The Human Organism

Anatomy and Physiology

Prepared by:
Pilar Evangeline P. Salvador
 Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy:
➢ is a scientific discipline that investigates the body’s structures
➢examines the relationship between the structure of a body part and it’s
function.
➢the term means to dissect
 Levels
( at which Anatomy can be studied)

Developmental Anatomy:
➢Studies the structural changes that occur between conception and adulthood.
➢Embryology- (subspecialty) changes from conception to the end of eighth week of
development
➢Cytology- examines the structural features of cells
➢Histology- examines the tissues, which are composed cells and the materials
surrounding them
Gross Anatomy:
➢Study of structures that can be examined without the help a microscope
➢Systemic - studies body organ systems
➢Regional - study body regions
Surface Anatomy:
➢Studies external features
Anatomical Imaging:
➢Using technologies (radiographs [x-rays], ultrasound, MRI)
 Anatomy and Physiology
Physiology:
➢ is a scientific investigation of the processes or functions of living things
➢major goal –
➢ predict body’s responses to stimuli,
➢ understand how the body maintains conditions with a narrow range of normal
values in a constantly changing environment.
➢the term means inquiry into nature
➢ Greek word “physiologia”- physios “nature” + logia “study”
 Levels
( at which Physiology can be studied)

Cell Physiology:
➢examines the process occurring in cells
Systemic Physiology:
➢considers functions of organ system
Neurophysiology:
➢focuses on the nervous system
Cardiovascular Physiology:
➢deals with heart and blood vessels
 Structural and Functional Organization
of the Human Body
(Levels of Organization)

1. Chemical Level
➢Smallest level
➢Atoms, chemical bonds,
molecules
2. Cellular level
➢Basic structural and
functional units
➢Molecules combine to form
organelles
➢Organelles – small structures
inside the cells (ex: nucleus,
mitochondria)
 Structural and Functional Organization
of the Human Body
(Levels of Organization)

3. Tissue Level
➢Group of cells with similar
structure and function plus
extracellular substances they
release.
4 basic tissue types:
▪ Epithelial
▪ Connective
▪ Muscle
▪ Nervous
 Structural and Functional Organization
of the Human Body
(Levels of Organization)

4. Organ Level
➢Two or more tissue types acting together to perform functions
 Structural and Functional Organization
of the Human Body
(Levels of Organization)

5. Organ-System Level

➢ Group of organs that

together perform one
or more common
functions/set of
functions

➢ Viewed as a unit
 Structural and Functional Organization
of the Human Body
(Levels of Organization)

6. Organism Level

➢ All organ system working

together

➢ Includes associated
microorganisms such as
intestinal bacteria
 Characteristics of Life
1. Organization:
➢ Functional interrelationships between parts
2. Metabolism
➢ Sum of all chemical and physical changes sustaining an organism
➢ Ability to acquire and use energy in support of these changes
3. Responsiveness:
➢ Ability to sense and respond to environment changes
➢ Includes both internal and external environments
4. Growth:
➢ Can increase in size
➢ Size of cells, groups of cells, extracellular materials
5. Development:
❖ Changes in form and size
❖ Changes in cell structure and function (differentiation)
6. Reproduction:
➢ Formation of new cells or new organisms
➢ Generation of new individuals
➢ Tissue repair
 Homeostasis

➢ home=the same; stasis = standing still

➢ Describes the body’s ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the
outside world is continuously changing
➢ Maintenance of constant internal environment despite fluctuations in the external or internal
environment
➢ Indicates a dynamic state of equilibrium, or balance

Variables
➢ Measures of body properties that may change in value
➢ Examples:
✓ Body temperature
✓ Heart rate
✓ Blood pressure
✓ Blood glucose
✓ Blood cell counts
✓ Respiratory rate
 Homeostasis

Normal Range : normal extent of increase or decrease around a set point

Set Point : normal, or average value of a variable.

Over time, body temperature fluctuates around a set point.
 Homeostatic Control

❖ Stimulus – produces a change to a

variable (the factor being regulated)
❖ Receptor – detects the change. The
receptor monitors the environment and
responds to change (stimuli).
❖ Input – information travels along the
(afferent) pathway to the control
center. The control center determines
the appropriate response and course of
action
❖ Output – information sent from the
control center travels down the
(efferent) pathway to the effector.
❖ Response – a response from the effector
balances out the original stimulus to
maintain homeostasis.
 Homeostatic Control

Afferent Pathways – carry nerve impulses into the central nervous system.
Example: scorching heat felt on the hand, message would travel through afferent
pathways to the center nervous system (CNS).

Efferent Pathways – carry nerve impulses away from the central nervous system to effectors
Example: muscles, glands
 Negative-feedback Mechanism

➢ the main mechanism used, homeostatic regulation

➢ Response involves:
▪ Detection of deviation away from set point
▪ Correction reversal of deviation toward set point and normal range
➢ Components of negative feedback:
1. Receptor
✓ Detects changes in variable
2. Control center
✓ Receives receptor signals
✓ Establishes set point
✓ Sends signal to effector
3. Effector
✓ Directly causes change in variable
 Positive-feedback Mechanism

➢ Mechanisms occur when the initial stimulus further stimulates the response
o System response causes progressive deviation away from
o Set point, outside of normal range
o Not directly used for homeostasis
o Some positive feedback occurs under normal conditions (childbirth)
o Generally associated with injury, disease
o Negative feedback mechanisms unable to maintain homeostasis
 The Language of Anatomy
Terminology and the Body Plan

Anatomical Position:
❑ Person standing
erect with face
and palms
forward
❑ All relational
descriptions
based on the
anatomical
position,
regardless of
body
orientation
 Directional Terms

➢ Describe parts of the body relative to each other

 Orientation and Directional Terms
Term Definition Example
Superior (cranial or cephalic) Toward the head end or upper part of a The forehead is superior to the nose
structure or the body; above

Inferior (caudal) Away from the head end or toward the lower The navel is inferior to the breastbone
part of a structure or the body; below

Anterior (ventral) Toward or at the front of the body; in front of The breastbone is anterior to the spine

Posterior (dorsal) Toward or at the backside of the body; behind The heart is posterior to the breastbone

Medial Toward or at the midline of the body; on the The heart is medial to the arm
inner side of

Lateral Away from the midline of the body; on the The arms are lateral to the chest
outer side of

Proximal Close to the origin of the body part or the The elbow is proximal to the wrist
point of attachment of a limb to the body
trunk

Distal Farther from the origin of a body part or the The knee is distal to the thigh
point of attachment of a limb

Superficial (external) Toward or at the body surface The skin is superficial to the skeleton

Deep (internal) Away from the body surface; more internal The lungs are deep to the rib cage
Orientation and Directional Terms
 Body Planes

Median Plane:
➢A sagittal plane along the
midline that divides body
into equal left and right
halves
 Body Planes

Frontal Plane:
➢A vertical plane that
separates the body into
anterior and posterior parts
 Body Planes

Transverse Plane:
➢A horizontal plane that
separates the body into
superior and inferior parts
Body Cavities ➢ Thoracic cavity:
▪ Space within chest wall and
diaphragm
▪ Contains heart, lungs, thymus gland,
esophagus, trachea
➢ Mediastinum:
▪ Space between lungs
▪ Contains heart, thymus gland,
esophagus, trachea
➢ Abdominal cavity:
▪ Space between diaphragm and
pelvis
▪ Contains stomach, intestines, liver,
spleen, pancreas, kidneys
➢ Pelvic cavity:
▪ Space within pelvis
▪ Contains urinary bladder,
reproductive organs, part of large
intestines
❑ Dorsal Body Cavity:
➢ Cranial cavity
➢ Spinal cavity

❑ Ventral Body Cavity

➢ Thoracic cavity
➢ Abdominal cavity
➢ Pelvic cavity
Pericardium and Pericardial Cavity

❑ Pericardium
➢ Visceral
pericardium
➢ Covers heart

❑ Parietal pericardium
➢ Thick, fibrous

❑ Pericardial cavity
➢ Reduces friction
Pleura and Pleural Cavity

❑ Pleura
➢ Visceral pleura
➢ Covers lungs

❑ Parietal pleura
➢ Lines inner wall
of thorax

❑ Pleural cavity
➢ Reduces friction
➢ Adheres lungs to
thoracic wall
Peritoneum and Peritoneal Cavity

❑ Peritoneum
➢ Visceral peritoneum
➢ Covers, anchors
organs
➢ Double layers called
mesenteries

❑ Parietal peritoneum
➢ Lines inner wall
abdominopelvic
cavity

❑ Peritoneal cavity
➢ Reduces friction
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