33V

26. The Wheatstone bridge method of resistance measurement is ideally suitable for
the measurement of resistance values in the range of (IES-EE-1995)

(a) 0.001 to 1 (b) 0.1 to 100

(c) 100 to 10k (d) 100k to 10M

27. Assertion (A) : While using an ohmmeter for the measurement of resistance, the
meter is to be disconnected from the external voltage source, if already
connected.
Reason (R) : No current is needed for meter movement (IES-EE-
1996)
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true

51
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
28. Match List-I (Bridges) with List-II (Quantity measured) and select the correct
answer using the Codes given below the lists : (IES-EE-
1996)
List-I
A. Anderson Bridge
B. Kelvin Double Bridge
C. Schering Bridge
D. Wien Bridge
List-II
1. Frequency 2. Resistance
3. Inductance 4. Capacitance
Codes :
A B C D
(a) 3 2 1 4
(b) 3 2 4 1
(c) 2 1 3 4
(d) 2 3 4 1

29. In the A.C. bridge shown in the giv en figure, the impedances Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4
ohms at the supply frequency are as indicated Z3 is variable impedance. The
bridge (IES-
EE-1996)

(a) is balanced with the indicated values of impedances

(b) can be balanced if Z3 = 400 00
(c) can be balanced if Z4 = 600 600
(d) cannot be balanced with the given configuration
30.

Assertion (A) : The bridge shown in the figure is balanced by first adjusting R 1
for inductive balance and then adjusting R3 for resistive balance; and this is
repeated till balance is achieved.
Reason (R) : For medium – Q coils, the resistance effect is not pronounced and
balance is reached after a few adjustments (IES-EE-1997)
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A

52
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false (d) A is false but R is
true
31. The resistance of a shunt for a precision grade ammeter can be best measured by
(a) De Sauty bridge (b) Schering bridge
(IES-EE-1998)
(c) Maxwell bridge (d) Kelvin double bridge
32. In the balance Wheatstone bridge shown in the figure, if the value of R6 is
increased, the current I2 (IES-EE-
1998)

(a) will increase (b) will decrease (c) will remain

(d) unchanged

33. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the Codes given
below the lists : (IES-EE-
1998)
List-I
A. Low value of R
B. High –Q inductor
C. Low –Q inductor
D. High voltage capacitors
List-II
1. Schering bridge 2. Maxwell bridge
3. Kelving double bridge 4. Hay bridge
Codes :
A B C D
(a) 1 2 4 3
(b) 1 4 2 3
(c) 3 2 4 1
(d) 3 4 2 1
34. In a balanced Wheatstone bridge, if theposition of detector and source are
interchanged, the bridge will still remain balanced. This inference can be drawn
form
(IES-EE-1999)
(a) reciprocity theorem (b) duality principle
(c) compensation theorem (d) equivalence theorem
35. A bridge is shown in the given figure. If the resistance Rs is increased from 2k
to 2.5k , the current I2 will.
(IES-EE-1999)

53
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (a) increase (b) decrease (c) not change
(d) increase or decrease depending on the polarity of E
36. Consider the following statements in respect of a Wien bridge.
1. It is suitable for measurement of capacitance
2. It is not affected by harmonics present in the applied voltage
3. It is suitable for measurement of frequency
Which of these statements are correct? (IES-EE-
1999)
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and
3
37. The ac bridge shown in the given figure will remain balanced if impedance Z
consists of
(IES-EE-2000)

(a) resistance and inductancfe in series

(b) resistance and capacitance in parallel
(c) capacitance only
(d) inductance only
38. Consider the following statements regarding the balanced ac bridge shown in the
given figure for measurement of a coil Z1 : (IES-EE-
2000)

1. Z2 = R2 is series with L2, Z3 = R3 and Z4 = R4

2. Z2 = R2, Z3 = R3 and Z4 = R4 in parallel with L4

54
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 3. Z2 = R2, Z3 = R3 and Z4 = R4 in series with L4
4. Z2 = R in parallel with L2, Z3 = R3 and Z4 = R4
Which of these statements are correct ?
(a) 1 and 4 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 and 4
39. Which one of the following resistance configurations is best suited for the
construction of a low resistance ?
(IES-EE-2000)

40. The capacitance and loss angle of a capacitor can be accurately measured by
(IES-EE-2000)
(a) Kelvin‟s bridge (b) Andferson‟s bridge
(c) Schering bridge (d) Carey-Foster‟s bridge
41. Assertion (A) : A four-arm „Wien bridge network is sometimes used in feedback
circuit of tuned amplifer
Reason (R) : The balance equation of such a Wien bridge contains „frequency‟
term along with arm parameters (IES-EE-
2002)
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
42. The accuracy of Kelvin‟s double bridge for the measurement of low resistance is
high because the bridge
(IES-EE-2002)
(a) uses two pairs of resistance arms
(b) has medium value resistances in the ratio arms
(c) uses a low resistance link between standard and test resistance
(d) uses a null indicating galvanometer.
43. An imperfect capacitor is represented by a capacitance C in parallel with a
resistance R. The value of its dissipation factor tan is (IES-EE-2002)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

44. For the bridge shown in the given figure, at balance the values of R x, Cx and Qx
will be
(IES-EE-2002)

55
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (a) Rx =

(b) Rx =

(c) Rx =

(d) Rx =

45. Vibration galvanometers, tunable amplifiers and head phones are used in
(IES-EE-2003)
(a) d.c. bridges (b) a.c. bridges
(c) Both d.c and a.c bridges (d) Kelvin double bridge
46. A wien-bridge is used to measure the frequency of the input signal. However the
input signal has 10% third harmonic distortion. Specifically the signal is 2sin400
+0.2sin1200 (with t in sec.) With this input the balance will
(IES-EE-2003)
(a) Lead to a null indication and setting will correspond to a frequency of 200 Hz
(b) Lead to a null indication and setting will correspond to 260 Hz
(c) Lead to a null indication and setting will correspond to 400 Hz
(d) Not lead to null indication
47. The capacitance and loss angle of a given capacitor specimen are best measured
by
(IES-EE-2003)
(a) Wheatstone bridge (b) Maxwell bridge
(c) Anderson bridge (d) Schering bridge
48. Assertion (A) : A Schering Bridge used for testing of a porcelain insulator is
shielded by a metallic screen
Reason (R) : Earth‟s magnetic field is blocked by a metallic scrren

(IES-EE-2003)
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
49. A resistor R is measured using the V-I method, with V read as 10.14V and I as
5.07mA. Which one of the following express the value of resistance
(IES-EE-2004)

56
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (a) 2k (b) 2.00k (c) 2000 (d) 2.0k
50. Low resistance from few homs down to one micro ohm is measured using which
one of the following instruments ?
(IES-EE-2004)
(a) Ohmmeter (b) A series type ohmmeter
(c) A shunt type ohmmeter (d) A voltmeter and an ammeter
51. Which one of the following is measured by the loss of charge method ?
(IES-EE-2004)
(a) Low R (b) High R (c) Low L (d) High L
52. Which of the following bridges can be used for inductance measurement?
1. Maxwell‟s bridge 2. Schering bridge 3. Wein bridge
4. Hay‟s bridge 5. Wheatstone bridge
Select the correct answer using the code given below : (IES-EE-2005)
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 3, 4 and 5 (d) 1 and 4
53. Match List-I (Frequency) with List-II (Detector) and select the correct answer
using the Codes given below the lists : (IES-EE-
2005)
List-I
A. Zero frequency
B. 50 Hz
C. 1200 Hz
D. 10 KHz
List-II
1. Head phone
2. D‟ Arsonval galvanometer
3. Cathode ray oscilloscopre
4. Vibration galvanometer
5. BGallistic galvanometer
Codes :
A B C D
(a) 2 1 5 3
(b) 3 4 1 2
(c) 2 4 1 3
(d) 3 1 5 2
54. Which of the following factors decide the accuracy in a bridge measurement ?
1. Accuracy of the null indicator
2. Accuracy of the bridge components
3. Senstivity of the null indicator
4. Applied voltage to the bridge system
Select the answer using the Codes given below (IES-EE-
2005)
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 3
55. Which one of the following is represented by the circuit shown below ?

57
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (IES-EE-2006)

(a) DeSauty bridge (b) Anderson bridge

(c) Heaviside-campbell bridge (d) Hay‟s bridge

56. What should be the main characteristic(s) of the null detector in a bridge
measurement ?
1. Accuracy 2. Precision 3. Sensitivity 4. Resolution
Select the correct answer using the code given below : (IES-EE-2006)
Code :
(a) Only 1 and 2 (b) Only 2 and 3 (c) Only 3 and 4
(d) Only 3
57. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the Codes given
below the lists : (IES-EE-
2006)
List-I
A. Average value of current
B. RMS value of current
C. Frequency of a wave
D. Strain gauge resistance
List-II
1. Self balancing bridge
2. Wien bridge
3. PMMC ammeter
4. Moving iron ammeter
Codes :
A B C D
(a) 3 4 2 1
(b) 2 1 3 4
(c) 3 1 2 4
(d) 2 4 3 1
58. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the Codes given
below the lists : (IES-EE-
2006)
List-I
A. Digital Counter
B. Schering Bridge
C. Megger
D. Spectrum analyzer

58
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 List-II
1. Measurement of harmonics
2. Measurement of frequency
3. Measurement of dielectric loss
4. Measurement of insulation resistance
Codes :
A B C D
(a) 1 3 4 2
(b) 2 4 3 1
(c) 1 4 3 2
(d) 2 3 4 1
59. Maxwell‟s inductance capacitance bridge is used for measurement of inductance
of
(IES-EE-2006)
(a) low Q coils only (b) medium Q coils only
(c) high Q coils only (d) low and medium Q coils
60. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the Codes given
below the lists : (IES-EE-
2007)
List-I (Name of Instrument)
A. Ohmmeter
B. Watt hour meter
C. Null balance recorder
D. Releigh current balance
List-II (Classificaiton)
1. Absolute
2. Indicating
3. Recording
4. Integrating
Codes :
A B C D
(a) 1 2 3 4
(b) 2 4 3 1
(c) 2 4 1 3
(d) 1 2 4 3
61. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the Codes given
below the lists : (IES-EE-
2007)
List-I (Name of Instrument)
A. Telephone detector
B. Vibration galvanometer
C. Tunable amplifier
D. D‟ Arsonval galvanometer

59
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 List-II (Frequency Range)
1. 200 Hz 2. 100 Hz
3. 1 kHz 4. dc
Codes :
A B C D
(a) 3 4 2 1
(b) 2 1 3 4
(c) 3 1 2 4
(d) 2 4 3 1
62. Which one of the following bridge is used for measurement of dielectric loss and
power factor of a capacitor ?
(IES-EE-2007)
(a) Maxwell‟s bridge (b) Anderson bridge
(c) De Sautty‟s bridge (d) Schering bridge
63. Hay‟s bridge is suitable for the measurement of which one of the following
(IES-EE-
2007)
(a) Inductance with Q < 10 (b) Inductance with Q > 10
(c) Capacitance with high dissipation
(d) Capacitance with low dissipating factors
64. Assertion (A) : The accuracy of the null detector does not play any role in a
bridge measurement
Reason (R) : Undfer balance condition of the bridge, no current flows through
the null detector (IES-EE-
2007)
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
65. Schering bridge can be used to measure which one of the following
(IES-EE-
2008)
(a) Q of a coil (b) Inductance and its Q-value
(c) Very small resistance (d) Capacitance and its power factor
66. Inductance is measured by which one of the following ? (IES-EE-
2008)
(a) Wien bridge (b) Schering bridge
(c) Maxwell bridge (d) Owen bridge
67. The dielectric loss of a capacitor can be measured by which one of the following?
(a) Wien bridge (b) Owen bridge
(IES-EE-2008)
(c) Schering bridge (d) Maxwell bridge
68. Which bridge is used to determine frequency ? (IES-EE-
2008)
(a) Anderson bridge (b) De Sauty bridge

60
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (c) Wien bridge (d) Campbell bridge
69. For low resistance (from micro ohms to one ohm) measurement, which bridge is
used ?
(IES-EE-2008)
(a) Wheatstone bridge (b) Kelvin bridge
(c) Guarded Wheatstone bridge (d) Maxwell bridge
70. The imperfect capacitance which is shunted by a resistance can be measured by
which one of the following ?
(IES-EE-2008)
(a) Carey Foster bridge (b) Owen bridge
(c) Schering bridge (d) Wien bridge
71. Which one of the following bridges will be used for the measurement of very low
resistance ?
(IES-EE-2009)
(a) Kelvin bridge (b) Maxwell‟s bridge
(c) Wheatstone bridge (d) Hay‟s bridge
72. Dissipation factor, tan , of a capacitor is measured by which bridge
(IES-EE-2009)
(a) Anderson bridge (b) Hay bridge
(c) Schering bridge (d) Wien bridge
73. Which one of the following is a frequency sensitive bridge ? (IES-EE-2009)
(a) De-Sauty bridge (b) Schering bridge
(c) Wien‟s bridge (d) Maxwell‟s bridge
74. How can the power supplied to a high frequency heating system be measured?
(IES-EE-2009)
(a) By dynamometer wattmeter
(b) By induction wattmeter
(c) By thermocouple type wattmeter
(d) By moving iron ammeter and voltmeter
75. Assertion (A) : In a bridge type of measurement, it is required that the indicator
used to show the balance condition of the bridge should have veryhigh sensitivity
Reason (R) : The accuracy of the null-indicator does pot play any role in a bridge
measurement (IES-EE-
2009)
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
76. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the Codes given
below the lists : (IES-EE-
2010)
List-I (Meter)
A. Reed frequency meter
B. Weston frequency meter
C. Weston synchroscope
D. Ohm meter
List-II (Type)

61
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 1. Moving iron
2. Vinbrating
3. Moving coil
4. Electrodynamics
Codes :
A B C D
(a) 2 1 4 3
(b) 3 1 4 2
(c) 2 3 4 1
(d) 3 4 1 2

77. Consider the following statements in connection with deflection and null type
instruments :
1. Null type instrument is more accurate than the deflection type one
2. Null type of instrument can be highly sensitive as compared with deflection
type instrument
3. Under dynamic conditions, null type instrument is not preferred to deflection
type instrument
4. Response is faster in null type instrument as compared to deflection type
instrument.
Which of these statements are correct ? (IES-EE-
2011)
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 1, 2 and 4 only
(c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
78. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the Codes given
below the lists : (IES-EE-
2011)
List-I
A. Average value of current
B. Frequency of a wave form
C. Starin-gauge resistance
List-II
1. Self-balancing bridge
2. Wein‟s bridge
3. PMMC ammeter
Codes :
A B C
(a) 2 1 3
(b) 3 1 2
(c) 1 2 3
(d) 3 2 1
79. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the Codes given
below the lists : (IES-EE-
2011)
List-I
A. Hay bridge
B. Wheatstone bridge

62
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 C. Wein bridge
D. Schering bridge
List-II
1. Medium 2. Frequency
3. Capacitance 4. High Q-inductance
Codes :
A B C D
(a) 4 2 1 3
(b) 3 2 1 4
(c) 4 1 2 3
(d) 3 1 2 4
80. Assertion (A) : AC bridge methods are the best and most usual methods for the
precise measurement of self and mutual inductances and capacitances
Reason (R) : Wagner earthing device is used in AC bridge for eliminating the
effect of the earth capacitance (IES-EE-
2011)
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
81. In the circuit shown, when the current through the branch AD is zero, the battery
current IB is
(IES-EE-2012)

(a) 1 mA (b) 2 mA (c) 10 mA (d)

20 mA
82. The measurement of requency can be carried out with (IES-EE-2012)
(a) Owen‟s bridge (b) Wien‟s bridge
(c) Maxwell‟s inductance-capacitance bridge
(d) Schering bridge
83. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the Codes given
below the lists : (IES-EE-
2012)
List-I
A. Mutual inductance
B. High-Q inductance
C. Audio frequency
D. Dielectric loss
List-II
1. Wien bridge

63
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 2. Schering bridge
3. Hay bridge
4. Heaviside-Campbell bridge
Codes :
A B C D
(a) 4 1 3 2
(b) 2 3 1 4
(c) 4 3 1 2
(d) 2 1 3 4
84. The preferred methods of measuring low resistance and the resistance of cable
insulation are respectively.
(IES-EE-2012)
(a) V/I method amd loss-of-charge method
(b) Kelvin‟s double bridge and Megger test
(c) Wheatsone bridge and Kelvin‟s double bridge
(d) potentiometer method and Wheatstone bridge
85. Wagner‟s earthing devices is used in A.C. bridges for (IES-EE-
2013)
(a) shielding the bridge element
(b) eliminating the stray of earth capacitance
(c) Eliminating the effect of earth capacitances
(d) Eliminating the effect of inter-component capacitances.
86. A bridge circuit works at a frequency of 2 kHz. The following can be used as
detectors for detection of null conditions in the bridges. (IES-EE-2013)
(a) Vibration galvanometers and Head-phones
(b) Headphones and tunable amplifiers
(c) Vibration galvanometers and Tunable amplifiers
(d) Vibration galvanometers, Head phones and Tunable amplifier
87. Statement (I) : Bridge measurements are considered to be more accurate as
compared to measurements done using indicating instruments.
Statement (II) : In a bridge measurement, the accuracy of the components used
in the different arms of the bridge alone comes into picture. (IES-EE-2014)
88. A basic D‟Arsonval movement showing full scale deflection for a current of 50
A and having internal resistance of 500 is used as a voltmeter. What is the
value of multiplier resistance needed to measure a voltage range of 0-20 V ?
(IES-EE-
2014)
(a) 398.5 k (b) 399 k (c) 399.5 k (d) 400 k
89. In De Sauty Bridge (unmodified form) it is possible to obtain balance.
(IES-EE-2014)
(a) Even if both the capacitors are imperfect
(b) If one of the capacitors is perfect
(c) Only if both the capacitors are perfect

64
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (d) All of the above
90. With the help of which bridge are the capacitance and dielectric loss of a
capacitor generally measured ? (IES-EE-
2014)
(a) De Sauty (b) Wien series (c) Anderson (d)
Schering

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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 4. POTENTIOMETERS
D.C. Potentiometers:
● Potentiometer is an instrument for measurement of an unknown electromotive
force(e.m.f.) or potential difference produced by the flow of a known current in a
network of circuits of known characteristics.
● It is an instrument by which an unknown voltage is measured by comparing it
with a known voltage. The known voltage may be supplied by a standard cell or
any other known voltage-reference source.
● Potentiometers are used extensively in measurements where
I. Precision required is very high s compared to that can be obtained by deflection
instruments
II. It is important that no current be drawn from the source under measurements
III. The current must be limited to a small value.

Applications of D.C. Potentiometers:

1. Calibration of voltmeter
2. Calibration of ammeter
3. Measurement of resistance

A.C. Potentiometers:
The d.c. potentiometer is an accurate and versatile instrument and thus it is
obvious that the potentiometer principle can be applied to measurement of alternating
current and voltages. The most important difference between a d.c. and an a.c.
potentiometer voltage drop have to be made equal to obtain balance, in the a.c.
instrument both the magnitudes and phases of the two have to be same to obtain
balance.
Types of A.C. Potentiometer:
1. Polar type:
In these instruments, the magnitude of the unknown voltage is read from one
scale and its phase angle, with respect to some reference phasor, is read directly from
a second scale. The voltage is read in the form of .
2. Coordinate type:
These instruments are provide with two scales to read respectively the inphase
component V2 of the unknown voltage v.

Then the voltage and its phase angle w.r.t current in the “inphase”

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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
portion of the potentiometers is .

CLASS ROOM OBJECTIVES

01. A potentiometer is basically a
(a) deflection type instrument
(b) null type instrument
(c) deflection as well as null tyupe instrument
(d) a digital instrument
02. A d.c. potentiometer is designed to measure up to about 2 v with a slide wire of
800 mm. A standard cell of emf 1.18v obtains balance at 600 mm. A test cell is
seen to obtain balance at 680 mm. The emf of the test cell is
(a) 1.00 v (b) 1.34 v (c) 1.50 v (d) 1.70 v
03. A potentiometer of length 11m obtains balance at 10.18m with a test cell of
1.018V. The emf of the battery supplying current through potentiometer is 2 V.
The resistance that should be connected to a potentiometer circuit assuming that
slide wire has the resistance of 1 Ω/m is?

PREVIOUS QUESTIONS
One Mark Questions

01. In d.c. potentiometer measurements, a second reading is often taken after

reversing the polarities of the d.c. supply and the unknown voltage, and the
average of the two readings is taken. This is with a view to eliminate the effects
of
(GATE-EE-1992)
(a) ripples in the d.c. supply (b) stray magnetic fields
(c) stray thermal emf‟s (d) erroneous standardization
02. A potentiometer is basically a
(GATE-EE-1997)
(a) deflection type instrument
(b) null type instrument
(c) deflection as well as null tyupe instrument
(d) a digital instrument
03. A transfer instrument employed in the standardization of a polar type a.c.
potentiometer is ___
(GATE-EE-1997)
(a) an electro static instrument (b) a thermal instrument
(c) a dynamo meter instrument (d) a moving coil instrument

Two Marks Questions

04. A d.c. potentiometer is designed to measure up to about 2 v with a slide wire of
800 mm. A standard cell of emf 1.18v obtains balance at 600 mm. A test cell is
seen to obtain balance at 680 mm. The emf of the test cell is (GATE-EE-1994)
(a) 1.00 v (b) 1.34 v (c) 1.50 v (d) 1.70 v

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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
05. A simple dc potentiometer is to be standardized by keeping the slide wire setting
at 1.0183V. If by mistake, the setting is at 1.0138V and the standardization is
made to obtain a source voltage of 1.0138V, then the reading of the potentiometer
will be
(IES-EE-1993)

(a) 1.0138V (b) 1.0183V (c) (d) (1.0138)2 V

06. Consider the following statements :
DC potentiometer is the best means available for measurement of dc voltages
because
1. The precision in measurement is independent of the type of detector used.
2. It is based on null-balance technique
3. It is possible to standardize before a measurement is undertaken
4. It is possible to measure dc voltage ranging in value from mill volts
to hundreds of volts
(IES-EE-1995)
Of these statements
(a) 2 and 3 are correct (b) 1 and 4 are correct
(c) 2 and 4 are correct (d) 3 and 4 are correct
07. A slide wire potentiometer has 10 wires of 1m each. With the help of a standard
voltage source of 1.018V it is standardized by keeping the jockey at 101.8cm. If
the resistance of the potentiometer wires is 1000 ohm, then the value of the
working current is
(IES-EE-1996)
(a) 0.1mA (b) 0.5mA (c) 1 mA (d) 10mA
08. In the potentiometer circuit shown in the given figure, the value of unknown
voltage „E‟ under balanced condition will be (IES-EE-
2000)

(a) 200mV (b) 2.8V (c) 3V (d) 3.2V

09. Assertion (A) : A resistance potentiometers used for measurement of
displacement, sensitivity and linearity are conflicting requirements.
Reason (R) : The voltmeter used for measurement of output voltage of the
potentiometer has a finite resistance which causes loading effects

(IES-EE-2001)
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false (d) A is false but R is true

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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
10. A single slide wire is used for the measurement of current in a circuit. The
voltage drop across a standard resistance of 1.0 is balanced at 70cm. What is
the magnitude of the current, if the standard cell having an emf of 1.45 volts is
balanced at 50 cm ? (IES-EE-
2006)
(a) 3.09 A (b) 2.65 A (c) 2.03 A (d) 1.45 A

11. Which one of the following instruments is used for standardization of a Drysdale
a.c. potentiometer ? (IES-EE-
2007)
(a) Rectifier type ammeter (b) PMMC ammeter
(c) precision type electrodynamometer (d) Thermocouple ammeter
12. Which one of the following is not the criterion used to select potentiometer in a
control system ?
(IES-EE-2009)
(a) Accuracy (b) Noise
(c) Time response (d) Frequency response
13. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given
below the lists : (IES-
EE-2010)
List-I
A. Iron loss of a choke carrying AC current of 50Hz along with DC
B. Calibration of a dynamometer type wattmeter
C. Dielectric loss of a capacitor at 20Hz
D. Power loss of an insulator testing at High voltage
List-II
1. Electrostatic wattmeter
2. Oscilloscope
3. DC Potentiometer
4. AC potentiometer
Codes :
A B C D
(a) 3 1 4 2
(b) 2 1 4 3
(c) 3 4 1 2
(d) 2 4 1 3

14. A RC potentiometer to measure ac voltage, it is desired that should be

independent of frequency. The value of C should be (IES-EE-
2011)

(a) 10 F (b) 11 F (c) 0.1 F (d) 0.09 F

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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
15. Volt-box is basically a device used for (IES-EE-
2013)
(a) measuring the voltage
(b) extending the range of voltmeter
(c) extending the voltage range of the potentiometer
(d) measuring power

KEY
MEASUREMENT OF POWER

PREVIOUS QUESTIONS

1. C 2. C 3. B 4.
A 5. C 6. B

7. C 8. C 9. A 10.
D 11. C 12. C

13. 0.8 14. 2 15. D 16. B 17. B

18. D

19. C 20. D 21. A 22. C 23. B

24. C

25. B 26. D 27. D 28. A 29. D

30. A

31. A 32. C 33. D 34. B 35. A

36. D

37. A 38. C 39. B 40. D 41. B

42. B

43. B 44. C 45. C 46. B 47. C

48. C

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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
49. B 50. B 51. A 52. B 53. A
54. A

55. C 56. B 57. B 58. B 59. C

60. C

61. C 62. C 63. A 64. C

MEASUREMENT OF ENERGY

PREVIOUS QUESTIONS

1. C 2. C 3. B 4.
A 5. A 6. C

7. B 8. A 9. A 10.
C 11. B 12. D

13. C 14. C 15. B 16. B 17. D

18. B

19. A 20. B 21. B 22. C 23. A

24. C

25. C 26. B 27. B 28. A 29. A

30. D

MEASUREMENT OF R, L & C
PREVIOUS QUESTIONS

1. C 2. A 3. C 4.
A 5. D 6. A

7. D 8. B 9. A 10.
C 11. C 12. C

13. C 14. C 15. D 16. A 17. D

18. D

19. B 20. D 21. D 22. C 23. A

24. A

25. D 26. D 27. D 28. B 29. D

30. D

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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
31. D 32. C 33. D 34. A 35. C
36. D

37. B 38. B 39. C 40. C 41. C

42. A

43. C 44. D 45. A 46. B 47. D

48. D

49. C 50. B 51. C 52. B 53. D

54. C

55. C 56. A 57. D 58. A 59. D

60. B

61. B 62. C 63. D 64. B 65. A

66. D

67. C 68. C 69. C 70. B 71. D

72. A

73. C 74. C 75. C 76. C 77. A

78. A

79. D 80. D 81. A 82. C 83. B

84. C

85. B 86. C 87. B 88. A 89. C

90. C

POTENTIOMETERS

PREVIOUS QUESTIONS

1. C 2. B 3. B 4.
B 5. C 6. A

7. D 8. A 9. B 10.
C 11. C 12. B

13. D 14. A 15. C

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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 CONTENTS

Topic Page No

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 1 – 19

Electronic Instruments For Measuring Basic
19 – 46
Parameters
Frequency Meters & Power Factor Meters 47 – 52

Q- Meter 52 – 57

Key 57 – 58

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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 1. CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE
Introduction
● The CRO is a device that allows the amplitude of electrical signals, whether
they be voltages, current power etc, to be displayed primarily as a function of
time.
● The cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a very useful and versatile laboratory
instruments used for display, measurement and analysis of waveforms and
other phenomena in electrical and electronics circuits.
● The normal from of a CRO uses a horizontal input voltage which is an
internally generated ramp voltage called “TIME BASE”. Where as the vertical
input to the CRO is the voltage under investigation.
● CROs operate on voltages, However, it is possible to convert current, strain,
acceleration, pressure and other physical quantities into voltage with the help
of transducers and thus to present visual representations of a wide variety of
dynamic phenomena on CROs.
● CROs are also used to investigate waveforms, transient phenomena, and other
time varying quantities from a very low frequency range to the radio
frequencies.
● Many additional features are available with some oscilloscope and these
include built in digital multimeter and counters.

Construction of CRO:

Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

The Heart of the CRO is the CRT, which generates the electron beam, accelerates the
beam to a high velocity, deflects the beam to create the image and contains the
phosphor screen where the electron beam eventually becomes visible
The main parts of CRTs are following
1. Electron gun assembly
2. Deflection plate assembly

1
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
3. Glass envelope
4. Base

Electron gun
The source of focused and accelerated electron beam is the electron gun.
The electron gun which emits electrons and forms them into a beam consists of
several elements which are given below.

Heating element
Heating element is used to heat up the cathode.

Cathode
It is cylindrical shaped with layer of barium and strontium oxide is deposited on the
end of the cathode which is obtain high emission of electrons at moderate
temperatures.

Control grid
The control grid is used to control the number of electron emitted from cathode.
This control grid is usually a nickel cylinder, with a centrally located hole, co-axial
with the CRT axis.
The grid with its negative bias controls the number of electrons emitted from cathode
and hence the intensity of electron beam is controlled by the grid.

Pre accelerating and accelerating anode

The electrons, emitted from the cathode and passing through the hole in the control
grid are accelerated by the high positive potential which is applied to the pre
accelerating and accelerating anode.
The pre-accelerating anode and the accelerating anode are connected to a common
positive high voltage of 1500V.
Focusing anode
The electron beam is focused by the focusing anode
The focusing anode is connected to a lower adjustable voltage of 500V.
There are two methods of focusing an electron beam.
Electrostatic focusing
Electromagnetic focusing
Deflecting plates
From figure (4.2) we observe that the electron beam, after leaving the electron gun
passes through two pairs of deflection plates.

Vertical deflecting plates or Y-plates

It is responsible for vertical deflection of electron beam
These plats are supplied with external signal fed via one of the input channel of CRO.

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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
Horizontal deflecting plates or X-plates
These plates are responsible for horizontal motion of electron beam.
In normal mode of CRO, horizontal plates are connected to output signal of sweep
generator which is inside the CRO.
For the display of a waveform horizontal plates are given a saw tooth wave which
result into continuous motion electron beam from left to right on the screen.

Screen of CRTs
Screen of CRO is made up of optical fibre with special characteristics
When the electron beam strikes the screen of the CRT, a spot of light is produces. The
screen material on the inner surface of the CRT that produces this effect is the
PHOSPHOR.

The phosphor absorbs the K.E. of the bombarding electrons and reemits energy at a
lower frequency in the visual spectrum.

Traces of some element called activator are added to phosphor to increase luminous
efficiency, spectral emission and persistence.

Activators in current use are metals such as silver, manganese, copper and chromium.
The intensity of the light emitted from the CRT screen is called Luminance depends
upon the following factors.
The light intensity is controlled by the number of bombarding electrons striking the
screen per second
And beam current increases luminance also increases
Luminance depends on the energy with which the bombarding electrons strike the
screen, and this, in turn, is determined by accelerating potential.
And accel. potential increases luminance also increases
Luminance is function of time the beam strikes a given area of the phosphor; so
sweep speed will effect the luminance.
On non – viewing side of screen are thin metal (Aluminium) is deposited to serve the
following purposes.
It acts as a heat sink.
It provides conduction part for secondary emitted electron from screen to aquadag.
It reflects that light scattered from screen forwards the viewal.
Aquadag
It is an aqueous solutions of graphite which is used to collect secondary electrons
emitted from the screen.
It is connected to second anode, collection of secondary electrons is necessary to keep
the CRT screen in a state of electrical equilibrium.

Oscilloscope amplifiers
The purpose of an oscilloscope amplifies is to provide a faithful representation
applied to its input terminals, considerable attention has to be paid to the designing of
these amplifiers for faithful representation of input signals.

3
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
Vertical amplifier
This type of amplifier amplifies the signal to be supplied to vertical deflecting plate.
It determines sensitivity and band width of CRO.

Band width
where, rising time measured in second.
The rise time of a pulse is defined as the time required for the edge to rise from
10% to 90% of its maximum amplitude.
The BW (Bandwidth) of an oscilloscope determines the range of frequencies that can
be accurately reproduced on the CRT screen.

Horizontal amplifier
This types of amplifiers serves the following two purposes.
In normal mode of CRO it amplifies the output of the sweep generator.
In X-Y mode, it amplifies the signal coming from X-input channel of CRO.

Electrostatic Deflection:
A general arrangement for electrostatic deflection is shown in figure. There are two
plates with a potential applied between them.
These plates produce a uniform electrostatic field in the Y direction. Thus any
electron entering the field will experience a force in the Y direction and will be
accelerated in that direction.
There is no force either in X direction or Z direction and hence there will be no
acceleration of electrons in these directions.

Expression of Electrostatic Deflection

Let Ea= voltage of pre – accelerating anode (V),
e= charge of an electron (C)
m=mass of electron (kg)
vox=velocity of electron when entering the field of deflecting plates (m/s)
Ed=potential between deflecting plates (V)
d=distance between deflecting plates (m),
ld=length of deflecting plates (m),
L=distance between screen and the centre of the deflecting plates (m),
And D=deflection of electron beam on the screen in Y direction (m)
The loss of potential energy (P.E) when the electron moves from cathode to
accelerating anode.
P.E = eEa

4
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
The gain in kinetic energy (K.E) by an electron,
K.E=(1/2)mVox2
(The mass of an electron is m=9.109x10-31kg)
On equating (4.2) and (4.3) we have

This is the velocity of the electron in the X direction when it enters the deflecting
plates.
The velocity in the X direction remains the same throughout the passage of electrons
through the deflecting plates as there is no force acting in this direction.
So the electric field intensity in the Y-direction
Force acting on an electron in Y-direction =
Suppose ay is the acceleration of the electron in Y-direction therefore,

or
As there is no initial velocity in the Y direction the displacement y at any instant t in
the Y direction is:

As the velocity in X-direction is constant, the displacement in X-direction is given by:

Substituting the above value of t in equation we have,

Equation represents the equation of a parabola

The slope at any point (x,y) is

Putting in equation we get the value of

or
After leaving the deflection plates, the electrons travel in a straight line. The straight
line of travel of electrons is tangent to the parabola at and this tangent intersects
the X-axis at point O. The location of this point is given by :

The apparent origin is thus at the centre of deflection plates. The deflection „D‟ on the
screen is given by:

5
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
Substituting the value, in equation we get,

From above equation we conclude:

● For a given accelerating voltage Ea, and for particular dimensions of CRT, the
deflection of the electron of the electron beam is directly proportional to the
deflecting voltage. This means that the CRT may be used as a linear indicating
device.
● The discussion above assumes that Ed is a fixed d.c. voltage. The deflection
voltage is usually a time varying quantity and the image on the screen thus
follows the variations of the deflection voltage in a linear manner.
● The deflection is independent of the e/m ratio. In a cathode ray tube (CRT), in
addition to the electrons many types of negative ions such as oxygen, carbon,
chlorine etc, are present.
● With electrostatic deflection system, because deflection is independent of e/m,
the ions travel with the electrons and are not concentrated at one point. Hence
cathode ray tube (CRT) with electrostatic deflection system does not produce
an ion burn.

Deflection Sensitivity:
● The deflection sensitivity of a CRT is defined as the deflection of the screen
per unit deflection voltage.

Deflection sensitivity (S)

The deflection factor (G) of a CRT is defined as the reciprocal of sensitivity,

Deflection factor
It is clear from above equation, that the sensitivity can be increased by decreasing the
value of accelerating voltage Ea.

Application of CRO
Measurement of Voltage and Currents
● The electrostatic deflection given in equation shows that the deflection is
proportional to the deflection – plate voltage. The value of a current can be
obtained by measuring the voltage drop across a known resistance connected
in the circuit.

● Direct voltage may be obtained from the static deflection of the spot,
alternating voltages from the length of the line produced when the voltage is
applied to Y-plates while no voltage is applied to X-plates. The length of this
line corresponds to peak to peak voltage.

6
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 ● When dealing with sinusoidal voltages, the rms value is given by dividing the
peak to peak voltage by .

Measurement of Phase
● It is interesting to consider the characteristics of pattern that appear on the
screen of a CRT when sinusoidal voltages are simultaneously applied to
horizontal and vertical deflection plates. These patterns are called “Lissajous
patterns”.

● When two equal voltages of equal frequency which are in phase with each
other are applied to the horizontal and vertical deflection plates, the lissajous
pattern appearing on the screen is a straight line as is clear in figure below.

When two equal voltages of equal frequency but with 900 phase displacement are
applied to a CRO the trace or lissajous pattern on the screen is a circle as shown in
figure below.

When two equal voltages of equal frequency but with a phase shift (not equal to 00
or 900) are applied to a CRO we obtain an ellipse as shown in figure below.

7
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
A number of conclusions can be drawn from the above examples. When two
sinusoidal voltages of same frequency are applied.
It produces Lissajous pattern, which may be a straight line, a circle or an ellipse
depending upon the phase and magnitude of voltages.
A straight line results when the two voltages are equal and are equal and are either in
phase with each other or 1800 out of phase with each other. The angle formed with the
horizontal is 450. When the magnitudes of voltages are equal.
A circle can be formed only when the magnitude of the two signals are equal and the
phase difference between them is either 900 or 2700.
However, if the two voltages are not equal and/ or out of phase an ellipse is formed.
If the vertical Y-plates voltage is larger, an ellipse with vertical major axis is formed
while if the X-plate voltage has a greater magnitude, the major axis of the ellipse lies
along horizontal axis.

From figure it is clear that for equal voltage of same frequency progressive variation
of phase voltage causes the pattern to vary from a straight diagonal line to ellipse of
different eccentricities and then to a circle, after that through another series of ellipses
and finally diagonal straight line again.

Measurement of Frequency
Lissagous pattern may be used for accurate measurement of frequency.
Frequency of signal with CRO can be detrmined by operating it in X-Y mode. In this
Y-input channel. The frequency of the signal can be given by using following
formula.

8
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
Where,

Also,

Where, frequency of signal applied to Y-plates

frequency of signal applied to X-plates.

Dual Trace of CRO

In dual trace CRO, horizontal plates are always connected to output of sweep
generator but vertical deflecting plate are connected to z-input terminal will be
amplified by horizontal amplifier.
Therefore, single electron beam given traces of 2-separate waveforms connected at
input channel.

PREVIOUS QUESTIONS

One Mark Questions

01. A lissajous pattern, as shown in figure below, is observed on the screen of a CRO
when voltages of frequencies fx and fy are applied to the x and y plates
respectively. fx : fy is then equal to (GATE-EE-1994)

(a) 3 : 2 (b) 1 : 2 (c) 2 : 3 (d) 2 : 1

02. A certain oscilloscope with 4 c.m screen has its own sweep out put fed to its
input. If the x and y sensitivities are same, the oscilloscope will display a.
(GATE-EE-1995)
(a) triangular wave (b) diagonal line
(c) sine wave (d) circle

03. Two in phase 50Hz sinusoidal wave form of unit amplitude are fed into channel-1
and channel-2 respectively of and oscilloscope, Assuming that the voltage scale,
time scale and other settings are exactly the same for both the channels. What
would be observed if the oscilloscope is operated in x-y mode?(GATE-EE-2002)
(a) A circle of unit radius (b) An ellipse

9
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (c) A parabola
(d) A straight line inclined at 450 with respect to the x-axis.
04. The time/div and voltage/div axes of an oscilloscope have been erased. A student
connects a 1 KHz, 5V p-p square wave calibration pulse to channel-1 of the scope
and observes the screen to be as shown in the upper trace of the fig. An unknown
signal is connected to channel-2 (lower trace) of the scope. If the time/div and
V/div on both channels are the same, the amplitude (p-p) and period of the
unknown signal are respectively (GATE-EE-2006)

(a) 5V, 1ms (b) 5V, 2ms (c) 7.5V, 2ms (d) 10V, 1ms

05. The probes of a non-Isolated, two-channel oscilloscope are clipped to points A,

B, and C in the circuit of the adjacent fig. Vin is a square wave of a suitable low
frequency. The display of ch1 and ch2 are as shown on the right. Then the
“signal” and “Ground” probes S1, G1 and S2, G2 of ch1 and ch2 respectively are
connected to points.
(GATE-EE-2007)

(a) A, B, C, A (b) A, B, C, B (c) C, B, A, B (d) B, A, B, C

06. Two Sinusoidal signal p( t) = A Sin t, and q( t) are applied to X and Y

inputs of a dual channel C.R.O, the lissajous figure displayed on the screen is
shown below. The signal q( t) will be represented as (GATE-EE-2008)

(a) q( t) = A sin t, w2 = 2w1 (b) q( t) = A sin t, w2 =

(c) q( t) = A Cos t, w2 = 2w1 (d) q( t) = A Cos t, w2 =

07. The two inputs of a CRO are fed with two stationary periodic signals. In the X-Y
mode, the screen shows a figure which changes from ellipse to circle and back to
ellipse with its major axis changing orientation slowly and repeatedly. The
following inference can be made form this. (GATE-EE-2009)
10
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (a) The signals are not sinusoidal
(b) The amplitudes of the signals are very close but not equal
(c) The signals are sinusoidal with their frequencies very close but not equal
(d) There is a constant but small phase difference between the signals.
08. In an oscilloscope screen, linear sweep is applied at the (GATE-EE-2014)
(a) vertical axis (b) horizontal axis
(c) origin (d) both horizontal and vertical axis

09. The two signals S1 and S2, shown in figure, are applied to Y and X deflection
plates of an oscilloscope. (GATE-EE-2014)

The waveform displayed on the screen is

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Two Marks Questions

10. List-I represents the figures obtained on a CRO screen when the voltage signals.
Vx = Vxm sin t and Vy = Vym sin ( t + ) are given to its X and Y plates
respectively and is changed. Choose the correct value of from List-I to
match with the corresponding figure of List-II (GATE-EE-2003)
List-I List-II

(a) =0 1.

11
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (b) 2.
(c) 3.

(d) 4.

5.

6.

Codes :
A B C D
(a) 1 3 6 5
(b) 2 6 4 5
(c) 2 3 5 4
(d) 1 5 6 4

11. A CRO probe has an impedence of 500k in parallel with a capacitance of

10pF. The probe is used to measure the voltage between P and Q as shown in Fig.
The measured voltage will be (GATE-
EE-2004)

(a) 3.53 V (b) 4.37 V (c) 4.54 V (d) 5.00 V

12
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
12. The simultaneous application of signals x(t) and y(t) to the horizontal and vertical
plates, respectively, of an oscilloscope, produces a vertical figure-of-8 display. If
P and Q are constants, and x(t) = P sin(4t + 30), then y(t) is equal to
(GATE-EE-2005)
(a) Q sin (4t – 30) (b) Q sin (2t + 15)
(c) Q sin (8t + 60) (d) Q sin (4t + 30)
13. In CRT aquadog carries (IES-EE-1992)
(a) aqueous solution of graphite (b) sweep voltage
(c) secondary emission electrons (d) none of the above

14. In a dual beam oscilloscope (IES-EE-1992)

(a) There are two separate vertical input and two separate borizontal inputs
(b) there are two separate vertical inputs and there is only one set of
horizontal deflection plates.
(c) there is only one vertical input but there are two separate
horizontal deflection plates.
(d) there is only one vertical and one horizontal input.

15. Two sine waves of the same frequency are impressed on the X and Y plates of a
CRO and the Lissajous figure seen is shown in the diagram. The phase difference
between the signals is (IES-EE-1993)

(a) 300 or 3300 or 1500 or 210 (b) 300 or 3300 or 1500

(c) 300 or 330 (d) 300

16. When the horizontal deflection plates of a CRO are kept at the ground potential
and a 30 volt dc is applied to the vertical deflecting plates, the bright spot moves
1 cm away from the centre. If with the same setting, a 30 volt ac is applied to the
vertical deflecting plates, then the picture observed on the screen would be
(IES-EE-1993)
(a) a spot approximately 3 cm away from the centre
(b) a vertical line 2 cm long
(c) a vertical line approximately 3 cm long
(d) two spots 2 cm vertically above each other

17. How many time base circuits does a dual trace CRO have ? (IES-EE-1994)
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
13
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
18. A Lizzajous pattern on an oscilloscope has 5 horizontal tangencies and 2 vertical
tangencies. The frequency of the horizontal input is 1000 Hz. What is the
frequency of the vertical input ? (IES-EE-1994)
(a) 400 Hz (b) 2500 Hz (c) 4000 Hz (d) 5000 Hz

19. The Lissajous pattern obtained on a CRO screen is shown in the given figure:
The frequency ration of the vertical signal to the horizontal one is
(IES-EE-1995)

(a) 3 : 2 (b) 5 : 1 (c) 1 : 5 (d) 2 : 3

20. Two voltages V1 and V2 are connected to the X and Y plates of a CRO as shown
in the gtiven figure. To get a circular pattern on the CRO screen, R should be
adjusted to a value of (IES-EE-1996)

(a) 1 k (b) 16 k (c) 2.35 k (d) 3.18 k

21. Horizonal deflection in a CRO is due to E sin t while vertical deflection is due
to Esin( t+ ) with a positive . Consider the following patterns obtained in the
CRO (IES-EE-1997)

The correct sequence of these patterns in increasing order of the value of is :

(a) 3, 2, 5, 1, 4 (b) 3, 2, 4, 5, 1 (c) 2, 3, 5, 1, 4 (d) 2, 3, 5, 4, 1

22. The X-and Y-inputs of a CRO are respectively Vsin t and -Vsin t. The
resulting Lissajous pattern will be (IES-EE-1998)
(a) a straight line (b) a circle
(c) an ellipse (d) a figure of eight

23. Assertion (A) : The vertical deflecting plates of a CRT are kept farther away
form the screen as compared to the horizontal deflecting plates.
Reason (R) : This improves accuracy in measurement. (IES-EE-1998)

14
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
24. Two equal voltages of same frequency applied to the X and Y plates of a CRO,
produce a circle on the screen. The phase difference between the two voltages is
(IES-EE-1999)
0 0 0
(a) 30 (b) 60 (c) 90 (d) 1500

25. Match List-I (Type of CRO) with List-II (Appropriate use) and select the correct
answer using the codes given below the lists : (IES-EE-2000)
List-I
A. Storage
B. Electrostatic deflection
C. Magnetic deflection
D. Multi trace
List-II
1. Voltage and current transient studies
2. Comparison of waveform in time domain
3. Television receiver
4. Accurage voltage measurements
Codes :
A B C D
(a) 4 1 2 3
(b) 1 4 2 3
(c) 4 1 3 2
(d) 1 4 3 2

26. In the CRO plate connections shown in the given figure, the supply frequency is

500 Hz and the capacitance „C‟ is . The value of resistance „R‟ required
to obtain a circule on the CRO screen (X and Y plates have equal sensitivities) is
(IES-EE-2000)

(a) 2 k (b) 5 k (c) 7 k (d) 10 k

15
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
27. Which one of the following statements correctly represents the post acceleration
in a Cathode-Ray Tube ? (IES-
EE-2001)
(a) it provides deflection of the beam
(b) it increases the brightness of the trace if the signal frequency is higher
than 10MHz.
(c) it accelerates the beam before deflection
(d) it increases the brightness of the trace of low frequency signal
28. A screen pattern oscillogram, shown in the given figure is obtained when a sine-
wave signal of unknown frequency is connected to the vertical input terminals,
and at the same time, a 600 Hz sine-wave voltage is connected to the horizontal
input terminals of an oscilloscope. What is the value of unknown frequency?
(IES-EE-2002)

(a) 300 Hz (b) 400 Hz (c) 600 Hz (d) 900 Hz

29. Which of the following statements is NOT correct for a storage type
oscilloscope? (IES-EE-2002)
(a) The storage target is a conductive mesh covered area with
magnesium fluoride
(b) Secondary emission electrons fetch a positively charged pattern
(c) The flood guns used for display, emit high velocity electrons
(d) the flood guns are placed between the deflection plates and storage target

30. In an oscilloscope, two Lissajous figure (X) and (Y) are observed. This indicates
that ratio of vertical input signal frequency to that horizontal input frequency are
(IES-EE-2002)

(a) 5/3 for X and 3/2 for Y (b) 3/2 for X and 5/3 for Y
(c) 5/3 for X and 5/3 for Y (d) 3/2 for X and 3/2 for Y

31. A C.R.O is operated with X and Y setting of 0.5 ms/cm and 100mV/cm. The
screen of the C.R.O is 10cm x 8 cm (X and Y). A sine wave of frequency 200 Hz
and r.m.s amplitude of 300 mV is applied to the Y-input. The screen will show
(IES-EE-2003)
(a) one cycle of the undistorted sine wave
(b) Two cycles of the undistorted sine wave
(c) one cycle of the sine wave with clipped amplitude
(d) two cycles of the sine wave with clipped amplitude

16
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
32. Assertion (A) : Cathode ray oscilloscopes using CRT employing electrostatic
deflection are used in laboratories for scientific measurements.
Reason (R) : CRT using electrostatic deflection systems has more deflection
sensitivity as compared to CRT employing magnetic deflecting system.
(IES-EE-2004)
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false (d) A is false but R is true
33. Assertion (A) : A dual trace CRO can display two input signals simultaneously
Reason (R) : A dual trance CRO uses a CRT having two electron guns to
generate two electron beams simultaneously (IES-EE-2004)
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true

34. Which of the following measurements can be made using Lissajous figures ?
1. Frequency
2. phase difference
3. Time interval between pulses
4. pulse width
5. Fundamental and higher harmonic components
Select the correct answer using the code given below (IES-EE-2005)
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 3 and 4 (d) 4 and 5

35. Beam of electrons in a cathode ray tube emanates because of (IES-EE-2005)

(a) second emission (b) thermionic emission
(c) diffusion (d) post acceleration

36. One cycle of a square wave signal observed on an oscilloscope is found to

occupy 6 cm at a scale setting of 30 s/cm. What is the signal frequency ?
(IES-EE-2006)
(a) 1.8 kHz (b) 5.55 kKHz (c) 1.8 kHz (d) 55.5 kHz

37. In a CRO astigmatism is : (IES-EE-2006)

(a) A source of generating fast electrons
(b) A medium for absorbing secondary emission electrons
(c) An additional focus control
(d) A time-delay control in the vertical deflection system

17
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
38. The oscilloscope has an input capacitance of 50pF and a resistance of 2M and
the voltage divider ratio (k) of 10. What are the parameters of a high-impedance
probe ? (IES-EE-2009)
(a) C1 = 5.55 pF and R1 = 9 M (b) C1 = 5.55 pF and R1 = 18 M
(c) C1 = 3.33 pF and R1 = 9 M (d) C1 = 1.11 pF and R1 = 18 M

39. If the bandwidth of an oscilloscope is given as direct current to 10MHz, what is

the fastest rise time a sine wave can have to be produced accurately by the
oscilloscope ? (IES-EE-2009)
(a) 35 n sec (b) 10 n sec (c) 3.5 n sec (d) 0.035 n sec
40. Statement (I) : The measurement of voltage magnitude by a cathode-ray
oscilloscope is very fast as compared to other methods of measurement.
Statement (II) : Cathode-ray beam travels at the speed of light. (IES-EE-2012)

41. In a two-channel oscilloscope operating in x-y mode, two in-phase 50 Hz

sinusoidal waveforms of equal amplitude are fed to the two channels. What will
be the resultant pattern on the screen ? (IES-EE-2014)
(a) An ellipse
(b) A parabola
(c) Straight line inclined at 450 with respect to x-axis
(d) A circle

42. The functionof input attenuators in measuring instruments, like VTVM and CRO,
is to (IES-EE-2014)
(a) Increase the input impedance
(b) Attenuate the frequency range
(c) Attenuate the input signal amplitude without altering the frequency contents
(d) Attenuate the input impedance

43. Delay line is essential in a CRO, the ensure that (IES-EE-2014)

(a) Vertical signal starts after the retrace period of sweep signal
(b) The sweep reaches the horizontal plates before the desired signal
under consideration
(c) Initial part of signal to be observed is not lost
(d) All of the above

2. ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING

BASIC PARAMETERS
Digital Voltmeter (DVMs):

18
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 ● A digital voltmeter (DVM) displays the value of AC or DC voltge being
measured directly as discrete numerals in the decimal number system.
● Numerical readout is advantages in many applications because it reduces
human reading and interpolations errors and eliinates parallax errors.
● The used of digital voltmeters increases the speed with which reading can be
taken, also the output of digital voltmeters can be fed to memory devices for
storage and future computations.
● A digital voltmeter is a versatile and accurate voltmeter which has many
laboratory applicators.

Types of DVMs
o Ramp type DVM
o Integrating type DVM
o Potentiometric type DVM
o Successive approximation type DVM
o Continuous type DVM.
Basic function
● In every case the basic function that is performed, is an analog to digital (A/D)
conversion.
o For example a voltage value may be changed to a proportional time
interval, which starts and stops a clock oscillator. In turn the oscillator
output is applied to an electronic counter which is provided with a read
out in terms of voltage valued.
● Ramp type digital voltmeter
o When an analog voltage of ramp type is applied the ramp type digital
voltmeter it measures the time interval with an electronic time interval
counter and count is displayed as a number of digits on electronic
indicating tubes of the output readout of the voltmeter.
o The conversion of a voltage value of a time interval is as shown in
figure.

19
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
The decimal number as indicated by the readout is a measure of the value of input
voltage.
The sample rate multivibrator determines the rate at which the measurement cycles
are initiated.
The sample rate circuit provides an initiating pulse for the ramp generator to start its
next ramp voltage.
At the same time it sends a pulse to the counter which sets all of them to 0. This
momentarily removes the digital display of the readout.

Integrating type DVM:

In this type the voltmeter employs an integration technique which uses a voltage to
frequency conversion.
This voltmeter measures the true average value of the input voltage over a fixed
measuring period.
The heart of this technique is the operational amplifier acting as an integrator.
Output voltage of integrator is,

When , applied voltage (input) and E0 is the output voltage rises at a uniform rate
and has a polarity opposite to that of input voltage.
In other words, it is clear that for a constant input voltage the integrator produces a
ramp output voltage of opposite polarity.

The output pulse of Level detector opens the pulse generation gate, permitting pulses
from a fixed frequency CLOCK OSCILLATOR to pass through pulse generator.

20
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
Potentiometric type DVM
A potentiometric type of DVM, employs voltage comparison technique.
In this DVM the unknown voltage is compared with a reference voltage whose value
is fixed by the setting of the calibrated potentiometer.
The potentiometer setting is changed to obtain balance (i.e null conditions). When
null conditions are obtained the value of the unknown voltage is indicated by the dial
setting of the potentiometer.
The unknown voltge is filtered and attenuated to suitable level and get compare after
getting a feedback voltages, we compare these two and the difference is called the
error signal.
This error signal is amplified and is fed to a potentiometer adjustment device and
there the reading of readout device indicates the value of unknown voltage.

Digital Frequency Meter (DFM):

The signal whose frequency is to be measured is converted into a train of pulses.
Then the number of pulses appearing in a definite interval of time is counted by
means of an electronic counter.
Since the pulse represents the cycles of unknown signal so it is a direct indication of
frequency of unknown signal.
The complete circuit for measurement of frequency is shown in figure below.

21
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
Basic Circuit Construction Element
Source of unknown frequency
Amplifier
Schmitt trigger (convert sine wave to train of pulses)
Main gate
Digital counter
Gate control flip flop
Time base selector. (It is used to select the period for which main gate is enabled by
flip flop gate control.

Operation
● To enable the main gate of the digital frequency meter, a starting counting
signal is given to gate control flip flop. This signal reset the flip flop FF1
which in turn enables start gate, and disable stop gate.
● When start gate is enable, the pulse coming from time base selector passes
throught it. This pulse ressets the flip flpp FF2 which in turn enables the main
gate and thus pulses coming from source of unknown frequency via Schmitt
trigger are passed to digital counter.
● The pulse coming from start gate sets flip flo FF1. Semultaneously when FF1 is
set it disable the start gate and enable the stop gate. Thus pulse coming from
base time selector passing through stop gate and sets FF2 which in terms
disables the main gate.
● The period for which main gate remains enable is equal to one time period of
clock.
● The frequency of the signal can be obtained by dividing the reading of digital
counter by period of clock pulse coming from time base selector.
● The period of clock pulse coming from time base selector can be selected from
dial of the selector.

Electronic counters
● Electronic counters are capable of making many measurements involving
frequency, time, phase angle, radiation events and totalizing electric evetns.
● The electronic counter normally employs a frequency divider circuit known as
a scaler
● A scaler produces a single pulse for every set of number of input pulses.
Examples :2:1 scaler produces one output pulse for 2 input pulses.
● A scaler is essentially a frequency divisor.
● The absis of counters is frequency division, this is done by a 2:1 scalar called a
bistable multi vibrator or a flip flop (FF) circuit.

22
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
Functional view of T and RST Flip flops:
● A train of narrow pulses is applied to the Toggle (T) flip flop input terminal.
● This circuit uses two AND gates and a RS flip flop. Every time a pulse is
applied, the output of the flip flop changes state.

● Suppose Y=0 and , just before the pulse A is applied to terminal T. On

application of this pulse, the inputs to the top AND gate are 1 and 1. Therefore
the top gate is enabled (opened).
● A pulse is applied to terminal S. On the other hand the two input to bottom
AND gate are 1 and 0 and is thus disabled (closed) and no input is applied to
terminal R. This sets the flip flop resulting in
● When the next pulse B is applied to terminal this resets the flip flop resulting
in .
● Thus each coming positive pulse is alternately steered into the set and reset
inputs and hence the flip flop toggles i.e. alternately sets and resets producing
1 or 0 states at the output.
● Therefore two input pulses produce one output pulse. This means that the
frequency of the output is half of that of the input.
● Thus a T flip flop acts as a frequency divisor which divides the input
frequency by two.

Digital Instruments
● The analog instruments disaplay the quantity to be measured in terms of the
deflection of a pointer but Digital instruments indicate the value of te
measured in the form of a digital number.
● The digital meters work on the principle of quantization.

Advantages of digital instruments

● The readings are indicated directly in decimal numbers and therefore errors on
account of human factrors, such as errors due to parallax and approximation,
are limited.
● The readings may be carried to any significant figures by merely positioning
the decimal point, i.e. They have is higher accuracy.
● As compared to analog meter, digital instruments have got a very high
resolution/
● Since output is in digital form, it may be directly fed into memory devices like
tape recorders, printers, floppy discs and digital computer etc, for storage and
future computations.
● Power requirement is les here in comparison to analog instruments.

Resolution in Digital Meters

23
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 ● The number of digit positions used in a digital meter determines the
resolution.
● Thus a 3-digit display voltmeter (DVM0 for a 0-IV range will be able to
indicate value from zero to 999 mV , with the smallest increment or resolution
of 1 mV.
● In practice a fourth digit, usually capable of indicating 0 or 1 only, is placed to
the left of active digits. This permits going above 999-1999 to give an overlap
between ranges for convenience.

● This is called over ranging this type of display is known as a

The resolution of a digital meter, is determined by the number of active or full digits
used.
Let, N� represents the number of full digit

hall digit.

Then,

Also in volt

Resolution of display is decided by full digits only.

Half digit of display gives over ranging.
Full digit: It can display any value from 0 to 9
Half digit : It can display only 0 or 1
Loction of decimal point is decided from right side of the display.
e.g. A 4 digit display has

Resolution

Note:
For an 8-digit display, the resolution is 1 in 108, while analog meters in general it is
only 1 in 500.

Sensitivity of digital meters

Sensitivity is defined as the smallest change in the input which a digital meter is able
to detect.

Where the lowest full scale value of meter and R is the resolution expensed as
decimal.
24
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
❖ Electronic Voltmeter (EVMS):
● EVMs circuit is used to produce current proportional to the quantity being
measured
● Advantages of Electronic voltmeter:
� Detection of low level signals
For the case of AC measurements the use of an amplifier for detection of low
level signals is even more necessary for sensitive measurements.
� Low power consumption
● EVM gives less loading effects
● EVM utilizes the amplifying properties of transistor. While the circuit whose
voltage is being measured controls the sensing element of the voltmeter the
power drawn from the circuit under measurement is very small or that the
voltmeter circuit has a very high input impedance
● This feature of electronic voltmeters is indispensible for voltage measurements
in many high impedance circuits such as encountered in communication
equipments
� High frequency range
● The most important feature of electronic voltmeters (EVMS) is that their
response can be made practically independent of frequency within extremely
wide limits
● Some EVMS permit the measurement of voltage from direct current to
frequencies of the order of 100 MHz.
● The high frequency range may also be attributed to low input capacitance of
most electronic device.

PREVIOUS QUESTIONS
One Mark Questions

01. A digital-to-analog converter with a full-scale output voltage of 3.5 V has

resolution close to 14mV. It‟s bit size is _____ (GATE-EE-2005)
(a) 4 (b) 8 (c) 16 (d) 32

02. Two 8 bit A D C s one of single slope integrating type and other of successive
approximation type. Take TA and TB times to connect 5v analog input signal to
equivalent deigital output. If the input analog signal is reduced to 2.5v, the
approximate time taken by the two ADC‟s will respectively by (GATE-EE-
2008)

(a) TA, TB (b) , TB (c) TA, (d) ,

Two Marks Questions

03. The simplified block diagram of a 10bit A/D Converter of dual slope integrator
type is shown in fig. The 10-bit counter at the output is clocked by a 1MHz clock.
Assuming negligible timing overhead for the control logic, the maximum
frequency of the analog signal that can be converted using this A/D converter is
approximately. (GATE-EE-2003)

25
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (a) 2KHz (b) 1KHz (c) 500Hz (d) 250Hz

04. A digit DMM has the error specification as 0.2% of reading +10 counts. If
a dc voltage of 100 v is read on its 200v full scale. The maximum error that can
be expressed in the reading is _____ (GATE-EE-
2011)
(a) 0.1% (b) 0.2% (c) 0.3% (d) 0.4%

05. Two voltmeters of 0-300 V range are connected in parallel to a ac circuit. One
voltmeter is moving iron type and reads 200 V. If the other instrument is moving
coil type, its reading will be (IES-EE-1992)
(a) 200 volts (b) 200 1.41 volts
(c) slightly less than meter (d) zero

06. A 35V source is connected to a series circuit of 600 ohm and R as shown. If a
voltmeter of internal resistance 1.2 kilo ohms is connected across 600 ohm
resistor, it reads 5 V. The value R is (IES-EE-1992)

(a) 1.2 k (b) 2.4 k (c) 3.6 k (d) 7.2 k

07. Two meters X and Y required 40 mA and 50 mA respectively for full scale
deflection. Then, (IES-EE-1992)
(a) X is more sensitive (b) Y is more sensitive
(c) Both are equally sensitive
(d) Not possible to determine from the given data

08. A digital voltmeter has a read-out range from 0 9999 counts. When full reading is
9.999 V, the resolution of the full scale reading is (IES-EE-1992)
(a) 0.001 (b) 1000 (c) 3 digit (d) 1 mV

09. The measurement of very low and very high frequencies is invariably done using
of frequency counter/timer in the (IES-EE-1993)

26
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (a) frequency measurement modfe only
(b) period measurement mode only
(c) frequency and period measurement modes respectively
(d) period and frequency measurement modes respectively

10. A digital voltmeter uses a 10 MHz clock and has a voltage controlled generator
which provides a width of 10 sec per volt of unit signal. 10 volt of input signal
would correspond to a pulse count of (IES-EE-1993)
(a) 500 (b) 750 (c) 1000 (d) 1500

11. The A to D converter used in a digital instrument could be (IES-EE-1993)

1. successive approximation converter type
2. flash converter type
3. dual slope converter type
The correct sequence of the increasing order of conversion time taken by these
type is
(a) 1, 2, 3 (b) 2, 1, 3 (c) 3, 2, 1 (d) 3, 1, 2
12. In the multi meter circuit shown in the figure for ac voltage measurement, the
function of diode D1 is to (IES-EE-1993)
(a) provide half – wave rectification
(b) make the rectifier D2 perform full – wave rectification
(c) by-pass reverse leakage current of D2 in the negative cycle of the input
(d) short circuit over-range voltages

13. A 50 Hz are voltage is measured with a amoving iron voltmeter and a rectifier
type ac voltmeter connected in parallel. If the meter readings are V1 and V2
respectively and the meters are free from calibration errors, then the form factor
of the ac voltage may be estimated as (IES-EE-1993)

(a) (b) 1.11 (c) 2 (d)

14. In modern electronic multic meters a FET or MOSFET is preferred over BJT
because (IES-EE-1994)
(a) its input resistance is high
(b) its input resistance is high and does not vary with the change of range
(c) its input resistance is low (d) it is cheapter

15. A 35 Vdc supply is connected across a combined resistance of 600 ohms and an
unknown resistance of R ohms in series. A voltmeter having a resistance of 1.2K
27
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 is connected across 600 ohms resistor and reads 5V. The resistance R will be
(IES-EE-1994)

(a) 120 ohms (b) 500 ohms (c) 1.7 k ohms (d) 2.4 k ohms

16. If two 300 V full-scale voltmeters V1 and V2 having sensitivities of 100k

and 150 k are connected in series to measure 500 V, then (IES-EE-
1994)
(a) V1 and V2 will read 250 V each
(b) V1 will read 200 V and V2 will read 300 V
(c) V1 will read 300 V and V2 will read 200 V
(d) V1 and V2 will read 0 V each
17. The important characteristics of a frequency counter are given below :
(IES-EE-1994)
1. Time base accuracy
2. Least significant Bit count
3. Gain of the input amplifier
The more important characteristic (s) responsible for the overall accuracy of
frequency measurement using the counter would include
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 2 alone

18. The number of flip flops required in a decade counter is (IES-EE-1994)

(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 10

19. In a digital voltmeter, the oscillator frequency is 400 KHz, the ramp voltage falls
from 8 V to 0 V in 20 m sect.The number of pulse counted by the counter is
(IES-EE-1994)
(a) 8000 (b) 4000 (c) 3200 (d) 1600

20. A digital voltmeter has digit display. The 1 volt range can read up to
(IES-EE-1994)
(a) 1.000 (b) 1.1111 (c) 1.9999 (d) 19999

21. In a digital voltmeter, the oscillator frequency is 400 KHz and the ramp voltage
falls from 8 V to 0 V in 20 m sec. The number of pulses counted by the counter is
(IES-EE-1995)
(a) 800 (b) 2000 (c) 4000 (d) 8000

28
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
22. Assertion (A) : Dual-slope A/D converter provides high accuracy in A/D
conversion approach in digital multi meter.
Reason (R) : Dual-slope A/D converter provides high accuracy in A/D
conversion while at the same time suppressing the hum effect on the input signal.
(IES-EE-1995)
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true

23. Pulses of a frequency of 1 MHz are applied to the time base selector of a digital
frequency meter which consists of 6 frequency dividers, each dividing the
incoming frequency by a factor of 10. The time-base setting at the output of 4th
frequency divider starting from the input is (IES-EE-1995)

(a) 1 ms (b) 10 ms (c) 100 ms (d) 1 s

24. Rectifier Moving Coil Instruments respond to (IES-EE-1995)

(a) Peak value, irrespective of the nature of the waveform
(b) average value, for all waveforms
(c) rms value for all waveforms
(d) rms value, for symmetrical square waveforms

25. An average response rectifier type electronic ac voltmeter has a dc voltage of

10 V applied to it. The meter reading will be (IES-EE-1995)
(a) 7.1 V (b) 10.0 V (c) 11.1 V (d) 22.2 V

26. An advantage which a VTVM has over a non electronic voltmeter is

(IES-EE-1995)
(a) lower power consumption
(b) Lower input impedance
(c) the ability to measure wider ranges of voltage and resistance
(d) greater portability

27. A permanent magnet moving coil type ammeter and a moving iron type ammeter
are connected in series in a resistive circuit fed from output of a half wave
rectifier voltage source. If the moving iron type instrument reads 5 A, the
permanent magnet moving coil type instrument is likely to read
(IES-EE-1995)
(a) zero (b) 2.5 A (c) 3.18 A (d) 5 A
28. In a digital voltmeter, „iver-ranging‟ implies that (IES-EE-1996)
(a) the next four digits are switched on
(b) ½ digit is switched off
(c) ½ digit is switched on

29
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (d) an over – range indicator starts glowing

29. Which of the following features determine the precision of an integrating type
digital Voltmeter (IES-EE-1996)
(a) Time constant of the integrator
(b) Input impedance of the integrator
(c) Referene voltage of the comparator
(d) Operning taime of the gate before the counter

30. Assertion (A) : The resolution of digit voltmeter is 0.0001.

Reason (R) : Addition of digit to a digital voltmeter increases the range of the
meter (IES-EE-1997)
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
31. Electronic voltmeter provides are accurate readings in high resistance circuits as
compared to a non-electronic voltmeter because of its (IES-EE-1997)
(a) High V/ohm ratings (b) High ohm ratings
(c) High meter resistance (d) Low resolution

32. Modern electronic multimeters measure resistance by (IES-EE-1997)

(a) Using a bridge circuit
(b) Using an electronic bridge compensator for nulling
(c) Forcing a constant current and measuring the voltage across the
unknown resistor
(d) Applying a constant voltage and measuring the current through the
unknown resistor.

33. What voltage would a voltmeter with impedance 20,000 and range 0-1V show
in the circuit given below ? (IES-EE-1997)

(a) 82 mV (b) 100 mV (c) 118 mV (d) 5 V

34. For the voltmeter circuit shown in the given figure, the basic D‟ Arsonval meter
used has full-scale current of 1 mA and meter resistance (Rm) of 100 ohms. The
values of the series resistance R1 amd R2 required for 10V range and 50V range
will be respectively. (IES-EE-1997)

30
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (a) 9.9k and 40k (b) 10k and 50k
(c) 20k and 30k (d) 200k and 250k

35. Which of the following measurement can be made with the help of a frequency
counter ? (IES-EE-1998)
1. Fundamental frequency of input signal
2. Frequency components of the input signal at least upto third harmonic
3. Time interval between two pulses
4. Pulse width
Select the correct answer using the codes given below :
(a) 1, 3 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 2 and 4 (d) 1 and 2

36. A high frequency ac signal is applied to a PMMC instrument. If the rms value of
the ac signal is 2V, then the reading of the instrument will be (IES-EE-
1998)
(a) zero (b) 2V (c) 2 V (d) 4 V

37. A current I = (10 + 10 sint) amperes is passed through a ideal iron type ammeter.
Its reading will be (IES-EE-1998)
(a) 0 A (b) 10 A (c) A (d) 10 A

38. A dc electronic voltmeter using chopper stabilization is free from errors due to
(IES-EE-1999)
(a) low CMMR (b) amplifier drift
(c) source output impedance (d) interference

39. A symmetrical square wave voltage is read on an average response electronic

voltmeter whose scale is calibrated in terms of rms value of a sinusoidal wave.
The error in the readings is (IES-EE-1999)
(a) - 3.9% (b) + 3.9% (c) - 11% (d) + 11%

40. Consider the following A/D converters used commonly in digital instruments :
(IES-EE-1999)
1. Successive approximation type
2. Flash type
3. Dual slope type

31
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 The correct sequence in increasing order of their conversion times is
(a) 1, 2, 3 (b) 2, 3, 1 (c) 2, 1, 3 (d) 3, 1, 2

41. When a current i(t) = 5 + 10cos314t is measured by an electro dynamic ammeter,

the meter will read (IES-EE-1999)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

42. Consider the network shown in the given figure if a voltmeter of internal
resistance 10 k reads V1 and V2 respectively when connected across 5 k and
10 k in turn, then (IES-EE-1999)

(a) V1 > V2/2 (b) V1 < V2/2 (c) V1 = V2/2 (d) V1 = 6.67V
43. Consider the following statements in respect of thermoelectric instruments :
1. They indicate the rms value of current or voltage.
2. They suffer from waveform errors.
3. They can be used for frequency ranges of the order MHz.
4. They have a low overload capacity.
Which of these statements are correct ? (IES-EE-2000)
(a) 1, 3 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 4 (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 2, 3 and 4

44. To eliminate 50Hz pick-up in a dual slope DVM, the minimum period of
integration of the input signal is (IES-EE-2000)

(a) 1 ms (b) 20 ms (c) 1 s (d) 100 s

45. Which one of the following sets of building block mainly decides the accuracy of
a frequency counter ? (IES-EE-2000)
(a) Crystal and ADC (b) ADC and DAC
(c) DAC and gate width generator (d) Gate width generator and crystal

46. A dc circuit can be represented by an internal voltage source of 50V with an

output resistance of 100 k . In order to achieve accuracy better than 99% for
voltage measurement across its terminals, the voltage measuring device should
have a resistance of at least (IES-EE-2001)

32
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (a) 10M (b) 1M (c) 10k (d) 1k
47. Which of the following are the characteristics of a thermocouple type of
indicating instrument ? (IES-EE-2001)
1. Its accuracy is very high, as high as about 1 percent.
2. It has a linear scale because a d‟Arsonval movement is used for measuring
the output.
3. It is an RF instrument and can be used for frequency up to about 50 MHz.
4. It cannot be damaged by overloads.
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 3

48. An ac voltmeter using full-wave rectification and having a sinusoidal input has an
ac sensitivity equal to (IES-EE-2001)
(a) 1.414 times dc sensitivity (b) dc sensitivity
(c) 0.90 times dc sensitivity (d) 0.707 timnes dc sensitivity

49. The circuit generally used in digital instruments to convert sine waves into
rectangular pulses is a (IES-EE-2001)
(a) saw tooth amplifier (b) differential amplifier
(c) sample and hold circuit (d) Schmitt trigger

50. Assertion (A) : A full-wave rectifier type a.c. voltmeter reads the true rms value
of the input waveform.
Reason (R) : The full wave rectifier type a.c. voltmeter has a rectifier unit first
which feed its output to the PMMC indicative instrument (IES-EE-2002)
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true

51. Consider the following statements about the D‟ Arsonval Movement:

1. It is best suited for d.c. current measurement
2. It responds to the average value of current
3. It measures the r.m.s value of a.c. currents
4. It could be used for power measurement
Which of these statements is/are correct? (IES-EE-2002)
(a) Only 1 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

52. Two meters X and Y require 40mA and 50mA, respectively, to give full-scale
deflection, then (IES-EE-2002)
(a) Sensitivity can not be judged with given information
(b) Both are equally sensitive
(c) X is more sensitive

33
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (d) Y is more sensitive

53. Three d.c. voltmeters are connected in series across a 120 V dc supply. The
voltmeters are specified as follows: (IES-EE-2003)
Voltmeter A : 100V, 5mA
Voltmeter B : 100V, 250ohms/V
Voltmeter C : 10mA, 15,000 ohms
The voltages read by the meters A, B and C are respectively
(a) 40, 50 and 30 V (b) 40, 40 and 40 V
(c) 60, 30 and 30 V (d) 30, 60 and 30 V

54. Which one of the following multi-range voltmeters has high and constant input
impedance ? (IES-EE-2003)
(a) Permanent magent moving coil voltmeter
(b) Electronic voltmeter
(c) Moving iron voltmeter
(d) Dynamometer type voltmeter

55. A multimeter is used for the measurement of the following

1. Both a.c. and d.c. voltage
2. Both a.c. & d.c. current
3. Resistance
4. Frequency
5. Power
Select the correct answer using the codes given below : (IES-EE-2003)
(a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 5 (c) 1, 3 and 5 (d) 1, 2 and 3

56. Which of the following are data representation elements in a generalized

measurement system ?
1. Analog indicator
2. Amplifier
3. A/D converter
4. Digital display
Select the correct answer using the codes given below (IES-EE-2003)
(a) 1 & 2 (b) 1 & 4 (c) 2 & 4 (d) 3 & 4

57. Integrating principle in the digital measurement is the conversion of

(IES-EE-2003)
(a) Voltage to time (b) Voltaghe to frequency
(c) Voltage to current (d) Current to voltage

34
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
58. Which of the following are data representation elements in a generalized
measurement system ? (IES-EE-2003)
1. Analog indicator
2. Amplifier
3. A/D converter
4. Digital display
Select the correct answer using the codes given below
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 4 (c) 2 and 4 (d) 3 and 4

59. Which one of the following decides the precision of integrating digital voltmeter
?
(IES-EE-2004)
(a) Reference voltage of analog comparator
(b) Slope of the generated ramp
(c) Width of the generated pulses
(d) Electronic counter

60. Which one of the following is basically a current sensitive instrument ?

(IES-EE-2004)
(a) Permanent magnet moving coil instrument
(b) Cathode ray oscilloscope
(c) Electrostatic instrument
(d) FET input electronic voltmeter
61. Which one of the following types of instruments can be used to determine the
r.m.s value of a.c. voltage of high magnitude (10 kV) and of any wave shape ?
(IES-EE-2004)
(a) Moving iron instruments (b) Dynamometer type instruments
(c) Induction instruments (d) Electrostatic instruments
62. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given
below the lists : (IES-EE-2004)
List-I
A. Dynamometer instrument
B. Thermocouple based instrument
C. Ramp generator
D. Weston standard cell
List-II
1. True r.m.s valuemeter
2. Transfer instrument between a.c and dc
3. time base of CRO
4. Standard of electromotive force (Emf)
Codes :
A B C D
(a) 4 1 3 2
(b) 4 3 1 2
(c) 2 1 3 4
(d) 2 3 1 4
35
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
63. Which one of the following statements I correct? An electronic voltmeter is more
reliable as compared to multi meter for measuring voltage across low impedance
because (IES-EE-2004)
(a) its sensitivity is high
(b) it offers high input impedance
(c) it does not alter the measured voltage
(d) its ensitivity, and input impedance are high and do not alter the
measured value.

64. Assertion (A) : An electronic voltmeter measures the voltage across a high
resistance more accurately as compared to an ordinary multimeter.
Reason (R) : The electronic voltmeter consists of a voltage amplifier which is
not present in an ordinary multi meter. (IES-EE-2004)
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true

65. Which one of the following statements is correct? (IES-EE-2004)

The deflection of hot wire instrument depends on
(a) r.m.s value of the a.c. current (b) r.m.s value of the a.c. voltage
(c) average value of the a.c. current (d) average value of the a.c. voltage
66. A d‟Arsonval movement with internal resistance R = 100 and full scale
current of 1mA is to be converted into (0 – 10)V range. What is the required
resistance? (IES-EE-2004)
(a) 10 K (b) 10100 (c) 9900 (d) 12000

67. In modern electronic multi meter a FET or MOSFET is preferred over BJT
because (IES-EE-2005)
(a) its input resistance is low (b) its input resistance is high
(c) its input resistance is high and does not vary with the change or range
(d) it is cheapter

68. Match List-I (type of Electronic voltmeter) with List-II (major characteristic) and
select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists : (IES-EE-2005)
List-I
A. Amplifier – rectifier B. Rectifier - amplifier
C. True R.M.S D. Logarithmic
List-II
1. wide input-signal dynamic range
2. High sensitivity, limited bandwidth
3. Limited sensivity, large bandwidth
4. Capability to read non-sinusoidal ac
Codes :
A B C D

36
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (a) 4 1 2 3
(b) 2 3 4 1
(c) 4 3 2 1
(d) 2 1 4 3

69. Match List-I (Specifications of Voltages to be measured) with List-II (Type of

Most suitable instruments) and select the correct answer using the codes given
below the lists : (IES-EE-2005)
List-I
A. 0-10 mV form a source of internal resistance of 1M
B. Thermo-emf ranging up to 5mV – from a thermocouple
C. Supply voltage of 230 V, 50 Hz
D. R.M.S value of a voltage containing DC and ripples of 50 Hz and harmonic
List-II
1. Thermal
2. Moving Iron
3. Permanent magnetic moving coil
4. Electronic
5. Ballistic galvanometer
Codes :
A B C D
(a) 2 3 5 1
(b) 4 1 2 3
(c) 2 1 5 3
(d) 4 3 2 1
70. Chopper stabilized d.c. amplifier type electronic voltmeter overcomes the effect
of (IES-EE-2005)
(a) Amplifier CMRR (b) Amplifier sensitivity
(c) Amplifier drift (d) Electromagnetic interference

71. The reference voltage and the input voltage are sequentially connected to the
integrator with the help of a switch in a (IES-EE-2005)
(a) Successive approximation A/D converter
(b) Dual slope integration A/D converter
(c) Voltage to time converter
(d) Voltage to frequency converter

72. Match List-I (Type of DVM) with List-II (Sub-component in ADC) and select
the correct answer using the codes given below the lists : (IES-
EE-2005)
List-I List-II
A. Ramp type 1. DAC
B. Dual slope 2. Voltage to time Converter
C. Servo-type 3. Pulse-generator
D. Successive approximation 4. Potentiometer
5. Capacitor
Codes :
37
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 A B C D
(a) 2 1 4 5
(b) 4 5 3 1
(c) 2 5 4 1
(d) 4 1 3 5

73. Which one of the following digital voltmeter is most suitable to eliminate the
effect of period noise ? (IES-EE-2005)
(a) Ramp type digital voltmeter
(b) Integrating type digital voltmeter
(c) Succesive approximation type digital voltmeter
(d) Servo type digital voltmeter

74. Consider the following statements : (IES-EE-2005)

1. Buffer
2. Differentiator
3. Integrator
4. Comparator
Which of the above is/are components in a dual slope integrating type
voltmeter?
(a) 1, 3 and 4 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 3 and 4 (d) 2 only

75. What is the range for a digital meter ? (IES-EE-2006)

(a) 0 to 1999 (b) 0 to 1500 (c) 0 to 999 (d) 0 to 19999
76. Principle of Hall effect is used in the construction of which one of the following?
(IES-EE-2006)
(a) Ammeter (b) Voltmeter (c) Galvanometer (d) Gauss meter

77. A rectifier instrument is used to measure an alternating square wave, of amplitude

100 V. What is the meter reading ? (IES-EE-2006)
(a) 100 V (b) 70.7 V (c) 111 V (d) none of the above

78. Which of the following indicating instruments has/have linear scale ?

1. Moving – iron meter
2. Permanent magnet moving – coil meter
3. Thermocouple meter
4. Rectifier type meter
Select the correct answer using the code given below : (IES-EE-2006)
(a) only 1 and 2 (b) only 2 and
(c) only 3 and 4 (d) only 2

79. A sinusoidal voltage of 1 V r.m.s value at 10Hz is applied across the two
terminals of a PMMC type of voltmeter. What is the deflectin of the pinter ?
(IES-EE-2006)

38
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (a) Zero volt (b) 1 volt (c) 2 volt
(d) The pointer oscillates around zero volt

80. A moving coil instrument gives full – scale deflection for 1 mA and has a
resistance of 5 is connected in parallel to the instrument, what is the maximum
value of current it can measure. (IES-EE-2006)
(a) 5mA (b) 10mA (c) 50mA (d) 100mA

81. What is the series resistance required to extend the 0-100V range of a 20000
/V meter to 0-1000 V ? (IES-EE-2006)
(a) 10M (b) 16M (c) 18M (d) 20M

82.

A waveform shown in the figure above, is fed to a d.c. ammeter. What is the
reading shown by the meter ? (IES-EE-2008)

(a) Zero (b) 50mA (c) 75mA (d) 100mA

83. The principle of Hall effect is made use of in the construction of which one of the
following ? (IES-EE-2008)
(a) Ammeter (b) Voltmeter (c) Gauss meter (d) Galvanometer

84. Assertion (A) : A PMMC instrument is used for reading both d.c. and a.c. signals
Reason (R) : The deflecting torque in a PMMC instrument is directly
proportional to the current in the moving coil (IES-EE-2008)
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true

85. How can a milli-ammeter be used as a voltmeter ? (IES-EE-2008)

(a) By connecting a low resistance in parallel with the instrument
(b) By connecting a high resistance in parallel with the instrument
(c) By connecting a low resistance in series with the instrument
(d) By connecting a high resistance in series with the instrument

39
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
86. A D‟Arsonval galvanometer, 1 mA, 50 ohm is to be converted ot a 5 Amp-
ammeter. What is the value of the shunt resistor, Rsh? (IES-EE-2009)

(a) 10 ohm (b) 1 ohm (c) 0.01 ohm (d) 100 ohm
87. Which amplifier is used in an electronic multimeter ? (IES-EE-2008)
(a) Power amplifier (b) buffer amplifier
(c) Differential amplifier (d) wideband amplifier

88. A 100 KV, 50 Hz supply is fed to a rectifier ammeter (using a bridge rectifier)
though a capacitor. The PMMC ammeter of the rectifier instrument reads
45 10-3 Amp. What is the value of the capacitor ? (IES-EE-2009)
-10 -12
(a) 15.90 10 F (b) 15.90 10 F
-9
(c) 17.66 10 F (d) 17.66 10-11 F

89. Assertion (A) : An electronic millivoltmeter used to read very low a.c voltage at
high frequencies is an amplifier-rectifier type of meter
Reason (R) : The diodes cannot rectify low a.c. voltages of millivolt order.
(IES-EE-2009)
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true

90. Assertion (A) : To increase the range of an ammeter to measure high currents, it
is required to connect a high resistor in shunt across the ammeter.
Reason (R) : The shunt resistor will divert the excess current an allow nly the
rated current to pass through the deflecting system of the ammeter
(IES-EE-2009)
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true

91. Assertion (A) : The sensitivity of a voltmeter is often expressed in terms of

ohms-per volt.
Reason (R) : High sensitivity voltmeters use a basic d‟Arsonval meter which has
high sensitivity (IES-EE-2009)
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true

40
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
92. In a digital voltmeter, the oscillator frequency is 400 kHz. The ramp voltage falls
from 8V to 0V in 20 ms. What is the number of pulses counted by the counter ?
(IES-EE-2009)
(a) 8000 (b) 4000 (c) 3200 (d) 1600

93. Consider the following statements :

The A to converter used in a digital instrument could be
1. Successive approximation converter type
2. Flash converter type
3. Dual slope converter type
The correct sequence in the increasing order of the conversion time taken by
these type is (IES-EE-2010)
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 1 and 3 (c) 1, 3 and 2 (d) 2, 3 and 1

94. Consider the following statements :

1. The main drawback of digital system is that the real wold is mainly analog
2. The major advantage of digital instruments over analog instruments is
higher accuracy and better resolution.
3. Digital instruments are ordinarily used for the measurement of both analog
and digital quantities.
Which of the above statements is/are correct ? (IES-EE-2010)
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 2 only (d) 1 and 2 only

95. A 4-digit DVM (digital voltmeter) with a 100mV lowest full-scale range would
have a sensitivity of how much value while resolution of this DVM is 0.0001?
(IES-EE-2010)
(a) 0.1 mV (b) 0.01 mV (c) 1.0 mV (d) 10 mV

96. The precision of a ramp type digital voltmeter depends on (IES-EE-2010)

(a) frequency of the generator and slope of the ramp
(b) frequency of the generator
(c) slope of the ramp
(d) switching time of the gate

97. A 1 mA meter movement with an internal resistance of 100 is to be converted

into (0 – 100) mA. To achieve this, value of shunt resistance Rsh is given by
(IES-EE-2010)
(a) 1 k (b) 200 (c) 1.01 (d) 1.01 k
98. The value of a shunt resistance required to convert an ammeter of 1mA with 100
omterma; resostamces omtp (0-100) mA ammeter is (IES-EE-2010)

41
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (a) 22 (b) 1.01 (c) 1.2 (d) 1.1

99. A moving coil ammeter having a resistance of 1 ohm gives full scale deflection
when a current of 10mA is passed through it. The instrument can be used for the
measurement of voltage up to 10V by (IES-EE-2010)
(a) connecting a resistance of 999 ohm in series with the instrument
(b) connecting a resistance of 999 ohm parallel to the ammeter
(c) connecting a resistance of 999 ohm parallel to the load
(d) connecting a resistance of 1000 ohm in series with the load

100. The value of the multiplier resistance for a dc voltmeter, having 50V range with
5 k /V sensitivity, employing a 200 A meter movement and having internal
resistance of 100 , is given by (IES-EE-2010)
(a) 249.9 k (b) 200 k (c) 200 k (d) 2.5 k

101. A basic D‟Arsonval movement with a full scale deflection of 50 A and internal
resistance of 500 is used as voltmeter. The value of the multiplier resistance
needed to employ this meter to measure a voltage range of (0-10)V is given by
(IES-EE-2010)
(a) 100 k (b) 500 k (c) 199.5 k (d) 2 105 k

102. The sensitivity of 200 A meter movement when it is used as a dc voltmeter is

given by (IES-EE-2010)
(a) 500 /mV (b) 5 /V (c) 0.5 /mV (d) 5 /mV

103. If a high frequency AC signal, whose r.m.s. value is V, is applied to a PMMC

instrument, then the reading of the instrument will be (IES-EE-2010)
(a) 2 V (b) V (c) 1 V (d) zero

104. Assertion (A) : A thermocouple type of indicating instrument measures the true
rms value of the current that passes through it.
Reason (R) : It uses a PMMC type of indicating instrument to measure the
current (IES-EE-2010)
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true

105. Statement (I) : A hot-wire instrument gives the r.m.s value of the current
measured.
Statement (II) : The heat generated is dependent on the average value of the
current (IES-EE-2012)
42
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
106. A shunt resistance of 25 is required for extending the range of an ammeter
from 100 A to 500 A. The value of internal resistance of this ammeter will be
(IES-EE-2012)
(a) 25 (b) 50 (c) 100 (d) 1000

107. By mistake, an ammeter is used as a voltmeter. In all probabilities, it will

(IES-EE-2012)
(a) give much higher reading (b) give extremely low reading
(c) indicate no reading at all (d) get damaged

108. A 50 A meter with an internal resistance of 1 k is to be used as a DC

voltmeter of range 50V. Then the voltage multiplying factor m is
(IES-EE-2012)
(a) 100 (b) 10 (c) 1000 (d) 10000

109. The value of resistance Rs to be added in series with an ammeter whose full-scale
deflection is of 0.1 mA and internal resistance is of 500 , to make it suitable to
measure (0-10) V is (IES-EE-2012)
(a) 0.02 k (b) 99.5 k (c) 500.02 (d) 499.98

110. An electronic voltmeter gives more accurate readings in high resistance circuits
as compared to a non-electronic voltmeter because of its (IES-EE-2012)
(a) low meter resistance (b) high k /V rating
(c) high V/k rating (d) high resolution

111. Modern electronic multimeters measure resistance by (IES-EE-2012)

(a) taking advantage of an electronic bridge compensator for nulling
(b) forcing a constant current and measuring the voltage across
unknown resistance
(c) using a bridge circuit
(d) applying a constant voltage across the unknown resistance and measuring
the current through it.

112. Statement (I) : An electronic voltmeter measures the voltage across high-value
resistor more accurately ad compared with an ordinary multimeter.
Reason (R) : The input impedance of many orders of magnitude higher then that
of an ordinary multimeter. (IES-EE-2012)
113. A frequency counter can be used for the measurement of (IES-EE-2012)
1. fundamental frequency of input signal
2. time interval between two pulses
Which of these is/are correct?

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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Neither 1 nor 2 (d) Both 1 and 2

114. In a digital voltmeter, the oscillator frequency is 400 kHz. A ramp voltage to be
measured by this voltmeter falls from 8 V to 0 V in 20 ms. The number of pulses
counted by the counter is (IES-EE-2013)
(a) 8000 (b) 4000 (c) 3200 (d) 1600

115. While using a frequency counter for measuring frequency, two modes of
measurement are possible. (i) Period mode (ii) Frequency mode. There is a
„cross-over frequency‟ below which the period mode is preferred. Assuming the
crystal oscillator frequency to be 4 MHZ the corss-over frequency is given by
(IES-EE-2013)
(a) 8 MHz (b) 2 MHz (c) 2 kHz (d) 1 kHz

116. An 8-bit successive approximation DVM of 5V range is used to measure 1.2 v.

the contents of the SAR after 5 clock pulses is (IES-EE-2013)
(a) 01010000 (b) 00111100 (c) 00111000 (d) 00110111

117. A frequency counter needs to measure a frequency of 15 Hz. Its signal gating
time is 2s. What is the percentage accuracy of the counter, taking into account the
gating error ? (IES-EE-2013)
(a) 3.33% (b) 13.33% (c) 98.67% (d) 96.67%

118. The number of bits of A/D converter required to convert an analog input in the
range of 0-5 volt to an accuracy of 10mV is (IES-EE-2013)
(a) 8 (b) 9 (c) 10 (d) 16

119. A current i = 5 + 14.14 sin(314t + 450) is passed through a centre-zero PMMC,

hot-wire, and moving-iron instrument, the respective readings are (IES-EE-2013)
(a) -5, 15 and (b) 5, and
(c) -5, and 19.14 (d) 5, 10 and 10

120. Which of the following instrument will be used to measure a small current of
very high frequency ? (IES-EE-2013)
(a) Electrodynamic ammeter (b) Moving coil galvanometer
(c) Thermocouple type instrument (d) Induction type instrument

121. A 0.5 resistance is required to be connected in parallel to a moving coil

instrument whose full scale deflection is 1 mA; so that this instrument can
measure 10 mA current. Internal resistance of this instrument is (IES-EE-2013)
(a) 5.0 (b) 4.5 (c) 2.25 (d) 0.45

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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
122. An 1-m Amp, 50 Galvanometer is required to measure 5 Amp (full scale).
Find out the value of resistance to be added, across (shunt) the Galvanometer to
accomplish this measurement. (IES-EE-2013)
(a) 10 (b) 0.01 (c) 1.0 (d) 0.001

123. To minimize voltmeter loading (IES-EE-2013)

(a) Voltmeter operating current has to be very small
(b) Voltmeter operating current has to be very high
(c) resistance connected in series with the coil should be low
(d) resistance connected in parallel with the coil should be high.

124. Electronic voltmeters which use rectifiers employ negative feedback. This is
done (IES-EE-2013)
(a) to increase the overall gain
(b) to improve the stability
(c) to overcome the non-linearity of diodes
(d) to increase the bandwidth

125. Electrostatic voltmeters are particularly suitable for measuring high voltages
because the construction is simplified due to (IES-EE-2014)
(a) Large electrostatic forces (b) Small electrostatic forces
(c) Large value of current (d) Small value of current

126. A DVM uses 10 MHz clock and has a voltage controlled generator which
provides a width of 5 s/volt of unit signal. 10 V input signal would correspond
to a pulse count of (IES-EE-2014)

(a) 500 (b) 750 (c) 250 (d) 1000

3. FREQUENCY METERS & POWER FACTOR METERS

Frequency Meters
The different types of frequency meters are:
1. Mechanical Resonance type.
2. Electrical Resonance type
3. Electrodynamometer type
4. Weston type
5. Ratio meter type
6. Saturable core type

1. MECHANICAL RESONANCE TYPE FREQUENCY METER:

� It is also called as vibrating Reed type frequency meter.

� The meter consists of a number of thin steel strips called reeds.
� These reeds are placed in a row alongside and close to an electromagnet.

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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 � The natural frequency of vibration of the reeds, depends upon their weights
and dimensions
� Since the reeds have different weights and sizes, their natural frequencies of
vibration are different.
� The reeds are fixed at the bottom end and are free at the top end.
� When the frequency meter is connected across the supply whose frequency is
to be measured, the coil of electromagnet carries a current i which alternates
at the supply frequency.
� The force of attraction between the reeds and the electromagnet is proportional
to i2 therefore this force varies at twice the supply frequency.
� Thus the force exerted on the reeds varies every half cycle. All the reeds will
tend to vibrate, but the reed whose natural frequency is equal to twice the
frequency of supply will be in resonance and will vibrate most.
� The disadvantage is that such instruments cannot be read much closer than
half the frequency difference between adjacent reeds.

2. ELECTRODYNAMOMETER TYPE FREQUENCY METER:

� The two parts of fixed coil are arranged as shown in the diagram, their return
circuits being through the movable coil.
� The torque on the movable element is proportional to the current through the
moving coil.
� This current is the sum of the currents in the two parts of the fixed coil.
� For applied frequency, within the limits of the frequency range of the
instrument, the circuit of fixed coil I operates above resonant frequency (as
XLz >XC1) with current i1 through it, lagging the applied voltage.
� The circuit of fixed coil 2 operates below the resonant frequency (as Xc2> XL2)
with current i2 leading the applied voltage.
� One fixed coil circuit is inductive and the other is capacitive and therefore the
torques produced by the two currents i1 and i2 act in opposition on the moving
coil.
� The resultant torque is a function of frequency of the applied voltage, and
therefore the meter scale can be calibrated in terms of frequency.

3. FERRO DYNAMIC TYPE FREQUENCY METER:

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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 � It consists of a fixed coil which is connected across the supply whose
frequency is to be measured.
� This coil is called magnetizing coil.
� The magnetizing coil is mounted on a laminated iron core.
� The iron core has a cross section which varies gradually over the length, being
measured near the end where the magnetizing coil is mounted and minimum
at the other end.
� A moving coil is pivoted over this iron core.
� A pointer is attached to the moving coil.
� The terminals of the moving coil are connected to a suitable capacitor C.
� For a fixed frequency the capacitance reactance is constant and the inductive
reactance of moving coil is not constant.
� The is becaue the inductance of moving coil is dependent upon the position
which the moving coil occupies on the iron core.
� This inductance and hence inductive reactance is maximum when the moving
coil occupies a position close to the magnetizing coil and minimum when it is
at the other end.
� The value of capacitance C is so chosen that the moving coil occupies a
convenient mean
Position on the iron core when the frequency is at its normal value.
The coil will come to rest when XL=XC√
or when f = 1 (i.e) under conditions of electrical resonance.
2π√LC

4. WESTON FREQUENCY METER:

� This frequency meter consists of two coils mounted perpendicular to each
other.
� Each coil is divided into two sections.
� The meter is connected across the supply and the two coils carry currents.
� These currents set up two magnetic fields which are at right angles to each
other.
� Both these field act upon the soft iron needle and the needle takes up a
position which depends upon the relative magnitudes of the two field and
hence of the currents.

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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 � The meter is so designed that the values of various resistance and inductance
are such that for normal frequency of supply the value of voltage drops across
reactance LA and resistance RB send equal currents through coils A and B.
� Now if the frequency increases above its normal value, reactances of LA and
LB increase while resistance RA and RB remain the same.
� This means that with an increase in frequency, the voltage impressed upon coil
A increases as compared with that across the coil B.
� Hence the current in coil A increases while it decreases in coil B.
� The tendency of the needle is to deflect towards the stronger field and
therefore, it tends to set itself in line with axis of coil A.
� Thus the pointer deflects to the left.

5. SATURABLE CORE FREQUENCY METER:

� This meter has a saturable core transformer as its primary detector.
� The core assembly consists of three parts viz:
(i) An outer core which is made of magnetic material and has a sufficiently
large cross-section so that it does not saturate;
(ii) A leg A made of non – magnetic material;
(iii) A leg B which is made of magnetic material, the cross section of leg A
being the same as that of B. The leg B saturates at low values of m.m.f.
� The primary winding is wound around both legs A and B.
� The secondary winding consists of two coils, one around leg and the other
around B.
� The two coils are connected in series.
� The emf‟s induced in these coils oppose each other.
� When there is saturation, the rate of increase of induced voltage in the
secondary coil over leg A will equal the rate of increase of induced voltage in
secondary coil wound over magnetic leg B.
� Thus the rate of increase in these two coils will cancel, and the secondary
output voltage will not be a function of the primary voltage but will be a
function of frequency only.

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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
POWER FACTOR METERS:

Power factor can be calculated from the relationship cos =(P/VI) where i is the
current in the circuit, v is the voltage measured and P is the power measured. This
method of determining the power factor of an electric circuit, is however, of low
accuracy, in contrast, power factor meters indicate directly, by a single reading, the
power factor of the circuit to which they are connected.
There are two types of power factor meters:
❖ Electrodynamometer type
❖ Moving Iron type.

1. SINGLE PHASE ELECTRODYNAMOMETER POWER FACTOR METER:

❖ The construction of a single phase electrodynamometer type power factor
meter is as shown
❖ It consists of a fixed coil which acts as the current coil.
❖ This coil is split up into two parts and carries the current of the circuit under
test.
❖ Two identical pressure coils A and B pivoted on a spindle constitute the
moving system.
❖ This values of R and L are so adjusted that the two coils carry the same value
of current at normal frequency (I,e) R =w L.
❖ The current through coil A is in phase with the circuit voltage while that
through coil B lags the voltage by an angle which is nearly equal to 900
❖ The angle between the planes of coils is also made equal to
Deflecting torque acting on coil A is: TA = KVI Mmax Cos sin where
=angular deflection from the plane of reference. Mmax = Maximum value of mutual
inductance between the two coils. This torque say acts in the clockwise direction.
Deflecting torque acting on coil B is: TB = KVI Mmaxcos (900 + ) =KVI
Mmaxsin cos this torque acts in anticlockwise direction. At equilibrium, TA = TB =
= therefore the deflection of the instrument is a measure of phase angle of the
circuit

2. MOVING IRON POWER FACTOR METER:

Rotating Field Power Factor Meter:

❖ A1, A2,A3are three fixed coils, with their axes displaced 1200from each other
and intersecting on the centre line of the instrument. These three coils are
connected respectively in lines 1,2 and 3 of a three phase supply
❖ Two sector shaped iron vanes V re fixed to the cylinder C, The two are 1800
apart in space. The spindle also carriers damping vanes and a pointer. There
are no control springs.
❖ Coil P and the iron sstem produce an alternating flux, which interacts with the
fluxes produced by coils A1 ,A2 and A3, this causes the moving system to take
up an angular position determined by the phase angle of the current.
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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
The total deflecting torque,

For a steady state deflection, the total torque must be zero.

Also considering the system to be balanced (I, e) I1,=I2=I3, we have,

Solving the above expression, we have : =

PREVIOUS QUESTIONS

One Mark Questions

01. For a given frequency, the deflecting torque of an induction ammeter is directly
proportional to (GATE-EE-1996)
(a) current2 (b) current3 (c) (d) current

02. A two-phase load draws the following phase currents: i1(t) = Im sin ( t- ),
i2(t) = Im cos ( t- ), These currents are balanced if is equal to
(GATE-EE-2012)

(a) - (b) (c) (d)

Two Marks Questions

03. The ac bridge shown in the figure is used to measure the impedance Z. If the
bridge is balanced for oscillator frequency f = 2 kHz, then the impedance Z will
be (GATE-EE-2008)

50
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (a) (260 + j0) (b) (0 + j200)
(c) (260 – j200) (d) (260 + j200)

4. Q- METER
Q Meter are intended to measure the Q (quality factor) of an inductance or
capacitor.
Q=wL=1= IXL=IXc=Vc or Va
So the voltage across the capacitor or coil is Q times the applied voltage. If the
applied voltage is kept constant, a voltmeter across the coil or capacitor can be
calibrated in terms of Q.

� The basic circuit for the measurement of Q consists of an oscillator having a

range up to 50MHz whose output is connected to a very low resistor (0.02Ω).
� The voltage across the resistor is measured by a thermo couple voltmeter.
� This is the applied voltage by which the Q value has to be multiplied.
� The oscillator voltage across the low resistor is applied to a series resonant
circuit consisting of unknown coil and inherent resistance and a variable
capacitor.
� The capacitor is tuned to the oscillator frequency and the voltage across the
capacitor is measured by a voltmeter calibrated is Q value.
� This Q value multiplied by the Q value across the resistor is the actual Q.

Unknown coil

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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
The method described is a direct measurement of Q These are two other methods,
series connection and parallel connection.
Series Connection:
In series connection method the unknown value component is connected in series with
the resonant circuit. This method is employed for measurement of low value resistors,
small coils and large capacitors.

At resonance, ω L= 1 and Q1= ωL= 1

ωC1 R ωC1 R

Xs= C1-C2
ω C1-C2
Rs = Q1 C1 – Q2 C2
ω C1 C2 Q1 C2
Qx = Xs= (C1-C2) Q1

Parallel Connection:
In parallel connection, the unknown component is connected in parallel to the
capacitor, in the series resonant circuit. This method is employed for measurement of
high value resistors, certain inductors and small capacitors.

The main error in the measurement of Q is due to distributed or stray capacitance of

the circuity. To check for this, the Q is measured at two frequencies f1 and 2f1. It
should be same if not,

PREVIOUS QUESTIONS

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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
One Mark Questions

01. A reading of 120 is obtained when a standard inductor was connected in the
circuit of a Q-meter and the variable capacitor is adjusted to a value of 300 pF. A
lossless capacitor of unknown value C, is then connected and the same reading
was obtained when the variable capacitor is readjusted to a value of 200 pF. The
value of Cx in pF is (GATE-EE-2003)
(a) 100 (b) 200 (c) 300 (d) 500

02. The Q-meter works on the principle of (GATE-EE-2005)

(a) a mutual inductance (b) self inductance
(c) series resonance (d) parallel resonance

Two Marks Questions

03. The figure shows input attenuator of a multimeter. The meter reads full-scale
with 12 V at M with the range switch at position B obtain full-scale deflection
with the range switch position at D ? (GATE-
EE-1998)

(a) 1 V (b) 150 V (c) 120 V (d) 147 V

04. The voltage phasor of a circuit is 10 150 V and the current phasor is 2 450 A
The active and the reactive powers in the circuit are (GATE-EE-1999)
(a) 10 W and 17.32 V Ar. (b) 5 W and 8.66 V Ar.
53
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (c) 20 W and 60 V Ar. (d) 20 W and 10 V Ar.
05. When esting a coil having a resistance of 10 ohms. Resonance occurred when the
oscillator frequency was 10 MHz and the rotating capacitor was set at 500/2 pF.
The effective value of Q of the coil is (IES-EE-1993)
(a) 200 (b) 254 (c) 314 (d) 542

06. In measurements made using a Q-meter, high impedance should preferably be

connected in (IES-EE-1994)
(a) star (b) delta (c) series (d) parallel

07. Consider the following statements regarding the sources of error in a Q – meter :
1. If a coil with a resistance R is connected in the direct measurement mode
and if the residual resistance of the Q-meter is 0.1 R, then the measured Q of
the coil would be 1.1 times the actual Q.
2. If the inductance to be measured is less than 0.1 M, the error due to
the presence of residual inductance cannot be neglected.
3. The presence of distributed capacitance in a coilo modifies the effective Q
of the coil. Of these statements (IES-
EE-1995)
(a) 1, 2 and 3 are correct (b) 1 and 2 are correct
(c) 2 and 3 are correct (d) 1 and 3 are correct
08. Assertion (A) : Q – meter cannot be used with a acapacitive element
Reason (R) : The Q value of a coil is the ratio of L to its resistance R.
(IES-EE-1995)
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true

09. If Qe is the effective Q of the coil, C is the resonance capacitance and Cd is the
distributed capacitance, then the true Q in a Q – meter will be (IES-EE-1996)
(a) Qe[(C + Ca) / C] (b) Qe[C/(C + Cd)]
(c) Qe[Cd/(C + Cd)] (d) Qe[(C + Cd)/Cd]

10. A Q-meter is supplied with an oscillator having a 500 mV output voltage. While
testing an unknown inductor, the voltage across the variable capacitance of the Q
– meter, measured by a VTM, is obtained as 10 V. The Q – factor of the inductor
is (IES-EE-1996)
(a) 5 (b) 10 (c) 20 (d) 100

11. In a Q-meter, a small resistance R is added to the series resonance circuit to inject
the oscillatory voltage to the circuit. If Rs is the apparent series resistancfe of the
circuit at resonance, then the value of the actual Q will be equal to

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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
 (IES-EE-1998)

(a) observed (b) observed

(c) observed (d) observed

12. In a Q-meter, an inductor tunes to 2 MHz with 450 pF and to 4MHz with 90pF.
The distributed capacitance of the inductor is (IES-EE-1999)
(a) 30pF (b) 45 pF (c) 90pF (d) 360pF

13. Assertion (A) : The basic principle of operation of a Q-meter is based on the
property of a series – resonant circuit
Reason (R) : If a fixed voltage is applied to a series resonant circuit, the voltage
developed across its capacitor is times the applied voltage. (IES-EE-2000)
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
14. In a Q meter measurement to determine the self capacitance of a coil, the first
resonance occurred at f1 with C1 = 300pF. The second resonance occurred at
f2 = 2f1 with C2 = 60pF. The self capacitance of coil works out to be
(IES-EE-2003)
(a) 240pF (b) 60pF (c) 360pF (d) 20pF

15. Assertion (A) : The Q-meter measures the Q-factor of a coil when the circuit is
in resonance
Reason (R) : The Q-meter of a coil depends only on its inductance and not on its
resistance (IES-EE-2010)
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true

KEY FOR PREVIOUS QUESTIONS

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

01. C 02. B 03. D 04. C 05. B 06. D

07. D 08. B 09. A 10. D 11. A 12. B

55
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
13. C 14. B 15. C 16. B 17. A 18. B

19. B 20. D 21. D 22. A 23. A 24. C

25. D 26. B 27. B 28. B 29. C 30. D

31. C 32. C 33. C 34. A 35. B 36. B

37. C 38. B 39. A 40. D 41. D 42. C

43. C

Electronic Instruments For Measuring Basic Parameters

01. B 02. A 03. B 04. D 05. D 06. B

07. A 08. D 09. A 10. C 11. B 12. C

13. B 14. B 15. D 16. B 17. A 18. C

19. A 20. C 21. D 22. A 23. B 24. B

25. C 26. A 27. C 28. C 29. C 30. B

31. C 32. C 33. A 34. A 35. A 36. A

37. C 38. A 39. D 40. C 41. B 42. A

43. A 44. B 45. D 46. A 47. D 48. C

49. D 50. D 51. B 52. C 53. A 54. B

55. D 56. B 57. A 58. B 59. A 60. A

61. D 62. C 63. D 64. A 65. A 66. C

67. C 68. B 69. D 70. C 71. B 72. C

73. B 74. C 75. A 76. D 77. C 78. B

79. D 80. B 81. C 82. B 83. C 84. D

85. D 86. C 87. C 88. A 89. A 90. D

91. A 92. A 93. B 94. D 95. B 96. A

97. C 98. B 99. A 100. A 101. C 102. D

103. D 104. B 105. C 106. C 107. D 108. C

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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS
109. B 110. B 111. B 112. A 113. D 114. A

115. C 116. B 117. B 118. B 119. B 120. C

121. B 122. B 123. A 124. C 125. D 126. A

Frequency Meters and Power Factor Meters

01. A 02. B 03. A

Q - Meter

01. A 02. C 03. C 04. A 05. A 06. D

07. C 08. B 09. A 10. C 11. B 12. A

13. A 14. D 15. C

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ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS