LABORATORY SAFETY RULES

1.​ Every individual who enters the histology laboratory is expected to act in a manner that
does not compromise the safety of others.
2.​ Disinfect and decontaminate the laboratory bench with a 1:10 dilution of bleach or any
approved laboratory disinfectant, before and after doing laboratory activities.
3.​ Wash your hands with soap and clean water before and after an experiment. If soap and
water are not available, you can use an alcohol-based sanitizer.
4.​ Laboratory gown, disposable gloves, and face shield/goggles must be worn when
handling or working on biological materials such as blood, body fluids, and tissue
samples; and when staining procedures are being performed.
5.​ Whenever there are experiments involving biological substances such as blood and
tissue specimens, ensure that all work is carried out in a designated working area. It is
necessary that all books, writing materials, and other personal belongings are kept
separate from the working area.
6.​ Dispose of waste materials, chemicals, tissue samples, and body fluids properly. Follow
the instructions given by your laboratory instructor.
7.​ Long hair should be tied back neatly, away from the shoulders.
8.​ Dangling jewelry such as bracelets or necklaces should be removed before performing
the experiments.
9.​ Eating and drinking inside the laboratory are NOT allowed.
10.​Laboratory equipment such as microscopes and demonstration slides should be
returned properly to their designated cabinet/container every after an experiment.
11.​Place all laboratory equipment at the center of your working area and away from the
edge of the table.
12.​Notify the laboratory instructor immediately regarding any spill, breakage, accident, or
damage to equipment.
13.​Familiarize yourself with the location of the emergency exits, fire extinguishers, first-aid
kits, eyewash station, chemical shower, biohazard containers, and broken glass
containers.
14.​Wash your hands with soap and water before leaving the laboratory.

Microscope
What are Microscopes?

●​ Microscopes are instruments used in science laboratories to visualize very minute

objects, such as cells and microorganisms.
●​ They produce a contrasting image that is magnified.
●​ The word "microscope" is derived from the Greek words "mikrós" meaning "small" and
"skópéō" meaning "look at".
●​ Microscopes have revolutionized science since their construction in the 16th Century.
●​ They allow for the magnification of small objects like microbial cells, producing images
with definitive structures that are identifiable and characterizable.
●​ Microscopes enable the viewing of very small specimens and help distinguish their
structural differences, such as between animal and plant cells, and in viewing
microscopic bacterial cells.
●​ Their ability to function comes from their construction with special components that
enable high magnification levels.
●​ Microscopes utilize lenses for magnification, each with its own magnification powers,
determined by its focal strength.
Types of Microscopes:

●​ There are different types of microscopes, including light microscope, dark-field

microscope, phase contrast microscope, electron microscope, and fluorescent
microscope.

General Components of a Microscope:

●​ Microscopes are generally made up of structural parts for holding and supporting the
microscope and its components.
●​ They also have optical parts used for magnification and viewing specimen images.
●​ Modern microscopes may also include additional electronics and display devices.

Structural Parts and Their Functions:

●​ There are three main structural parts: the head, arm, and base.
○​ Head (Body Tube or Eyepiece Tube):
■​ A cylindrical metallic tube that holds the eyepiece lens at one end.
■​ Connects to the nose piece at the other end.
■​ Connects the eyepiece lens to the objective lens.
■​ The light coming from the objectives bends inside this tube.
■​ In binocular microscopes, the heads are adjustable, allowing the viewer
to adjust the eyepieces for maximum visualization.
○​ Arm:
■​ The part connecting the base to the head.
■​ Also connects the eyepiece tube to the base.
■​ Supports the head of the microscope.
■​ Used when carrying the microscope.
■​ Some high-quality microscopes have an articulated arm with more than
one joint, allowing more movement of the microscopic head for better
viewing.
○​ Base:
■​ The lowermost part of the microscope that supports the entire structure.
■​ Provides stability for the microscope.
■​ Illuminators, light switches, and electrical wiring systems are fitted
in the base.

Optical Parts and Their Functions:

●​ The optical parts are used to view, magnify, and produce an image from a specimen
placed on a slide.
○​ Eyepiece (Ocular Lens):
■​ The lens closest to the viewer’s eye.
■​ Located at the top of the microscope.
■​ Used to look at the specimen.
■​ Comes in different magnification powers from 5X to 30X, with 10X or 15X
being the most common.
■​ Magnifies the image for the second time.
○​ Eyepiece Tube:
■​ The eyepiece holder.
■​ Carries the eyepiece just above the objective lens.
 ■​ In some microscopes, like binoculars, it is flexible and can be rotated for
maximum visualization for variance in distance.
■​ For monocular microscopes, it is not flexible.
○​ Diopter Adjustment:
■​ A control knob present only in binocular microscopes.
■​ Used to change focus on one eyepiece.
■​ Corrects any difference in vision and compensates for differences
between the viewer’s two eyes.
○​ Nose Piece (Revolving Turret):
■​ A movable circular structure that houses all the objective lenses.
■​ Connected to the body tube and lies just above the stage.
■​ Can be rotated clockwise or counterclockwise to change
magnification.
■​ Change in magnification results from a change in the objective lens.
○​ Objective Lenses:
■​ The lens closest to the specimen.
■​ Fitted on the nosepiece.
■​ A standard microscope has 3 to 4 objective lenses with different
magnifying powers: 4X, 10X, 40X, and 100X.
■​ First receive the light transmitted from the specimen.
■​ Magnify the image for the first time.
■​ Are color-coded and of different sizes.
■​ The smallest lens has the lowest power, and the longest has the
highest power.
■​ High power lenses (40X and 100X) are retractable.
■​ Objective lenses with 100X or more magnification are typically of the
oil immersion type in most optical microscopes.
○​ Adjustment Knobs:
■​ Control knobs used to focus the microscope on the specimen.
■​ Two types:
■​ Fine Adjustment Knob:
■​ Used for fine adjustment.
■​ A smaller knob used to move the stage up or down very
slowly.
■​ The stage covers a very small distance on each rotation.
■​ Used to sharpen the image.
■​ Mostly used when viewing under high power.
■​ Coarse Adjustment Knob:
■​ Used for focusing the image under low power
magnification.
■​ A larger knob used to move the stage up or down very
rapidly.
■​ The stage is raised or lowered rapidly with its use.
○​ Stage:
■​ The section where the specimen is placed for viewing.
■​ Has stage clips to hold the specimen slides in place.
■​ The most common type is the mechanical stage, which allows control of
the slides using mechanical knobs instead of manual movement.
○​ Stage Control Knobs:
■​ Control knobs used to move the stage mechanically.
 ■​ Two knobs: one for moving left and right, and the other for moving
forward and backward.
■​ This allows movement of the slide within the field of vision.
○​ Aperture:
■​ A hole in the microscope stage through which transmitted light from the
source reaches the stage.
○​ Microscopic Illuminator:
■​ A light source.
■​ Some compound microscopes use a mirror to reflect external light onto
the sample.
■​ Other optical microscopes use low voltage electric bulbs as a constant
light source.
■​ Commonly used illuminators include tungsten-halogen lamps, 75-150W
Xenon lamps, tin-halide lamps, mercury vapor lamps, etc..
■​ The selection of bulb type depends on the required intensity and
wavelength for illumination.
○​ Condenser:
■​ Lenses used to collect and focus light from the illuminator onto the
specimen.
■​ Located under the stage next to the diaphragm.
■​ Play a major role in ensuring clear, sharp images are produced with high
magnification (400X and above).
■​ Higher magnification of the condenser results in a clearer image.
■​ More sophisticated microscopes have an Abbe condenser with a high
magnification of about 1000X.
○​ Diaphragm (Iris):
■​ Found under the stage of the microscope.
■​ Its primary role is to control the amount of light that reaches the
specimen.
■​ An adjustable apparatus, controlling light intensity and the size of the
light beam.
■​ High-quality microscopes often have a diaphragm attached to an Abbe
condenser, together controlling light focus and intensity.
○​ Condenser Focus Knob:
■​ A knob that moves the condenser up or down, controlling the focus of
light on the specimen.
○​ Abbe Condenser:
■​ A condenser specially designed for high-quality microscopes.
■​ Makes the condenser movable and allows for very high magnification
above 400X.
■​ High-quality microscopes typically have a higher numerical aperture
than objective lenses.
○​ Rack Stop:
■​ Controls how far the stage should go, preventing the objective lens
from getting too close to the specimen slide, which could cause damage.
■​ Prevents the specimen slide from coming too far up and hitting the
objective lens.
○​ Light Switch:
■​ An electrical control device used to turn the illuminator on and off.
○​ Brightness Adjustment:
 ■​ A system that controls the voltage supplied to the light bulb, thus
controlling the intensity (brightness) of the light.

Epithelial Tissue

Got it. Here's the organized list, numbered 1 through 10:

1.​ an epithelium with more than one layer of cells: stratified

2.​ shape of the cells that line the kidney tubules: cuboidal
3.​ occluding: junctions link epithelial cells to form an impermeable barrier
4.​ dominant cells on the surface of the skin: flat cells
5.​ specialization found on distal ends of cells lining the epididymis: sterrocilia
6.​ epithelium that lines blood vessels: endothelium
7.​ Epithelial cells are grouped into glands to allow focused production of a secretory
product
8.​ Epithelial tissue that lines the urinary bladder is known as: urothelium: urothelium
9.​ Anchoring junctions link the cytoskeleton of cells adjacent to each other and to
underlying tissues:
10.​Gap junctions are also called nexuses.

1. Covering vs. Lining Epithelium:

●​ Covering: Like your skin – tough, outside layer.

●​ Lining: Like wallpaper inside – lines tubes and cavities.

2. Simple Epithelial Functions:

●​ Squamous: Thin, for diffusion (lungs, vessels).

●​ Cuboidal: Cube-shaped, for secretion/absorption (kidneys).
●​ Columnar: Tall, for absorption/secretion (gut).
●​ Pseudostratified: Looks layered, cilia move stuff (airways).

3. Pseudostratified Epithelium: Why the weird name?

●​ Point 1: Cells have nuclei at different levels, creating a layered appearance.

●​ Point 2: All cells touch the basement membrane, making it a single layer.
●​ Point 3: "Pseudo" means fake, so it's a "fake" stratified appearance.

4. Endothelium: Why's it a big deal in blood vessels?

●​ Point 1: Endothelium is a thin, single layer of cells lining blood vessels.

●​ Point 2: It creates a smooth surface for efficient blood flow.
●​ Point 3: It helps regulate blood pressure.
●​ Point 4: It facilitates the exchange of nutrients and waste between blood and tissues.

1. Stratified Squamous Epithelium

 ●​ Cell Types:
○​ Superficial: Squamous (flat)
○​ Middle: Polyhedral (many-sided)
○​ Basal: Cuboidal/Columnar
●​ Function: Protection (against abrasion, etc.)
●​ Examples: Skin, esophagus, vagina

2. Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

●​ Cell Types: Cuboidal (cube-shaped) in all layers

●​ Function: Protection, secretion
●​ Examples: Ducts of sweat glands, mammary glands

3. Stratified Columnar Epithelium

●​ Cell Types:
○​ Superficial: Columnar (tall)
○​ Middle: Polyhedral
○​ Basal: Cuboidal
●​ Function: Protection, secretion
●​ Examples: Male urethra, large ducts of some glands

4. Transitional Epithelium

●​ Cell Types:
○​ Superficial: Dome-shaped/Cuboidal (changes shape)
○​ Middle: Polyhedral
○​ Basal: Cuboidal
●​ Function: Distension (stretching), protection
●​ Examples: Urinary bladder, ureters

Okay, let's break down these answers into straightforward points:

1. Define keratinization. What is its functional importance?

●​ Definition: Keratinization is a process where epithelial cells fill with keratin, becoming
tough and water-resistant.
●​ Functional Importance:
○​ Protection from the external environment.
○​ Waterproofing the skin.

2. Explain why the superficial layer of a keratinized stratified squamous epithelium is considered
an acellular layer.

●​ Reason: The superficial layer consists of dead, flattened cells called squames.
●​ Characteristics:
○​ Lack nuclei and organelles.
○​ Filled with keratin.
 ●​ Result: This makes the layer "acellular" (without cells).
●​ Function: Provides a tough, protective barrier.

Okay, let's break down these answers into straightforward points:

3. Why is the vagina and esophagus lined with non-keratinized stratified epithelium?

●​ Point 1: Protection needed against abrasion.

●​ Point 2: Need for moisture and flexibility.
●​ Point 3: Non-keratinized epithelium provides multiple protective layers.
●​ Point 4: Lacks keratin, allowing for moisture and flexibility.

4. Discuss how immunohistochemical techniques can identify and label the epithelial cells that
may be useful in cancer biopsy.1

●​ Point 1: Uses antibodies to target specific proteins.

●​ Point 2: Helps identify and label epithelial cells in biopsies.
●​ Point 3: Helps determine cancer origin and type.
●​ Point 4: Aids in assessing cancer aggressiveness.
●​ Point 5: Guides treatment decisions.

Epithelial Gland

Yes, let's analyze the table and confirm the information is correct:

Epithelial Gland Classification Table

Epithelial Gland Morphology Number of Secretory Type of Secretion

Units

Intestinal Gland Tubular Simple Mucus, enzymes

Submandibular Gland Compound tubuloacinar Multiple Serous and mucous

 Thyroid Gland Follicular Multiple Hormones (thyroxine,
triiodothyronine)

Analysis:

●​ Intestinal Gland:
○​ Morphology: Tubular - Correct, as intestinal glands (Crypts of Lieberkühn) are
tubular.
○​ Number of Secretory Units: Simple - Correct, they are simple glands.
○​ Type of Secretion: Mucus, enzymes - Correct, this is the primary function of
intestinal glands.
●​ Submandibular Gland:
○​ Morphology: Compound tubuloacinar - Correct, this accurately describes the
gland's structure.
○​ Number of Secretory Units: Multiple - Correct, as it's a compound gland with
many acini.
○​ Type of Secretion: Serous and mucous - Correct, the submandibular gland is a
mixed gland.
●​ Thyroid Gland:
○​ Morphology: Follicular - Correct, the thyroid is composed of follicles.
○​ Number of Secretory Units: Multiple - Correct, as it contains numerous follicles.
○​ Type of Secretion: Hormones (thyroxine, triiodothyronine) - Correct, these are the
primary hormones produced by the thyroid.

Conclusion:

The information in the table is accurate and correctly classifies the epithelial glands based on
their morphology, number of secretory units, and type of secretion.

Yes, let's analyze the answers provided in the image:

1. What is the importance of goblet cells in the intestinal epithelium?

●​ Answer: "Goblet cells in the intestinal epithelium secrete mucus. This mucus lubricates
the intestinal lining, protecting it from digestive enzymes and facilitating the smooth
passage of food. Basically, goblet cells are like the intestine's personal lubricant crew."
●​ Analysis: This answer is correct. Goblet cells are specialized cells found within the
intestinal epithelium that produce and secrete mucus. This mucus serves several vital
functions:
○​ Lubrication: It lubricates the intestinal lining, allowing for the smooth passage of
food.
○​ Protection: It creates a protective barrier, shielding the epithelium from the harsh
digestive enzymes and acidic environment within the intestine.
2. Differentiate the types of exocrine glands based on the manner by which their glandular cells
release their secretory products.

●​ Answer: "There are three types of exocrine. One, merocrine, cells release product via
exocytosis (like sweat glands). Two, apocrine, cells pinch off a portion of themselves with
the product (like mammary glands). Three, holocrine, cells burst to release products (like
oil glands)."
●​ Analysis: This answer is correct. It accurately describes the three primary modes of
secretion used by exocrine glands:
○​ Merocrine: Secretion via exocytosis, without loss of cellular material.
○​ Apocrine: Secretion involving the pinching off of a portion of the cell's apical
cytoplasm.
○​ Holocrine: Secretion involving the rupture and destruction of the entire glandular
cell.

Yes, I can analyze the provided text and images. Here's what I can gather:

Page 62 of a Laboratory Manual in Human Histology

●​ Question: "3. Name at least three (3) exocrine glands of the digestive system, identify
the organs where they are found, and classify each gland according to morphology and
number of secretory units. Tabulate your answer."1
●​ Answers Provided (in handwriting):
○​ "1) Salivary Glands"
○​ "2) Gastric Glands"
○​ "3) Pancreas (exocrine portion)"
●​ Explanations Provided (in handwriting):
○​ "1) These glands in the mouth meaning they have branching units."
○​ "2) Found in the stomach lining, pepsin. They are simple tubular."
○​ "3) The exocrine pancreas releases acinar gland, reflecting its" (the rest is cut off)

Analysis:

The student has correctly identified three exocrine glands of the digestive system. However, the
explanations are incomplete.

To complete the answer, we need to:

1.​ Identify the organs:

○​ Salivary Glands: Mouth
○​ Gastric Glands: Stomach
○​ Pancreas (exocrine): Pancreas
2.​ Classify according to morphology and number of secretory units:
○​ Salivary Glands: Compound acinar/tubuloacinar, Multiple
○​ Gastric Glands: Simple tubular, Multiple
○​ Pancreas (exocrine): Compound acinar, Multiple
Completed Table (as requested in the question):

Gland Organ Morphology Number of Secretory

Units

Salivary Glands Mouth Compound Multiple

acinar/tubuloacinar

Gastric Glands Stomach Simple tubular Multiple

Pancreas (exocrine) Pancreas Compound acinar Multiple

CONNECTIVE TISSUES

Absolutely! Here are detailed notes on connective tissues based on the provided text, presented
straightforwardly with points:

Connective Tissues: General Overview

●​ Definition: Connective tissue (supporting tissue) is a diverse group of tissues responsible

for providing and maintaining structural body forms.
●​ Function:
○​ Provides a matrix physically linking cells and tissues.
○​ Gives mechanical support to body organs.
○​ Supports epithelium through blood vessels and nerves.
●​ Unique Characteristics:
○​ Primarily composed of extracellular matrix (ECM).
○​ ECM is a non-living substance produced by a few resident cells.
○​ ECM consists of:
■​ Amorphous ground substance.
■​ Fibrous proteins.
Components of Connective Tissue (3 Classes)

1.​ Connective Tissue Cells:

○​ Derived from precursor cells in primitive mesenchyme.
○​ Include fixed and transient cells.
○​ Categorized functionally:
■​ a. Cells for ECM synthesis and maintenance:
■​ Examples: Fibroblasts, chondroblasts, osteoblasts.
■​ b. Cells for fat storage and metabolism:
■​ Examples: Adipocytes.
■​ c. Cells for defense and immunity:
■​ Examples: Tissue macrophages, mast cells, leukocytes, plasma
cells.
2.​ Connective Tissue Fibers:
○​ Elongated components of supporting tissues.
○​ Composed of proteins and polysaccharides.
○​ Derived from polymerization of locally secreted proteins.
○​ Form an organized meshwork.
○​ Produced by fibroblasts.

Absolutely. Here are detailed notes on the connective tissue components described in the
image, presented straightforwardly with points:

Connective Tissue Fibers

●​ Two Types of Proteins:

○​ a. Collagen:
■​ Most abundant protein in the human body.
■​ Key element of all connective tissues, basement membranes, and
external laminae.
■​ Various types exist, classified based on molecular composition,
distribution, morphology, function, and pathologies.
■​ Reticular fibers are a type of collagen.
○​ b. Elastin:
■​ Important structural protein.
■​ Can be arranged as parallel fibers or discontinuous sheets in the
extracellular matrix.
■​ Found in skin, lungs, and blood vessels.
■​ Confers properties of stretching and elastic recoil.

Ground Substance

●​ Description:
○​ Highly hydrophilic and viscous complex.
○​ Composed of anionic molecules (glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans) and
multi-adhesive glycoproteins (laminin and fibronectin).
 ○​ Provides strength and rigidity to the matrix by binding to receptor proteins and
other matrix components.
○​ Loosely associated with tissue fluids.
○​ Passage medium for molecules throughout tissues.
○​ Assists in the exchange of metabolites with the circulatory system.
○​ Gel-like material acts as a lubricant and barrier to invasive microorganisms.

Connective Tissue Organization

●​ Histologic Structure:
○​ Exists in a certain order or category.
○​ Determined by combinations and densities of cells, fibers, and extracellular
molecules.
○​ Includes connective tissue proper and special connective tissues.