TAKORADI TECHNICAL

UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL AND HEALTH
SCIENCES

PROGRAMME: PROFESSIONAL DIPLOMA

(MECHANICAL ENGINEERING)
COURSE TITLE: ENGINEERING
CHEMISTRY
COURSE CODE: BME 501

LECTURE NOTES

BY

FESTUS DE-GRAFT
AGGREY
 INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY

Introduction

Chemistry is a branch of natural science that studies the composition, structure, properties and
change of matter. Chemistry includes topics such as the properties of individual atoms, how
atoms form chemical bonds to create chemical compounds, the interactions of substances
through intermolecular forces that give matter its general properties, and the interactions
between substances through chemical reactions to form different substances.

Chemistry is sometimes called the central science because it bridges other natural sciences,
including physics, geology and biology. The history of chemistry can be traced to what is
called alchemy, which had been practiced for several millennia in various parts of the world.
Alchemy referred to an earlier set of practices that encompassed elements of chemistry,
metallurgy, philosophy, astrology, astronomy, mysticism and medicine. It is often seen as the
link to the quest to turn lead or another common starting material into gold, though in ancient
times the study encompassed many of the questions of modern chemistry being defined as the
study of the composition of waters, movement, growth, embodying, disembodying, drawing
the spirits from bodies and bonding the spirits within bodies by the early 4th century Greek-
Egyptian alchemist. An alchemist was called a ‘chemist’ in popular speech, and later the suffix
"-ry" was added to this to describe the art of the chemist as "chemistry".

Definition of chemistry

The definition of chemistry has changed over time, as new discoveries and theories add to the
functionality of the science. The term "chemistry", in the view of noted scientist Robert Boyle
in 1661, meant the subject of the material principles of mixed bodies. In 1663 the chemist
Christopher Glaser described "chemistry" as a scientific art, by which one learns to dissolve
bodies, and draw from them the different substances on their composition, and how to unite
them again, and exalt them to a higher perfection.

The 1730 definition of the word "chemistry", as used by Georg Ernst Stahl, meant the art of
resolving mixed, compound, or aggregate bodies into their principles; and of composing such
bodies from those principles. In 1837, Jean-Baptiste Dumas considered the word "chemistry"
to refer to the science concerned with the laws and effects of molecular forces. This definition
further evolved until, in 1947, it came to mean the science of substances: their structure, their
properties, and the reactions that change them into other substances - a characterization
accepted by Linus Pauling. More recently, in 1998, Professor Raymond Chang broadened the
definition of "chemistry" to mean the study of matter and the changes it undergoes.
 THE ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Introduction

It is fundamental to the understanding of science that science is understood to be a process of

trial and improvement and represents the best known at the time, not an unerring oracle of
truth. Development of an idea and refinement through testing is shown more in the
understanding of atomic structure.

The current model of atomic structure is the quantum mechanical model. Traditional chemistry
starts with the study of elementary particles, atoms, molecules, substances, metals, crystals and
other aggregates of matter. This matter can be studied in solid, liquid, or gas states, in isolation
or in combination. The interactions, reactions and transformations that are studied in chemistry
are usually the result of interactions between atoms, leading to rearrangements of the chemical
bonds which hold atoms together.

A chemical reaction is a transformation of some substances into one or more different

substances. The basis of such a chemical transformation is the rearrangement of electrons in
the chemical bonds between atoms. It can be symbolically depicted through a chemical
equation, which usually involves atoms as subjects. The number of atoms on the left and the
right in the equation for a chemical transformation is generally said to be equal except in
nuclear or radioactive reactions. The type of chemical reactions a substance may undergo and
the energy changes that may accompany it are constrained by certain basic rules, known as
chemical laws.

Matter

In chemistry, matter is defined as anything that has mass and volume and is made up of
particles. The particles that make up matter have rest mass as well - not all particles have rest
mass, such as the photon. Matter can be a pure chemical substance or a mixture of substances.

a. Element

An element is a pure substance which is composed of a single type of atom,

characterized by its particular number of proton in the nuclei of its atoms, known as the
atomic number and represented by the symbol Z. The mass number is the sum of the
number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus. Although all the nuclei of all atoms
belonging to one element will have the same atomic number, they may not necessarily
have the same mass number. The standard presentation of elements are seen on the
periodic table. The periodic table orders elements by atomic number. The periodic table
is arranged in groups, or columns, and periods, or rows. The periodic table is useful in
identifying periodic trends.
 b. Molecule

A molecule is the smallest indivisible portion of a pure chemical substance that has its
unique set of chemical properties. That is, a molecule has the potential to undergo a
certain set of chemical reactions with other substances. However, this definition only
works well for substances that are composed of molecules. Molecules are typically a set
of atoms bound together by covalent bonds, such that the structure is electrically
neutral.

Charged polyatomic collections residing in solids (for example, common sulfate or

nitrate ions) are generally not considered "molecules" in chemistry. Some molecules
contain one or more unpaired electrons, creating what is called radical. (NH 4+, CO32-).
Most radicals are comparatively reactive, but some, such as nitric oxide (NO) can be
stable.

The "inert" or noble gas elements (helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon) are
composed of lone atoms as their smallest discrete unit, but the other isolated chemical
elements consist of either molecules or networks of atoms bonded to each other in some
way.

One of the main characteristics of a molecule is its geometry often called its structure.
While the structure of diatomic, triatomic or tetra atomic molecules may be trivial,
(linear, angular pyramidal etc.) the structure of polyatomic molecules, that are
constituted of more than six atoms (of several elements) can be crucial for its chemical
nature.

c. Compound

A compound is a pure chemical substance composed of more than one element. The
properties of a compound bear little similarity to those of its elements. When a
compound has more than one component, then they are divided into two classes, the
electropositive and the electronegative components. A compound can either be ionic or
molecular, organic or inorganic. Compounds range from very simple compounds to
complex compounds.

Definition of the atom

The atom is the basic unit of chemistry. The atom is also the smallest entity that can be
envisaged to retain the chemical properties of the element (such as electronegativity, ionization
potential, preferred oxidation state, and preferred types of bonds to form (e.g., metallic, ionic,
covalent). It consists of a dense core called the atomic nucleus surrounded by a space called the
electron cloud. The nucleus is made up of positively charged proton and uncharged neutrons
(together called nucleons), while the electron cloud consists of negatively charged electrons
which orbit the nucleus. In a neutral atom, the negatively charged electrons balance out the
positive charge of the protons.
History of the atom
As stated earlier in our studies, all matter in the universe is made out of tiny building blocks
called atoms. All modern scientists accept the concept of the atom, but when the concept of the
atom was first proposed about 2,500 years ago, ancient philosophers laughed at the idea. It has
always been difficult to convince people of the existence of things that are too small to see. We
will spend some time considering the evidence (observations) that convince scientists of the
existence of atoms. About 2,500 years ago, early Greek philosophers believed the entire
universe was a single, huge, entity. In other words, “everything was one.” They believed that
all objects, all matter, and all substances were connected as a single, big, unchangeable “thing.”

One of the first people to propose “atoms” was a man known as Democritus. As an alternative
to the beliefs of the Greek philosophers, he suggested that ‘atomos’, or ‘atomon’ – tiny,
indivisible, solid objects - make up all matter in the universe. Democritus then reasoned that
changes occur when the many ‘atomos’ in an object were reconnected or recombined in
different ways. Democritus even extended his theory, suggesting that there were different
varieties of ‘atomos’ with different shapes, sizes, and masses.

He thought, however, that shape, size and mass were the only properties differentiating the
different types of ‘atomos’. According to Democritus, other characteristics, like color and taste,
did not reflect properties of the ‘atomos’ themselves, but rather, resulted from the different
ways in which the ‘atomos’ were combined and connected to one another. Greek philosophers
truly believed that, above all else, our understanding of the world should rely on “logic.” In
fact, they argued that the world couldn’t be understood using our senses at all, because our
senses could deceive us. Therefore, instead of relying on observation, Greek philosophers tried
to understand the world using their minds and, more specifically, the power of reason.

The early Greek philosophers tried to understand the nature of the world through reason and
logic, but not through experiment and observation. As a result, they had some very interesting
ideas, but they felt no need to justify their ideas based on life experiences. It’s truly amazing
how much they achieved using their minds, but because they never performed any
experiments, they missed or rejected a lot of discoveries that they could have made otherwise.
Greek philosophers dismissed Democritus’ theory entirely. Sadly, it took over two millennia
before the theory of ‘atomos’ (or “atoms,” as they’re known today) was fully appreciated.

Modern view of the Atom

The atom is now known to consist of three primary particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons,
which make up the atoms of all matter. A series of experimental facts established the validity
of the model. Radioactivity played an important part. Modern atomic theory was born with
Dalton when he published his theories in 1803. His theory consisted of five important points,
which were considered to be mostly true today.

a. Dalton's Atomic Theory

Although the concept of atoms is now widely accepted, this wasn’t always the case.
Scientists didn’t always believe that everything was composed of small particles called
atoms. The work of several scientists and their experimental data gave evidence for
what is now called the atomic theory. In the late 1700’s, Antoine Lavoisier, a French
scientist, experimented with the reactions of many metals. He carefully measured the
mass of a substance before reacting and again measured the mass after a reaction had
occurred in a closed system (meaning that nothing could enter or leave the container).
He found that no matter what reaction he looked at, the mass of the starting materials
was always equal to the mass of the ending materials.

This is now called the law of conservation of mass. This went contrary to what many
scientists at the time thought. For example, when a piece of iron rusts, it appears to gain
mass. When a log is burned, it appears to lose mass. In these examples, though, the
reaction does not take place in a closed container and substances, such as the gases in
the air, are able to enter or leave. When iron rusts, it is combining with oxygen in the
air, which is why it seems to gain mass. What Lavoisier found was that no mass was
actually being gained or lost. It was coming from the air. This was a very important first
step in giving evidence for the idea that everything is made of atoms. The atoms (and
mass) are not being created or destroyed. The atoms are simply reacting with other
atoms that are already present. This is the law of the Conservation of Matter.

In the late 1700s and early 1800s, scientists began noticing that when certain
substances, like hydrogen and oxygen, were combined to produce a new substance, like
water, the reactants (hydrogen and oxygen) always reacted in the same proportions by
mass. In other words, if 1g of hydrogen reacted with 8g of oxygen, then 2g of hydrogen
would react with 16g of oxygen, and 3g of hydrogen would react with 24g of oxygen.
Strangely, the observation that hydrogen and oxygen always reacted in the “same
proportions by mass” wasn’t special. In fact, it turned out that the reactants in every
chemical reaction reacted in the same proportions by mass.

This observation is summarized in the law of definite proportions. Take, for example,
nitrogen and hydrogen, which react to produce ammonia. In chemical reactions, 1g of
hydrogen will react with 4.7g of nitrogen, and 2g of hydrogen will react with 9.4g of
nitrogen. Scientists studied reaction after reaction, but every time the result was the
same. The reactants always reacted in the same proportions.

At the same time that scientists were finding this pattern out, a man named John Dalton
was experimenting with several reactions in which the reactant elements formed more
than one type of product, depending on the experimental conditions he used. One
common reaction that he studied was the reaction between carbon and oxygen. When
carbon and oxygen react, they produce two different substances (say substances “A”
and “B.”) It turned out that, given the same amount of carbon, forming B always
required exactly twice as much oxygen as forming A. In other words, if you can make
A with 3g of carbon and 4g of oxygen, B can be made with the same 3 grams of carbon,
 but with 8g oxygen. Dalton asked himself – why does B require 2 times as much
oxygen as A? Why not 1.21 times as much oxygen, or 0.95 times as much oxygen?
Why a whole number like 2?

The situation became even stranger when Dalton tried similar experiments with
different substances. For example, when he reacted nitrogen and oxygen, Dalton
discovered that he could make three different substances (say substances “C,” “D,” and
“E”). It turned out, for the same amount of nitrogen, D always required twice as much
oxygen as C. Similarly, E always required exactly four times as much oxygen as C.
Once again, Dalton noticed that small whole numbers (2 and 4) seemed to be the rule.
This observation came to be known as the law of multiple proportions.

Dalton thought about his results and tried to find some theory that would explain it, as
well as a theory that would explain the Law of Conservation of Mass (mass is neither
created nor destroyed, or the mass you have at the beginning is equal to the mass at the
end of a change). One way to explain the relationships that Dalton and others had
observed was to suggest that materials like nitrogen, carbon and oxygen were composed
of small, indivisible quantities which Dalton called “atoms” (in reference to
Democritus’ original idea).

Dalton used this idea to generate what came to be known now as Dalton’s Atomic
Theory which stated the following:
 Matter is made of tiny particles called atoms.
 Atoms are indivisible (can’t be broken into smaller particles). During a chemical
reaction, atoms are rearranged, but they do not break apart, nor are they created or
destroyed.
 All atoms of a given element are identical in mass and other properties.
 The atoms of different elements differ in mass and other properties.
 Atoms of one element can combine with atoms of another element to form
“compounds” – new, complex particles. In a given compound, however, the
different types of atoms are always present in the same relative numbers.

Dmitri Mendeleev

In the late 1800's, the Russian scientist Dmitri Mendeleev was credited with creating one of the
first organized periodic tables. Organizing each element by atomic weight, he cataloged each
of the 56 elements discovered at the time. Aside from atomic weight, he also organized his
table to group the elements according to known properties.

While writing a series of textbooks, Mendeleev realized he was running out of space to treat
each element individually. He began to regularly "linewrap" the elements onto the next line,
and create what is now called the periodic table of the elements. Using his table, he predicted
the existence of later-discovered elements, such as "eka-aluminum" and "eka-silicon" (gallium
and germanium) according to patterns found earlier. His predictions were a success, proving
his table to be exceptionally accurate. Later theories, those of the electrons around the atom,
explain why elements in the same period, or group, have similar chemical properties. Chemists
would later organize each element by atomic number, not atomic weight, giving rise to the
modern Periodic Table Elements.

b. J.J. Thomson

In the year 1889 the British physicist J.J. Thomson discovered the electron. Thomson
conducted a number of experiments using cathode ray tube. Cathode rays are
constructed by sealing two electrodes in a glass tube connected to a voltage supplier
and a vacuum pump removing the air from it. When the electrodes are attached to high
voltage of about 15000v and low pressure, a beam of radiation is emitted from the
negative electrode (cathode) moving towards the positive electrode (anode). These
beams are said to be green rays called cathode rays.

 The ray is said to be taken towards Faraday's tube (gold leaf electroscope) and
was charged by induction and deflect positively charged gold leaf electroscope
 A freely moving paddle wheel was placed on the path of the rays and it was able
to move it; suggesting that it has momentum
 The ray was placed in a magnetic and electric field moving towards the north
and positive pole respectively.
 Thomson discovered that cathode rays travel in straight lines except, when they are bent
by electric or magnetic fields. The cathode rays bent away from a negatively charged
plate, Thomson concluded that these rays are made of negatively charged particles;
today we call them electrons. Thomson found that he could produce cathode rays using
electrodes of various materials. He then concluded that electrons were found in all
atoms and are over a thousand times smaller than protons.

The "Plum Pudding" Atomic Model

Thompson used an apparatus to determine the charge to mass ratio (e/m). After the ray
emerged, he placed a magnetic field of a known magnetic influence and the rays bent
towards the north to a particular position then he added an electric field to return the ray
back to its original position and recorded the charges used by the electric field so he
divided them to get the ratio of about -1.7x108

Soon after the discovery of the electron, Thomson began speculating on the nature of
the atom. He suggested a "plum pudding" model. In this model the bits of "plum" were
the electrons which were floating around in a "pudding" of positive charge to match
that of the electrons and make an electrically neutral atom. A modern illustration of this
idea would be a chocolate chip cookie, with the chips representing negatively charged
electrons and the dough representing positive charge.

c. Rutherford’s Nuclear Model

Everything about Thomson’s experiments suggested the “plum pudding” model was
correct – but according to the scientific method, any new theory or model should be
tested by further experimentation and observation. Disproving Thomson’s “plum
pudding” model began with the discovery that an element known as uranium emits
positively charged particles called alpha particles as it undergoes radioactive decay.

Radioactive decay occurs when one element decomposes into another element. It only
happens with a few very unstable elements. Alpha particles themselves didn’t prove
anything about the structure of the atom, they were, however, used to conduct some
very interesting experiments. Ernest Rutherford was fascinated by all aspects of alpha
particles. For the most part, though, he seemed to view alpha particles as tiny bullets
that he could use to fire at all kinds of different materials. One experiment in particular,
however, surprised Rutherford, and everyone else.

Rutherford found that when he fired alpha particles at a very thin piece of gold foil, an
interesting thing happened. Almost all of the alpha particles went straight through the
foil as if they did not hit nothing at all. This was what he expected to happen. If
Thomson’s model was accurate, there was nothing hard enough for these small particles
to hit that would cause any change in their motion. Every so often, though, one of the
alpha particles would be deflected

According to the plum pudding model all of the particles should have slowed as they
passed through the "pudding", but none should have been deflected. Surprisingly, a few
alpha particles were deflected back the way they came. He stated that it was "as if you
fired a 15-inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and it came back and hit you." The result
of the experiment allowed Rutherford to conclude that the plum pudding model is
wrong. Rutherford’s experiment led to the new structure of the atom:
  Atoms have a nucleus, very small and dense, containing the positive charge and
most of the atom's mass.
 The atom consists of mostly empty space.
 The electrons are attracted to the nucleus, but remain far outside it.

Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons in Atoms

Dalton’s Atomic Theory explained a lot about matter, chemicals, and chemical reactions.
Nevertheless, it wasn’t entirely accurate, because contrary to what Dalton believed, atoms can,
in fact, be broken apart into smaller subunits or subatomic particles. J.J. Thomson discovered a
negatively charged particle, called the electron. Rutherford proposed that these electrons orbit a
positive nucleus. In subsequent experiments, he found that there is a smaller positively charged
particle in the nucleus which is called a proton.

There is a third subatomic particle, known as a neutron. Ernest Rutherford proposed the
existence of a neutral particle, with the approximate mass of a proton. Years later, James
Chadwick proved that the nucleus of the atom contains this neutral particle that had been
proposed by Ernest Rutherford. Chadwick observed that when beryllium is bombarded with
alpha particles, it emits an unknown radiation that has approximately the same mass as a
proton, but no electrical charge.

Chadwick was able to prove that the beryllium emissions contained a neutral particle -
Rutherford’s neutron. The neutron is neutral. In other words, it has no charge whatsoever, and
is therefore neither attracted to nor repelled from other objects. Neutrons are in every atom
(with one exception). They are bound together with other neutrons and protons in the atomic
nucleus.

How the different types of subatomic particles interact with each other.
Since neutrons are neither attracted to, nor repelled from objects, they don’t really interact with
protons or electrons (beyond being bound into the nucleus with the protons). Even though
electrons, protons, and neutrons are all types of subatomic particles, they are not all the same
size. When the masses of electrons, protons and neutrons are compared, it can be seen that
electrons have an extremely small mass, compared to either protons or neutrons.

On the other hand, the masses of protons and neutrons are fairly similar, although technically,
the mass of a neutron is slightly larger than the mass of a proton. Because protons and neutrons
are so much more massive than electrons, almost all of the mass of any atom comes from the
nucleus, which contains all of the neutrons and protons. The table below gives the properties
and locations of electrons, protons, and neutrons.

Sub-Atomic Particles, Properties and Location

Relative Electron
Particle masses (amu) charge Location
1 Outside the
Electron 1840 -1 Nucleus
Proton 1 +1 Nucleus
Neutron 1 0 Nucleus

Atomic mass unit (amu)

This is defined as one-twelfth the mass of a carbon-12 atom. Atomic mass units (amu) are
useful, because, as you can see, the mass of a proton and the mass of a neutron are almost
exactly 1.0 in this unit system. In addition to mass, another important property of subatomic
particles is their charge. Electrons are negatively charged and protons are positively charged.
The positive charge on a proton is exactly equal in magnitude to the negative charge on an
electron. Negative and positive charges of equal magnitude cancel each other out. This means
that the negative charge on an electron perfectly balances the positive charge on the proton.
In other words, a neutral atom must have exactly one electron for every proton. If a neutral
atom has 1 proton, it must have 1 electron. If a neutral atom has 2 protons, it must have 2
electrons. If a neutral atom has 10 protons, it must have 10 electrons. In order to be neutral, an
atom must have the same number of electrons and protons.

Atomic Number and Mass Number

Scientists can distinguish between different elements by counting the number of protons. If an
atom has only one proton, we know it’s a hydrogen atom. An atom with two protons is always
a helium atom. Since an atom of one element can be distinguished from an atom of another
element by the number of protons in its nucleus, scientists are always interested in this number,
and how this number differs between different elements. Therefore, scientists give this number
a special name: the element’s atomic number.

An element’s atomic number is equal to the number of protons in the nuclei of any of its atoms.
The periodic table gives the atomic number of each element. The atomic number is a whole
number usually written above the chemical symbol of each element. The atomic number for
hydrogen is 1, because every hydrogen atom has 1 proton. The atomic number for helium is 2
because every helium atom has 2 protons. Since neutral atoms have to have one electron for
every proton, an element’s atomic number also tells you how many electrons are in a neutral
atom of that element. For example, hydrogen has an atomic number of 1. This means that an
atom of hydrogen has one proton, and, if it’s neutral, one electron as well. Gold, on the other
hand, has an atomic number of 79, which means that an atom of gold has 79 protons, and, if
it’s neutral, and 79 electrons as well.

The mass number of an atom is the total number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus. The
mass of an atom depends on the number of protons and neutrons. Counting the number of
protons and neutrons tells scientists about the total mass of an atom since the mass of an
electron is very, very small compared to the mass of either a proton or a neutron. An atom’s
mass number is a very easy to calculate provided you know the number of protons and
neutrons in an atom.
Mass number A = (number of protons) + (number of neutrons)

There are two main ways in which scientists frequently show the mass number of an atom they
are interested in. These two ways include writing a nuclear symbol or by giving the name of
the element with the mass number written. To write a nuclear symbol, the mass number is
placed at the upper left (superscript) of the chemical symbol and the atomic number is placed
at the lower left (subscript) of the symbol.
This can be illustrated as ab Z where Z is the chemical symbol of the element, a is the mass
number and b is the atomic number.
Atomic Mass
In chemistry, it is very rare for chemists to deal with only one isotope of an element. It is
always a mixture of the isotopes of an element in chemical reactions and other aspects of
chemistry, because all of the isotopes of an element react in the same manner. Using the
masses of the different isotopes and how abundant each isotope is, we can find the average
mass of the atoms of an element. The atomic mass of an element is the weighted average mass
of the atoms in a naturally occurring sample of the element. Atomic mass is typically reported
in atomic mass units.

Calculating Atomic Mass

The atomic mass (or average mass) of an element can calculated provided one knows the
relative abundances (the fraction of an element that is a given isotope) the element’s naturally
occurring isotopes, and the masses of those different isotopes. The atomic mass can be
calculated by the following equation:

Atomic mass = (%1)(mass1) + (%2)(mass2) + …

For example Boron has two naturally occurring isotopes. In a sample of boron, 20% of the
atoms are B-10, which is an isotope of boron with 5 neutrons and a mass of 10 amu. The other
80% of the atoms are B-11, which is an isotope of boron with 6 neutrons and a mass of
11 amu. What is the atomic mass of boron?

Solution
Boron has two isotopes, therefore, the equation will be
Atomic mass = (%1)(mass1) + (%2)(mass2) + …
Isotope 1: %1=0.20 (write all percentages as decimals), mass =10
Isotope 2: %2=0.80, mass2=11
Substitute these into the equation,
 Atomic mass = (0.20)(10) + (0.80)(11)
Atomic mass = 10.8 amu (The mass of an average boron atom, and thus boron’s atomic
mass, is 10.8 amu).

The periodic table gives the atomic mass of each element. The atomic mass is a number that
usually appears below the element’s symbol in each square. The atomic number should always
be the smaller of the two and will be a whole number, while the atomic mass should always be
the larger of the two and will be a decimal number.

Trial
Neon has three naturally occurring isotopes. In a sample of neon, 90.92% of the atoms are Ne-
20, which is an isotope of neon with 10 neutrons and a mass of 19.99 amu. Another 0.3% of
the atoms are Ne-21, which is an isotope of neon with 11 neutrons and a mass of 20.99 amu.
The final 8.85% of the atoms are Ne-22, which is an isotope of neon with 12 neutrons and a
mass of 21.99 amu. What is the atomic mass of neon?
 ATOMS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRA
Electric light bulbs contain a very thin wire in them that emits light when heated. The wire is
called a filament. The particular wire used in light bulbs is made of tungsten. A wire made of
any metal would emit light under these circumstances but tungsten was chosen because the
light it emits contains virtually every frequency and therefore, the light emitted by tungsten
appears white.

A wire made of some other element would emit light of some colour that was not convenient
for our uses. Every element emits light when energized by heating or passing electric current
through it. Elements in solid form begin to glow when they are heated sufficiently and
elements in gaseous form emit light when electricity passes through them. This is the source of
light emitted by neon signs and is also the source of light in a fire. The light emitted by the sign
containing neon gas is different from the light emitted by the sign containing argon gas

Each Element Has a Unique Spectrum

The series of coloured bands dispersed and arranged in the order of their
respective wavelengths by the passage of white light through a prism or other dispersing device
and shading continuously from red (produced by the longest wave visible) through violet
(produced by the shortest): them six main colours of the spectrum are red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, and violet, with a seventh colour (indigo) sometimes specified, between blue and
violet. It becomes the intensity of any radiation or motion displayed as a function of frequency,
or wavelength.

The light frequencies emitted by atoms are mixed together by our eyes so that we see a blended
colour. Several physicists, including Angstrom in 1868 and Balmer in 1875, passed the light
from energized atoms through glass prisms in such a way that the light was spread out so they
could see the individual frequencies that made up the light. The emission spectrum (or atomic
spectrum) of a chemical element is the unique pattern of light obtained when the element is
subjected to heat or electricity.

When hydrogen gas is placed into a tube and electric current passed through it, the colour of
emitted light is pink. But when the colour is spread out, hydrogen spectrum is composed of
four individual frequencies. The pink colour of the tube is the result of our eyes blending the
four colours. Every atom has its own characteristic spectrum; no two atomic spectra are alike.
Because each element has a unique emission spectrum. This is a technique for identifying
elements.

Scientists determine what elements are present in distant stars by analysing the light that comes
from stars and finding the atomic spectrum of elements in that light. If the exact four lines that
compose hydrogen’s atomic spectrum are present in the light emitted from the star, that
element contains hydrogen. Much of our current understanding of atomic structure has come
from spectroscopy (The name comes from Latin word for “appearance”), the analysis of the
light and other kinds of radiation emitted or absorbed by the different substances. Some
elements emit light of a distinctive colour or mixture of colour when their compounds are
heated in a flame or when their vapours are exposed to an electric discharge (a storm of the
electrons and ions passing between two electrodes).

Sodium atoms emit the well-known yellow of some forms of highways and city lighting.
Potassium atom emit violet light. Rubidium gives a red flame (hence its name, from the Latin
word for red) and caesium a blue one (its name comes from the Latin word for “Sky-blue”).
The emitted light is in general a mixture of colour which can be separated by passing it through
a prism as sunlight is separated by raindrops to produce a rainbow. When a spectrometer is
used, the separated colour are recorded photographically as a spectrum. Since each ray of
colour gives an image of the slit the passes through initial, the individual colour are recorded as
a series of spectral line.

Light

Light is electromagnetic radiation, a wave of oscillating electric and magnetic influences called
particle. An electric field, the only field we consider here because it has the stronger effect on
matter, exert a force on any charge particle, moving or not. The “oscillation” of electric field of
light is such that its force acts first in one direction and then in the opposite direction.

Frequency and wavelength; one complete reversal of the direction of the field (the direction of
the push) from an original direction to the opposite direction and back to the original direction,
is called a “cycle”. The number of cycle occurring per second is the frequency, ν, of the light.
The unit of frequency is the “hertz” (Hz), defined as one cycle per second:

1 Hz = 1 cycle per second

The unit honours Heinrich Hertz, one of the pioneers of the study of electromagnetic radiation.
In unit-analysis calculation we interpret 1 Hz as being 1/s, therefore;

1 Hz x 1 s = 1

The frequency of light determines its colour. The electric field of blue light, e.g. oscillates at
6.4 x1014Hz. The light from a traffic signal charges frequency from 4.3 x 10 14 Hz to 5.2 x
1014Hz and then to 5.7 x 1014Hz as it charges from red to yellow and then to green. A wave is
also characterised by its wavelength λ (the Greek letter lambda) or peak-to-peak distance. The
wavelength and frequency are related by

c
λ=
v

Where c is the speed of light, 3.00 x 108 m/s (more precisely 2.99792 x 108 m/s,
corresponding to over 670 million mi/h); c is the speed at which all electromagnetic radiation
travels through empty space. The equation above shows that a higher frequency means, a
shorter wavelength. Our eyes can detect electromagnetic radiation with wavelength in the rang
700 nm (red light) to 400 nm (violet light) the radiation in this range is called visible light.
White light, which include sunlight, is a mixture of all frequencies of visible light. The entire
span of electromagnetic radiation range from wavelength of less than a picometer to
wavelength of more than several kilometres, but our eyes do not detect it all – either because
radiation of some wavelength is absorbed as it passes through the lens of the eye, or because
the molecules in the retinal do not respond to it. Ultraviolet radiation is radiation of higher
frequency (shorter wavelength) that violet light (ultra is the word for “beyond”). Infrared
radiation, the radiation we experience as heat, is radiation of lower frequency that red light
(infra is Latin for “below”).

Photons; quantum mechanics adds to our understanding of light as a wave by describing a ray
light as a stream of particles called photons. The more intense the light, the greater the number
of photons in the ray. Each photon is a packet or quantum of energy (from the Latin word for
“amount”). We can feel the energy of the photons in the infrared radiation emitted by the sun
as the warmth of sunlight. The energy of a single photon is proportional to the frequency of the
light. We write this proportionality as

E=h x v

Where h is Planck’s constant, a fundamental constant with the value 6.63 X 10 -34 J/Hz and v is
the frequency. It is named for Max Planck, the German physicist who first introduced the idea
that energy comes in packets. Blue light, for example consists of a stream of photons, each
having an energy

E = (6.63 x 10-34 J/Hz) x (6.4 x 1014 Hz)

= 4.2 x 10-19 J

A ray of red light also consists of a stream of photons, but because the frequency of the light
lower, each of its photons has less energy (2.8 x 10-19 J).

Photoelectric effect

The evidence for the relation between the frequency and energy of photons comes from the
photoelectric effect. The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons from the surface of
metals when ultraviolet radiation strikes them. It is found that no electrons are emitted if the
frequency of the light is below a certain threshold value characteristic of the metal. This is
evidence for existence of packets of energy, for if a photon has too low an energy, it cannot
eject an electrons. By the law of conservation of energy, the kinetic energy of the photoelectron
the electron ejected by light is equal to the energy of the incoming photons (h x v) minus the
energy needed to drive the electron out of the metal or the binding energy (a constant for a
given metal):

K.E = hxv - BE (a constant)

Kinetic energy = energy of photon - Binding Energy

Of electron

Bohr’s Model of the Atom

By 1913, the evolution of our concept of the atom had proceeded from Dalton’s indivisible
spheres idea to J. J. Thomson’s plum pudding model and then to Rutherford’s nuclear atom
theory. Rutherford, in addition to carrying out the brilliant experiment that demonstrated the
presence of the atomic nucleus, also proposed that the electrons circled the nucleus in a
planetary type motion. The solar system or planetary model of the atom was attractive to
scientists because it was similar to something with which they were already familiar, namely
the solar system.

Unfortunately, there was a serious flaw in the planetary model. It was already known that when
a charged particle (such as an electron) moves in a curved path, it gives off some form of light
and loses energy in doing so. If the electron circling the nucleus in an atom loses energy, it
would necessarily have to move closer to the nucleus as it loses energy and would eventually
crash into the nucleus. Furthermore, Rutherford’s model was unable to describe how electrons
give off light forming each element’s unique atomic spectrum. These difficulties cast a shadow
on the planetary model and indicated that, eventually, it would have to be replaced. In 1913,
the Danish physicist Niels Bohr proposed a model of the electron cloud of an atom in which
electrons orbit the nucleus and were able to produce atomic spectrum. Understanding Bohr’s
model requires some knowledge of electromagnetic radiation (or light).
Bohr was able to derive an equation to calculate the energy of each orbit in the hydrogen atom.
The Bohr model depicts the atom as a nucleus with electrons orbiting around it at specific
distances. This model is also referred to as the Planetary Model.

The spectrum of atomic hydrogen

In the visible region, the spectrum of atomic hydrogen consists of three lines. The most intense
line (at 656 nm) is red, and the excited sample glows with this red light. Energetically excited
hydrogen atoms also emit ultraviolet and infrared radiation, which can be detected
electronically.

Energy quantization
Although the complete spectrum of hydrogen looks like a jungle of lines it actually follows a
precise pattern. A part of the pattern was recognized by a Swiss school teacher, Joseph Balmer,
in 1885. He noticed that the frequencies in and near the visible region fit the formula.

1 1
v∝ − 2
4 n

With n = 3, 4 ………., and the symbol ꜵ means it is proportional to. The lines this relation
describes are now called the Balmer series. The full pattern of the spectrum was recognized by
the Swedish spectroscopes Johnnes Rydberg. He discovered that all the lines in the spectrum,
including those in the infrared and ultraviolet regions, could be obtained by noting that the 4 in
¼ was 22 and then replacing it with 12, 22, 32, 42 and so on. His formula is normally written;

v=k
( 1 1
2
− 2
n f ni ) ……………………..3

Where the constant N called the Rydberg constant, has the value 3.29x10 15 Hz. Each series is
obtained by designating nf = 1, 2, and so on, in turn ( n2f corresponds to the Balmer series) each
individual line in a series is obtained by designating n i = nf + 1, nf +2 and so on in turn (so for
the Balmer series, ni = 3, 4, …).

The key idea that connects the specific frequencies of the light emitted by any kind of atom
with its structure is that each photon is emitted by one atom and carries energy away from the
atom that emitted it. Heating or passing an electrical discharge through a sample provides
energy that changes the structure of the atoms. As that distorted structure readjusts, all or some
of the excess energy is lost, and the atom emits it as a photon of light. If the energy of an atom
decreases by ∆E, that amount of energy is carried away as a photon of light. Since the energy
of a photon is hv, frequency of light generated by the atom is determined by the

Bohr frequency condition: ∆E = hv

This relation shows that if the decrease in the energy of the atom is large, then a photon of
high-frequency light is generated. In that case we may detect blue or ultraviolet light coming
from the sample. If the decrease in energy is small, then we may detect lower-frequency red or
infrared radiation. The scene is now set for a very striking conclusion. We have seen that the
spectrum of atomic hydrogen consist of radiation with certain frequencies. We have also seen
that each frequency represents a packet of energy carried away from the atom as a photon. We
must then conclude that an electron in a hydrogen atom can have only certain energies;
otherwise, the atom could emit all frequencies. This limitation is completely contrary to the
predictions of classical mechanics, according to which an object can have any total energy.
According to classical mechanics, a pendulum, for instance, can be given any initial energy
simply by pushing it harder or more gently. The quantization of a property is the restriction of
the property to certain values. Microscopic object seem to us to be able to take on any energy.
However if we make very careful observation we fine that they can accept energy only in
discrete amounts. This is like pouring into a bucket. Water seems to be a continuous fluid, and
it seems that any amount can be transferred. However, the smallest amount of water that can be
added is one H2O molecule, which could be thought of as one quantum of water. The amount
of water that can be poured into the bucket is a multiple of the single "quantum" of water.

The Bohr model. Bohr attempted to account for the spectrum of atomic hydrogen by proposing
what we now call the Bohr model of the atom. In this model it is supposed that the atom's
single electron can travel only in certain circular orbits around the central nucleus, and that the
energy of the atom is the sum of the electron's kinetic and potential energies in its orbits. Bohr
deduced from this model that the energies of the allowed orbits are given by.......

E = -h x R/n2 n= 1, 2, …

The minus sign means that the energy of the electron is taken to be zero when it is far from the
nucleus and that the energy is lower when the election is part of the atom. The energy levels
predicted by Bohr's theory are show in .......

The “quantum number" n is an integer (whole number) that labels the allowed orbits n=1
signifies the lower-energy orbits, n= 2 the next higher, and so on. The orbit with n =1 lies
closest to the nucleus. When the electron is in this orbit, the atom is in its ground state it's if a
lowest energy.

Bohr's formula gives the energy of each orbit. His final job was to calculate the decrease in
energy when an electron falls from an orbit of lower initial high-energy orbit with quantum
number ni to a final orbit of lower energy and quantum number nf. That energy decrease is
 ∆ E=h X k
( 1 1
2
− 2
n f ni )
When Bohr set ∆E in this question equal to the energy of the photon hv and canceled h from
both sides of the result, he obtained equation 3 which we know describes the spectrum. He also
obtained a formula for 𝓀 in terms of Planck’s constant and the mass and the charge of the
electron with the formula, he calculated that 𝓀 = 3.29 X 1015 Hz, in excellent agreement with
its experimental value. It is easy to imagine the thrill Bohr must have felt at this point in his
calculations.

Bohr rounded off his work by calculating the radius of each of the allowed orbits. He found
that the radius of the orbit with n = 1 is 53 pm, a value now called the Bohr radius. He also
calculated the speed of the electron in its orbit, and for the ground state found that it was about
2200km/s or about 5 million mole per hour.

Bohr’s formula is

4
me e
k= 3 2
8h ϵ0

Where me and e are the mass and charge of the electron, h is the Plank’s constant, and 𝞊0 is a
fundamental constant with the value 8.85 X 10-12 C2/(J.m).

Particle and waves

Bohr’s calculation was a spectacular numerical success. However, when all attempts to extend
it to more complicated atoms failed, people began to suspect that it was unsound. That view
was confirmed when further experiments were carried out on the behaviour of matter. The de
Broglie relation; we have seen that alight ray, which in classical mechanics is treated as wave,
should in fact also be thought of a stream of photons. The French scientist Louis de Broglie
had the curious idea that the same wave-particle duality or combined wavelike and particle-like
character, should apply to matter too. 1n 1924 he suggested that we should also think of an
electron as having the properties of a wave. He proposed that every particle has wavelike
properties, including a wavelength that is related to its mass, m, and speed, v, by the

h
De Broglie relation: λ=
mxv
According to this relation, a heavy particle traveling at high speed has a small wavelength λ. A
small particle traveling at low speed has a large wavelength.

We cannot detect the wavelike character of ordinary object because their wavelength are so
small. The wavelength of a 100-g tennis ball traveling at 65 km/h (40 mi/h) is less than 10 -30 m,
which is far smaller than the diameter of an atomic nucleus. The scientists who developed
classical mechanics got excellent agreement with observation because the wavelike character
of matter, of which they knew nothing, ware completely undetectable for the object they could
observe (such as balls and planets). However, the wavelength of an electron moving at 200
km/s is 360 pm, which is comparable to the diameter of an atom (about twice the Bohr radius,
106 pm) hence, when trying to account for the properties of electrons in atoms, we must take
their wave character into account.

One of the earliest experiments to prove the wavelike property of electrons was done by the
American scientist Clinton Davisson and Laster Germer in 1927. They knew that when waves
of any kind pass through a grid with a spacing comparable to their wavelength, they give rise
to characteristics “diffraction patterns” Davisson and Germer showed that electrons give the
expected pattern when they are reflected from a crystal, where the layers of atoms act as the
grid. They also found that the pattern corresponds exactly to that expected of electrons with a
wavelength given by de Broglie relation.

The uncertainty principle; because of its wavelike character, we cannot say precisely where
an electron is when it is traveling along a path. This is expressed numerically by the
uncertainty principle discovered by the German Werner Heisenberg in 1927. Heisenberg found
that the more precisely we know the position of a particle, the less we can say about its speed
and vice versa. More specifically, if we know the position of a particle of a mass m to within a
range ∆x, then its speed must be uncertain by a least an amount ∆v, where

h
∆ x X (m X ∆ v)≥
4π

If ∆x is zero (meaning we have perfect knowledge about the location), the only way this
inequality can be satisfied is for ∆v to be infinite (meaning we are totally ignorant about the
speed), similarly, if the speed is certain (∆v is zero), the position must be completely uncertain
(∆x is infinite). The uncertainty principle implies that Bohr’s picture of electrons traveling in
precise orbits cannot be valid, because an electron in such an orbit has a definite position and
definite speed at every instant

Atomic orbitals of hydrogen; according to quantum mechanics, an electron is spread out like
a wave and we can speak only of the probability of finding it at any point. The wave that
summarizes how the electron is spread out through space is called its wavefunction ᴪ (the
Greek letter psi). This wavefunction is large in some regions and small in others, just like a
wave in water. According to the Born interpretation of the wavefunction, the probability of
finding the electron at a given point is proportional to the square of ᴪ at a point. Therefore, if ᴪ
is 0.1 at a point and -0.2 at another, there is four time the chance of finding the electron at the
second point than at the first. In atoms wavefunction are called atomic orbitals and we can
think of them as defining a region of space in which there is a high probability of finding an
electron. This name suggests something similar to but less definite than, orbits of the Bohr
model. We shall see shortly that for most purposes it is possible to draw diagrams of atomic
orbitals and to discuss their characteristics shapes without going into their mathematical detail.

A quantum number is a number that labels the state of an electron and specifies the value of a
property.

We have already seen an example in the Bohr Theory, each orbit is labeled by the quantum
number n, and its value gives the energy of the orbit. Schrӧdinger’s three quantum number
(table 1, the fourth quantum number given there will be explain later) are the principal
quantum number n, the azimuthal quantum number l, and magnetic quantum number ml .

The principal quantum number, n specifies the energy of an electron in an atom in exactly the
same way as in the Bohr model, and it can take the values 1, 2, 3.,……..up to infinity. In
hydrogen, but not in atom with more than one electron, all orbitals with n = 2 have the same
energy, as do all orbitals when n = 3 and so on. All orbitals with the same value of n form a
shell of the atom. Thus, all orbitals with n = 3 (there are nine of them; the number is n2 in
general) form one shall. In hydrogen atom, then but not in atom with more than one electron,
all the orbital of a shall have the same energy. The higher the value of n the grater the average
distance of the shall from the nucleus: an electron with n = 1 is usually close to the nucleus,
one with n = 2 is usually more distant and so on.

Orbitals of the first three shell of the hydrogen atom

The orbital belonging to a given shall are grouped into “subshells”. A subshell of a given shell
consist of all the orbitals with the same value of l. This azimuthal quantum number can take the
values 0. 1.,….up to n – 1 given n values in all. This means that there is only one subshell of
the n = 1 (the one with l =0), there are two subshell of the shell with n = 2 (l = 0 and 1) and so
on. It is common practice to refer to the subshells by letter than numbers, using the following
correspondence:

l = 0 1 2 3

s p d f

The shell for which n =3 therefore consist of the three subshells labeled s, p and d.

The different subshell correspond to the different speed with which an electron can circulate
around the nucleus. If the electron is in an s subshell it does not circulate at all. If it is in a p
shell ,it circulates at a particular rate. It circulate more quickly if it in a d subshell, and so on.
In hydrogen atom but not in atom with more than one electron, the energy of the electron (the
sum of its kinetic and potential energies) is the same whatever subshell of a given shell it
occupies.

Each subshell is the made up of 2l + 1 individual orbitals. These individual orbitals are labeled
with the magnetic quantum number ml, which, for a subshell of quantum number l, can take
the 2l + 1 value l, l – 1, l – 2.,…… down to –l . for example, since the orbitals in the p subshell
of any shell have l = 1, there are three such orbitals and they have the magnetic quantum
number + 1, 0, and – 1. It is often more convenient to use a different set of labels for these
orbitals, and to name then px, py and pz.. These alternative labels specify the shapes of the
orbitals more directly, as we shall see.

The s orbitals; the lowest-energy orbital of the hydrogen atom is the 1s orbital (the orbital
with n =1, l = 0 and ml = 0). It is the only orbital permitted when n = 1. An electron that is in
the region of space specified by a 1s orbitals is said to “occupy” a 1s orbital and to be a “1s
electron.” All s orbitals are spherical. That is, the probability of finding the electron at a given
distance from the nucleus is the same in every direction. The s orbital is therefore often drawn
as a sphere called a boundary surface. The surface of the sphere is the boundary within which
there is about 90% probability of finding the electron. For hydrogen atom the radius of the
boundary surface is 140 pm. The 2s orbital; the s orbital belonging to the shell with n =2, is
similar to the 1s orbital but is spread over a larger volume. Its boundary surface, like that of the
1s orbital and all the other s orbitals, is spherical, so it too is normally drawn as a sphere.

The p orbitals; three orbitals with l =1 can occur for shells with n greater than 1. These
orbitals, called p orbitals, have the shapes and orientations in fig below. All three have the
same shape, but each lies along one of three perpendicular axes. They are labeled with the
names of those axes, which accounts for the notation px, py and pz orbital, is most likely to be
found somewhere on the x axis. A p orbital has a nodal plane, a plane on which a p electron
will never be found, that extends through the nucleus. Whereas an s electron may be found at
the nucleus, a p electron will never be found there.

the d and f orbitals; five orbitals with l =2, the d orbitals, can occur for shells with n greater
than 2. Their boundary surface and labels are shown below; four of the d orbitals have a double
dumbbell shape; the dz2 orbital is the one that is different. For n grater than 3, f orbital can
occur. There are seven f orbitals for each value of n > 3, but their shape are complicated and
there is on need to try remember them.
Electron spin; studies has shown that the electron behaves in some respects like a sphere
rotating on its axis, something like the way the earth rotate daily on its axis. This property is
called the spin of the electron. An electron has only two spin states, represented by the arrows
↑ and ↓. A4 helpful analogy+** is to think of an electron as being able to spin at a constant
rate either clockwise (the ↑ state) or counterclockwise (the ↓ state). The two electron spin state
are distinguished by a fourth quantum number, the spin-magnetic number ms . this quantum n
umber can have only two values, +0.5 for a ↑ electrons and – 0.5 foe a ↓ electrons.

The structure of many-electron atoms.

All neutral atoms other than hydrogen have more than one electron. The helium atom (Z = 2)
has two, lithium atom (Z = 3) has three, and in general an atom of an element with atomic
number Z has Z electrons. All these are example of many-electron atoms, atoms with more
than one electron.

Orbital energy
A simple picture of a many-electron atom is one in which electrons occupy orbitals like those
of hydrogen but with different energies. The nucleus of a many-electron atom is high charge
than the hydrogen nucleus; it attracts the electron more strongly, thus lowering their energy.
However, there are also repulsion between the electrons, which raise their energy.

Effective nuclear charge; in the hydrogen atom, where there are no electron-electron
repulsions, all the orbital of a given shell have the same energy. in many-electron atoms,
electron-electron repulsions cause the energy of an s orbital to be lower than that of a p orbital
in the same shell, and that in turn is lower than the energy of a d orbital in that shell. The
orbitals of a given subshell are, however, equal in energy to one another. Each of the three 2p
orbitals, for instance, has the same energy. There are two factors to take into account; first, as
noted above, a s electron may be found very close to the nucleus, but a p electron may not. We
say that an s electron penetrates closer to the nucleus than a p electron. Second, each electron is
repelled by the electron in the atom, and hence is less tightly bound to the nucleus than would
be case if those other electron were absent. We say that each electron is shielded from the full
attraction of the nucleus by the electrons in the atom, and that the effective nuclear charge is
lower than the actual charge. The s electron has a slightly lower (more negative) energy than a
p electron of the same shell. Similar differences in penetration and shielding apply between p
and d orbital as d electrons are on average even farther from the nucleus that p electrons. The
effect of penetration and shielding can be large; a 4s orbital may be so lower in energy than the
4p and 4d orbitals that is may also be lower in energy than the 3d orbital of the same atom.

The exclusive principle; the lowest total energy of an atom is not a configuration in which all
its electrons occupy the 1s orbital. That arrangement is forbidden by a fundamental feature of
nature, discovered by the Austrian Wolfgang Pauli in 1925.

Pauli exclusive principle: no more than two electron may occupy any given orbital, and when
two electron do occupy one orbital their spin must be paired the spin of the two electron are
paired if one is ↑ and other is ↓. Paired spins are denoted ↑↓. In practice the exclusive principle
means that no more than two electron can enter each box of the energy-level.

The configuration of hydrogen through lithium.

The list of occupies orbital in the atom is called its electron configuration. The hydrogen atom
in its ground state or lowest energy-levels state has one electron in its 1s orbital. We report the
configuration of hydrogen as 1s1 (one s one). The lower-energy configuration of helium (Z = 2)
is that in which both electron are in a 1s orbital; this configuration is reported as 1s 2 (one s
two).

A closed shell (or subshell) is a shell (or subshell) containing the maximum number or
electrons allowed by the exclusion principle. A closed shell is also described as being
complete. Lithium (Z = 3) has three electrons. Two can occupy the 1s orbital. The third
electron occupies an orbital of the shell with n = 2. That shell has two subshells, with the 2s
lower in energy than the 2p. The third electron therefore enters the 2s orbital to give the
configuration 1s22s1:

The building-up principle

The lowest-energy configuration of any element can be predicted with a generalization of the
approach we used above for H, He and Li. The procedure is called the building-up principle.
The principle leads to the configuration with the lowest total energy for the atom, taking into
account the kinetic energies of the electrons, their attraction to the nucleus and their repulsion
of each other. A clue to the order is given by the order of energy levels. That is, 1s < 2s < 2p <
3s < 3p < 4s < 3d for Z = 1 through Z = 20 and 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 4p < 5s < 4d for
Z = 21 through Z = 38. However, there is no need to memorize these orders, because we arrive
at the same configuration if we add electrons in the order shown below which matches the
structure of the periodic table.
To assign a configuration to an element with atomic number Z, we proceed as follows

1. Add Z electrons, one after the other, to the orbitals in the order show above but with
more than two electrons in any one orbital.
2. If more than one orbital in a subshell is available, add electrons with parallel spins to
different orbitals of that subshell. The second rule is called Hund’s rule. Electron have
parallel spins (denoted ↑↑) if they spin in the same direction. The explanation of the
first part of Hund’s rule can be traced to electron repulsion. If electrons occupy
different orbitals, they stay farther apart on average than if they are in the same orbital.
As a result, they repel each other less, and the energy of the atom is lower.

Examples of some configuration (orbital notation).

The lithium atom, 1s2 2s1, has been described above. Since it consist of a single 2s electron
outside a heliumlike 1s2 closed-shell core, its configuration is more simply written [He] 2s 1.
It is often useful to think of an atom as a noble-gas core surrounded by electrons in the
outermost shell. This outermost shell is call valence shell of the atom, because its electrons
are the ones mainly responsible for compound formation (the number of bond an atom can
form is called it valence). Bellows table show some of the simple orbital notation form
lithium to argon atoms.

The filling of d orbitals; the s and p subshells of the n = 3 shell are filled in the atom of
argon, which is a colorless, odorless and unreactive das resembling neon. As a result of
penetrating and shielding, the 4s orbitals are lower in energy than the 3d orbitals and
therefore are occupied next. Hence the next two configuration are [Ar] 4s 1 for potassium
and [Ar] 4s2 for calcium. Now the 3d orbitals come into line for occupation, and there is a
charge in the rhythm of the periodic table. The configuration of scandium, for example is
[Ar] 3d1 4s2, and that of its neighbor titanium is [Ar]3d24s2. Note that we write the 4s
electron after the 3d electrons. This reflects the charge in order of the energies of the orbital
with 3d below 4s, which begins from scandium. The configuration are now not quite as
straightforward as before. This is because the half complete subshell configuration d 5 and
the complete subshell configuration d10 turn out to be more stable than simple theory
suggests. In some case, the natural atom has a lower total energy if the 3d subshell is half
complete (to d5) or complete (to d10) by the transfer of a 4s electron into it. Example is
chromium [Ar] 3d54s1 and that of copper is [Ar] 3d104s1.

The configuration of an ions; cations are form by removing electron from the
configuration predicted for the natural atom. If the principle quantum number of the
valence shell n, we remove electrons in the order np first, then ns and finally (n-i)d until the
appropriate number of electrons have been removed.
Thus, for the Fe3+ ion, we work out the configuration of Fe atom - [Ar] 3d 64s2 and removed
three electron from it. There are no 4p electron therefore the first two will be 4s electron.
The third electrons comes from the 3d subshell, giving [Ar]3d 5. Anions are formed by
adding enough electrons to the vacant orbitals of the valence shell to achieve the
configuration of the next noble gas. Thus, to predict the electron configuration of the anion
formed by a nitrogen atom, we first note that since nitrogen is in group V (and hence has
five valence electrons) three electron are need to reach a noble gas configuration, and
therefore the ion will be N3-. The configuration of the nitrogen atom is [he] 2s 22p3, with
room for three electron in the 2p subshell. Thus the N 3- ion has the configuration
[He]2s22p6, the same as neon.