Unit – 1

Generations of computer

First Generation – Vacuum Tubes (1940 – 1956)

These ancient computers utilized vacuum tubes as circuitry and magnetic drums for recollection. As a
result they were huge, actually taking up entire rooms and costing resources to run. These were
ineffective materials which produce a huge amount of heat, sucked enormous electricity and
subsequently engendered an abundance of heat which caused perpetual breakdowns.

These first generation computers relied on ‘machine language’ (which is the most fundamental
programming language that can be understood by computers). These computers were limited to solving
one problem at a time. Input was predicated on punched cards and paper tape. Output emerged on
print-outs. The two eminent machines of this era were the UNIVAC and ENIAC machines – the UNIVAC is
the first ever commercial computer which was purchased in 1951 by a business named as the US Census
Bureau.

Second Generation – Transistors (1956 – 1963)

The supersession of vacuum tubes by transistors, visualized the onset of the second generation of
computing. Although first invented in 1947, transistors weren’t used considerably in computers until the
cessation of the 1950s. They were a huge development over the vacuum tube, despite the fact still
subjecting computers to destroying different levels of heat. However they were extremely superior to
the vacuum tubes, making computers smaller, more expeditious, inexpensive and less burdensome on
electricity use. They still count on punched card for input/printouts.

The language emerged from strange binary language to symbolic (‘assembly’) languages. This meant
programmers could discover instructions in words. Meanwhile during the same time high caliber
programming languages were being developed (early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN). Transistor-
driven machines were the first computers to store instructions into their recollections, peregrinating
from magnetic drum to magnetic core ‘technology’. The anticipatory versions of these machines were
created for the atomic energy industry.

Third Generation – Integrated Circuits (1964 – 1971)

By this phase, transistors were now being miniaturised and put on silicon chips. This led to a huge
improvement in speed and effectiveness of these machines. These were the first computers where users
interacted utilizing keyboards and monitors which interfaced with an operating system, a consequential
leap up from the punch cards and printouts. This facilitated these machines to run various applications
at once utilizing a central program which functioned to monitor memory.

As a result of these advances which again made machines more reasonable and more tiny, a brand new
group of users emerged during the ‘60s.

Fourth Generation – Microprocessors (1972 – 2010)

This innovation can be defined in one word: Intel. The chip-maker accomplished the Intel 4004 chip in
1971, which located all components of computer such as CPU, recollection, input/output controls onto a
single chip. What overcrowded a room in the 1940s now gets fit in the palm of the hand.The Intel chip
contained thousands of unified circuits. The year 1981 saw the first ever computer (IBM) categorically
designed for home use and 1984 saw the Macintosh introduced by Apple. Microprocessors even
transformed beyond the realm of computers and into an incrementing number of everyday products.

The incremented power of these small computers denoted they could be linked, establishing networks.
Which eventually led to the expansion, birth and rapid evolution of the Internet. Other primary
advances during this period have been the Graphical user interface (GUI), the mouse and more of late
the startling advances in laptop capability and hand-held contrivances.

Fifth Generation – Artificial Intelligence (2010 Onwards)

Computer devices with artificial potentiality are still in development, but some of these technologies are
commencing to emerge and be used such as voice recognition. AI is an authenticity, made possible by
adopting parallel processing and superconductors. Inclining to the future, computers will be thoroughly
revolutionized again by quantum computation, molecular and nano technology. The essence of fifth
generation will be utilizing these technologies to ultimately engender machines which can proceed and
acknowledge natural language, and have efficiency to determine and organise themselves.

Data and Information:

Data:

Data are raw facts, events, numbers and transactions, which have been collected, recorded,
stored but are not yet processed. Data consist of numbers and characters (i.e. alphabets and special
symbols) which are used to record facts and events about activities occurring in an environment.

Data refers to any sequence of one or more symbols.

Data requires interpretation to become meaningful information.

Information:

Information is processed data. It is obtained after subjecting data to a series of processing operations
which convert related groups of data (raw facts) into a meaningful and coherent form. Processing
could be in the form of addition, subtracting, comparison, sorting, rearrangement etc. This makes
information useful and meaningful. In other words, information could be defined as the desired form to
which data is finally transformed after undergoing a series of processing.

Information refers to processed data

2. Components of COMPUTER.

A simple computer system comprises the basic components like Input Devices, CPU (Central
Processing Unit) and Output Devices as under:

Input Devices:
The devices which are used to entered data in the computer systems are known as input
devices.
 Keyboard, mouse, scanner, mike, light pen etc are example of input devices.

function of input devices

Accept the data from the outside worlds.
Convert that data into computer coded information.
Supply this data to CPU for further processing.

Output Devices:
The devices which display the result generated by the computer are known as
output devices.
Monitor, printer, plotter, speaker etc are the example of output devices.

functions of output devices

Accept the result form the CPU.
Convert that result into human readable form.
Display the result on the output device.

Central Processing Unit:

Once the information is entered into the computer by the input device, the processor processes it.
The CPU is called the brain of the computer because it is the control centre of the computer. It first
fetches instructions from memory and then interprets them so as to know what is to be done. If
required, data is fetched from memory or input device. Thereafter CPU executes or performs the
required computation, and then either stores the output or displays it on the output device. The CPU
has three main components, which are responsible for different functions: Arithmetic Logic Unit
(ALU), Control Unit (CU) and Memory registers.

A. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): The ALU, as its name suggests performs mathematical calculations
and takes logical decisions. Arithmetic calculations include addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division. Logical decisions involve the comparison of two data items to see which one is larger or
smaller or equal.
 Arithmetic Logical Unit is the main component of the CPU
 It is the fundamental building block of the CPU.
 Arithmetic and Logical Unit is a digital circuit that is used to perform arithmetic and logical
operations.

B. Control Unit: The Control unit coordinates and controls the data flow in and out of the CPU, and
also controls all the operations of ALU, memory registers and also input/output units. It is also
responsible for carrying out all the instructions stored in the program. It decodes the fetched
instruction, interprets it and sends control signals to input/output devices until the required operation
is done properly by ALU and memory.
 The Control Unit is a component of the central processing unit of a computer that directs the
operation of the processor.
 It instructs the computer’s memory, arithmetic and logic unit, and input and output devices on how
to respond to the processor’s instructions.
 In order to execute the instructions, the components of a computer receive signals from the control
unit.
 It is also called the central nervous system or brain of the computer.

C. Memory Registers: A register is a temporary unit of memory in the CPU. These are used to store
the data, which is directly used by the processor. Registers can be of different sizes(16 bit, 32 bit, 64
bit and so on) and each register inside the CPU has a specific function, like storing data, storing an
instruction, storing address of a location in memory etc. The user registers can be used by an
assembly language programmer for storing operands, intermediate results etc. Accumulator (ACC) is
the main register in the ALU and contains one of the operands of an operation to be performed in the
ALU.
Memory attached to the CPU is used for the storage of data and instructions, and is called internal
memory The internal memory is divided into many storage locations, each of which can store data or
instructions. Each memory location is of the same size and has an address. With the help of the
address, the computer can read any memory location easily without having to search the entire
memory. When a program is executed, its data is copied to the internal memory and stored in the
memory till the end of the execution. The internal memory is also called the Primary memory or Main
memory. This memory is also called RAM, i.e., Random Access Memory. The time of access of data is
independent of its location in memory, therefore, this memory is also called Random Access memory
(RAM).
 Memory Unit is the primary storage of the computer.
 It stores both data and instructions.
 Data and instructions are stored permanently in this unit so that they are available whenever
required

Software

In a computer system, the software is basically a set of instructions or commands that tell a computer
what to do. In other words, the software is a computer program that provides a set of instructions to
execute a user’s commands and tell the computer what to do. For example like MS-Word, MS-
Excel, PowerPoint, etc.

Types of Software
It is a collection of data that is given to the computer to complete a particular task. The chart below
describes the types of software:
1. System Software
 Operating System
 Language Processor
 Device Driver

2. Application Software
 General Purpose Software
 Customize Software
 Utility Software

System Software

System software is software that directly operates the computer hardware and provides the basic
functionality to the users as well as to the other software to operate smoothly. Or in other words,
system software basically controls a computer’s internal functioning and also controls hardware
devices such as monitors, printers, and storage devices, etc. It is like an interface between hardware
and user applications, it helps them to communicate with each other because hardware understands
machine language(i.e. 1 or 0) whereas user applications are work in human-readable languages like
English, Hindi, German, etc. so system software converts the human-readable language into machine
language and vice versa.
 Types of System Software
It has two subtypes which are:
1. Operating System: It is the main program of a computer system. When the computer system ON it
is the first software that loads into the computer’s memory. Basically, it manages all the resources
such as computer memory, CPU, printer, hard disk, etc., and provides an interface to the user,
which helps the user to interact with the computer system. It also provides various services to
other computer software. Examples of operating systems are Linux, Apple macOS, Microsoft
Windows, etc.
2. Language Processor: As we know that system software converts the human-readable language into
a machine language and vice versa. So, the conversion is done by the language processor. It
converts programs written in high-level programming languages like Java, C, C++, Python,
etc(known as source code), into sets of instructions that are easily readable by machines(known as
object code or machine code).
3. Device Driver: A device driver is a program or software that controls a device and helps that device
to perform its functions. Every device like a printer, mouse, modem, etc. needs a driver to connect
with the computer system eternally. So, when you connect a new device with your computer
system, first you need to install the driver of that device so that your operating system knows how
to control or manage that device.

Features of System Software

 System Software is closer to the computer system.

 System Software is written in a low-level language in general.
 System software is difficult to design and understand.
 System software is fast in speed(working speed).
 System software is less interactive for the users in comparison to application software.

Application Software

Software that performs special functions or provides functions that are much more than the basic
operation of the computer is known as application software. Or in other words, application software
is designed to perform a specific task for end-users. It is a product or a program that is designed only
to fulfill end-users’ requirements. It includes word processors, spreadsheets, database management,
inventory, payroll programs, etc.

Types of Application Software

There are different types of application software and those are:

1. General Purpose Software: This type of application software is used for a variety of tasks and it is
not limited to performing a specific task only. For example, MS-Word, MS-Excel, PowerPoint, etc.
2. Customized Software: This type of application software is used or designed to perform specific
tasks or functions or designed for specific organizations. For example, railway reservation system,
airline reservation system, invoice management system, etc.
3. Utility Software: This type of application software is used to support the computer infrastructure. It
is designed to analyze, configure, optimize and maintains the system, and take care of its
 requirements as well. For example, antivirus, disk fragmenter, memory tester, disk repair, disk
cleaners, registry cleaners, disk space analyzer, etc.

Features of Application Software

 An important feature of application software is it performs more specialized tasks like word
processing, spreadsheets, email, etc.
 Mostly, the size of the software is big, so it requires more storage space.
 Application software is more interactive for the users, so it is easy to use and design.
 The application software is easy to design and understand.
 Application software is written in a high-level language in general.

Difference Between System Software and Application Software

System Software Application Software

It is designed to manage the resources of the

It is designed to fulfill the requirements of the
computer system, like memory and process
user for performing specific tasks.
management, etc.

Written in a low-level language. Written in a high-level language.

Less interactive for the users. More interactive for the users.

Application software is not so important for

System software plays vital role for the effective
the functioning of the system, as it is task
functioning of a system.
specific.

It is independent of the application software to run. It needs system software to run.

Hardware :

Computer hardware is a physical device of computers that we can see and touch. For
e.g. Monitor, Central Processing Unit, Mouse, Joystick, etc. Using these devices, we can control
computer operations like input and output.

Computer Hardware Parts

These hardware components are further divided into the following categories, which are:
1. Input Devices
2. Output Devices
1. Input Devices
Input devices are those devices with the help of which the user interacts with the computer. Or, In
other words, with the help of input devices, the user enters the data or information into the
 computer. This information or data is accepted by the input devices and converted into a computer-
acceptable format, which is further sent to the computer system for processing.
Now we discuss some input devices:
 Keyboard: It is the most common and main input device for computers. The data is inputted by
typing on the keyboard. It consists of 104 keys in total. It contains numeric keys, alphabet keys, and
different function keys as well. Earlier, it was connected to the computer via cable, now as
technology has advanced, you can connect a keyboard using Bluetooth.
 Mouse: A mouse is a kind of pointing device which is rolled over to control the cursor on the screen
and it has functional keys like left, middle, and right buttons. Using these functional keys, on by the
click of which an object is selected or to open a file by just a click of a mouse. It also consists of a
sensor inside which notifies its speed to the computer and according to which the cursor is moved
on the screen.
 Scanner: As the name suggests, it scans images, documents, etc., and converts them into digital
form and that can be further edited and used. It works just like a Xerox machine.
 Track Ball: It is a device much like an upside-down mouse. It does not use much space for
movement like a mouse. As the trackball remains stationary and the user moves the ball in various
directions, it affects the screen movements directly.
 Light Pen: It is a light-sensitive device and it is touched to the CRT screen where it can detect, a
raster on the screen as it passes by and, with the help of this user can draw anything like lines,
figures, or any objects.
 Microphone: It is a kind of voice input system that can be attached to a computer system to record
sounds. It converts human speech or voice into electrical signals. This electrical signal is processed
by the computer and the word is recognized.
 Optical Character Reader: It is used to detect alphanumeric characters that are written or printed
on paper using a low-frequency light source. This light is absorbed by the dark areas and reflected
by the light areas, now this reflected light is received by the photocells. It is like a scanner.
 Bar Code Reader: It is used to read bar codes and convert them into electric pulse which will
further processed by the computer. Here, the barcode is data that is coded into white and black
lines(or light and dark lines).

2. Output Devices
These are the devices that are used to display the output of any task given to the computer in human-
readable form.
Now we discuss some output devices:
 Monitor: The monitor is the main output device. It is also called VDU(visual display unit) and it
looks like a TV screen. The Monitor displays the information from the computer. It is used to display
text, video, images, etc.
 Printer: A printer is an output device that transfers data from the computer in a printed format by
using text or images on paper. There are both colored and black & white printers. Further, there are
also different types of printers, like Laser Printer, Dot-matrix printers, and Inkjet printers.
 Plotter: It is similar to a printer but potters are large in size. A plotter is used to generate large
drawings, architectural blueprints, etc. on paper and these are high-quality images and drawings
and large in size.
 Speakers: It is a very common output device and it gives sound as an output. Speaker is generally
used to play music or anything having sound.

Types of Operating Systems

 There are several types of Operating Systems which are mentioned below.
 Batch Operating System
 Multi-Programming System
 Multi-Processing System
 Multi-Tasking Operating System
 Real-Time Operating System

1. Batch Operating System

This type of operating system does not interact with the computer directly. There is an
operator which takes similar jobs having the same requirements and groups them into
batches. It is the responsibility of the operator to sort jobs with similar needs. Batch
Operating System is designed to manage and execute a large number of jobs efficiently by
processing them in groups.

Advantages of Batch Operating System

 Multiple users can share the batch systems.
 The idle time for the batch system is very less.
 It is easy to manage large work repeatedly in batch systems.
Disadvantages of Batch Operating System
 Batch systems are hard to debug.
 It is sometimes costly.
 The other jobs will have to wait for an unknown time if any job fails.
 In batch operating system the processing time for jobs is commonly difficult to accurately
predict while they are in the queue.
 It is difficult to accurately predict the exact time required for a job to complete while it is in
the queue.
Examples of Batch Operating Systems: Payroll Systems, Bank Statements, etc.

2. Multi-Programming Operating System

Multiprogramming Operating Systems can be simply illustrated as more than one program is
present in the main memory and any one of them can be kept in execution. This is basically
used for better utilization of resources.
Advantages of Multi-Programming Operating System
 Multi Programming increases the Throughput of the System.
 It helps in reducing the response time.
Disadvantages of Multi-Programming Operating System
 There is not any facility for user interaction of system resources with the system.

3. Multi-Processing Operating System

Multi-Processing Operating System is a type of Operating System in which more than one CPU
is used for the execution of resources. It betters the throughput of the System.
 Advantages of Multi-Processing Operating System
 It increases the throughput of the system.
 As it has several processors, so, if one processor fails, we can proceed with another
processor.
Disadvantages of Multi-Processing Operating System
 Due to the multiple CPU, it can be more complex and somehow difficult to understand.

4. Multi-Tasking Operating System

Multitasking Operating System is simply a multiprogramming Operating System with having
facility of a Round-Robin Scheduling Algorithm. It can run multiple programs simultaneously.
There are two types of Multi-Tasking Systems which are listed below.
 Preemptive Multi-Tasking
 Cooperative Multi-Tasking
Advantages of Multi-Tasking Operating System
 Multiple Programs can be executed simultaneously in Multi-Tasking Operating System.
 It comes with proper memory management.
Disadvantages of Multi-Tasking Operating System
 The system gets heated in case of heavy programs multiple times.

5. Real-Time Operating System

These types of OSs serve real-time systems. The time interval required to process and
respond to inputs is very small. This time interval is called response time. Real-time
systems are used when there are time requirements that are very strict like missile systems,
air traffic control systems, robots, etc.

Types of Real-Time Operating Systems

 Hard Real-Time Systems: Hard Real-Time OSs are meant for applications where time
constraints are very strict and even the shortest possible delay is not acceptable. These
systems are built for saving life like automatic parachutes or airbags which are required to
be readily available in case of an accident. Virtual memory is rarely found in these systems.
 Soft Real-Time Systems: These OSs are for applications where time-constraint is less strict.

Advantages of RTOS
 Maximum Consumption: Maximum utilization of devices and systems, thus more output
from all the resources.
 Task Shifting: The time assigned for shifting tasks in these systems is very less. For example,
in older systems, it takes about 10 microseconds in shifting from one task to another, and in
the latest systems, it takes 3 microseconds.
 Focus on Application: Focus on running applications and less importance on applications
that are in the queue.
 Real-time operating system in the embedded system: Since the size of programs is small,
RTOS can also be used in embedded systems like in transport and others.
 Error Free: These types of systems are error-free.
 Memory Allocation: Memory allocation is best managed in these types of systems.
Disadvantages of RTOS
 Limited Tasks: Very few tasks run at the same time and their concentration is very less on a
few applications to avoid errors.
 Use heavy system resources: Sometimes the system resources are not so good and they
are expensive as well.
 Complex Algorithms: The algorithms are very complex and difficult for the designer to
write on.
 Device driver and interrupt signals: It needs specific device drivers and interrupts signal to
respond earliest to interrupts.
 Thread Priority: It is not good to set thread priority as these systems are very less prone to
switching tasks.
Examples of Real-Time Operating Systems are Scientific experiments, medical imaging
systems, industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control systems, etc.
3. Flash Disk
A storage module made of flash memory chips. A Flash disks have no mechanical platters or
access arms, but the term "disk" is used because the data are accessed as if they were on a
hard drive. The disk storage structure is emulated.