I.T.

Exam

Fundamentals of Hardware and Software

These are the physical components of a computer placed into five main categories.

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU) – This is the brain of the computer and is responsible for controlling
the rest of the computers functions. There are three parts of the CPU being the

Control Unit which executes software instructions and controls where data goes in the PC.
Arithmetic and Logic Unit that deals with mathematical problems and logical questions.
Registers which store data for a very short term to make the processing more efficient

2. Input Devices- These are what input data into the computer through various means such as
keyboards and scanners

3. Output Devices – These are what show or project the processed information to the user such as a
monitor or speaker.

4. Memory- This is what allows a computer to temporarily store instructions given to it and data,
allowing the processing process to be more efficient. e.g. RAM

5. Storage Devices- store data and information much more permanently for later use than memory, such
as hard drives and SD cards.

* Peripheral devices are found outside of the computer itself but are still controlled by it or relate
heavily to it, and can be input, output or storage devices.
Input Devices Manual Input Devices

Mouse – Point and Draw

Description
This is a pointing device that sends information to the computer about it’s relative position, which the computer than reads
to perform an action on screen. The mouse itself is a small electronic device with often an ergonomic design with often two
large buttons and a scroll wheel between them. It reads moving using a trackball or a laser below it to decipher position.

Applications
The mouse can be used to move a pointer across the screen and to select objects using the left button click, or to bring up
menus using the right button click. It can also scroll through a page using the scroll wheel.

Advantages
The mouse is simple and direct to use.
It requires no computer knowledge to use at a basic level.

Disadvantages
The mouses accuracy may vary depending on its age and quality
In order to use at the most efficient level, it requires skill and practice to operate.

Joystick- Point and Draw

Description
An electronic device that looks similar to a gear shift with various buttons often on and around the stick itself.

Applications
The joystick is mainly used for games often driving simulators, but can be used for various other games depending on then
compatibility.

Advantages
Made specifically for games, so is often the best choice for playing them.
Intuitive movement in these games is often acquired using joysticks.

Disadvantages
Joysticks have very limited use outside of game only.
They require skill to use effectively.

Light Pen – Point and Draw

Description
This is pointing device connected to a computer shaped like a pen that is light sensitive for use on a CRT monitor.

Applications
The light pen is used to select and highlight data such as text on a screen for manipulation in various ways, such as deletion
or commands such as copying.

Advantages
The light pen is simple to use
It was very effective with older monitors and useful for its time.

Disadvantages
Most useful only with CRT monitors
Replaced in modern times by touch screens.
Touch Terminals – Point and Draw

Description
A device that looks similar to a tablet or pad with various coloured sections with text on a touch sensitive screen.

Applications
Touch terminals are used at supermarkets, malls and various stores to select what the customer has purchased in order for
the price to be tallied up.
Advantages
Touch terminals are very simple and easy to use.
They make the shopping process much faster and more effective

Disadvantages
Touch terminals are often expensive for the store.
They are limited in the type of data they can use and are often useless outside that context

Pads and Tablets – Point and Draw

Description
Tablet are computers are often made with flat touch screens made of glass that allows for touch sensitive actions. Touch
pads are rectangular surfaces sensitive to finger movement by the user and can be clicked down, often on laptops.

Applications
Touch screens on tablets can be used to select objects on screen to perform various actions such as bringing up menus and
typing on a digital keyboard. Touch pads are used on laptops in the same vein as a mouse, for selecting and clicking on data.

Advantages
These touch devices are simple to use for beginners
They can be used for a wide variety of tasks.

Disadvantages
They are often expensive to make.
Without various touch sensitive apps being programmed in such as a touch keyboard, they are very limited in use.

Keyboard – Key Input

Description
A long pad with various keys raised up off it with various alphabetical, numerical and other symbols on them.

Applications
If a key is pressed a code is sent to the computer telling it what was pressed. The software then decides what to do with that
knowledge. It can be used in a wide variety of situations such as typing a document or navigating the internet.

Advantages
Keyboards are simple to make and use at a basic level.
There are a wide variety of applications for a keyboard to use.

Disadvantages
Keyboards are prone to human error in pressing an incorrect key
Keyboards are often slow if someone is not familiar with the layout of the keyboard
Voice Response Unit

Description
An automated voice response to a call that it interacted with via the key inputs of the caller.

Application
Voice Response units are used in businesses and call centres for various purposes such as customer service and placing
orders.
Advantages
Very useful for businesses
Very simple to set up once necessary items are acquired

Disadvantages
Limited in use if the user has a more complex request for the business
Requires specific responses to get work done.

Remote Control – Key Input

Description
A rectangular pad with many buttons on it that allow for various devices to be controlled and options selected.

Application
It is used to select channels on a television set or stations on a radio, as well as various other uses.

Advantages
Relatively simple to use for anyone
Very cheap to produce and replace

Disadvantages
Difficult to get accustomed to if the buttons are not properly labelled.
May be damaged if not handled with care

Microphone – Audio Input

Description
Also called voice recognition, is where some kind of sound capturing device records sound and is analysed by the computer.

Applications
Microphones allow users to perform various actions using their voice input such as open programs or make searches on the
internet.

Advantages
Microphones are simple to use to enter data
Often very convenient for use in various ways.

Disadvantages
These devices may be restricted to a few words to get anything done.
The computer must be programmed very well to accept different accents and such to work properly
Stylus – Point and Draw

Description
Visually similar to a light pen as a pen shaped device that is connected to the computer that allows touch screen objects to
be selected with more precision than using touch controls alone.

Applications
Used in conjunction with touch screen devices to accurately select objects, draw images, move objects or a pointer and a
wide variety of other uses.

Advantages
Very precise in movement so useful for tasks that require accuracy
Simple and cheap to produce and buy.

Disadvantages
The stylus is limited in use to only touch screen devices
It can be damaged and the accuracy reduced if it is damaged.

Direct Data Entry Devices (Source Data Automation)

Optical mark reader

Optical mark reader is a source data automation device pen or pencil marks on paper to respond to questions. It's used at
agencies such as the ministry of education to mark exam paper.

The advantages are its very accurate and faster that a human.
Disadvantages are needs answers to questions before scanning can be used for text input.

MICR and OCR

MICR and OCR – these are source data automation devices that recognizes characters OCR turns PDF into editable data
and MICR uses a special ink to check the legitimacy of a document these are used at banks.

The advantages of a MICR or OCR they are 100% search-able and when turned into a PDF it can be edited.

Disadvantages: are Limited documents and not 100 percent accurate

Barcode Scanner
The barcode scanner also called a POS is handled device used to read information off a barcode it is used in supermarkets.

The advantages of a barcode scanner or POS is that that they save large amounts of time and that they help you keep good
control over your inventory.

The disadvantages of a barcode scanner is they break down over time and they are expensive to invest in

Sensors
Sensors are a source data automation data device which can gather data from the environment and send it to a computer.
They can detect wind gas and light.

Advantages of sensors can save you from a car accident and protect your valuables.

Disadvantages are they can easily be set off and they can break down
Grey Areas (Do not fit exactly into either category)

Biometric systems

Description
These systems use a body part that is unique to every person or some symbol unique to every person, such as eyes,
fingerprints or signature.

Application
They are used in airports and other locations to confirm someone's identity for security and safety purposes
Advantages
They are very quick and simple to utilize
They can be very accurate in determining someone identity

Disadvantages
They are very expensive to produce for use
Their accuracy can vary in quality depending on the price and age.

Digital Camera

Description
An electronic device used to take pictures or events or items. The data of the pictures can be transferred onto a computer for
further use.

Applications
Digital camera may be used to create digital versions of pictures for use in photo editing. Also, the pictures may be stored
onto the computer by plugging the camera in and copying the pictures onto a storage device.

Advantages
The camera is simple to use.
The digital pictures are often higher quality than earlier forms of picture taking.

Disadvantages
The data from the camera must be stored somewhere such as an SD card inserted into it.
The data from a camera can be destroyed or changed for the detriment if it is used without skill

Webcam

Description
Similar to a digital camera often built in to computer or bought as a peripheral device. It records video and audio
information from the user for various uses.

Applications
Webcams may be used for digital conferencing to conduct meetings with participants around the world. They may also be
used to communicate with family members or friends across the world.

Advantages
Webcams are easy to set-up for newcomers
They are incredibly useful in a wide variety of situations

Disadvantages
The recording camera may be of low quality if the price is low.
The webcam may be destroyed if not handled with some amount of care.
Scanner

Description
An often flat topped or in some cases rounded device where paper can either sit or slide through, passing over a sensor
which scans the item to create a digital image of it.

Applications
The scanner creates a digital image of an object such as a written worksheet for use directly on a computer in order to edit
and other things akin to that. It also allows printed images to be shown in digital form on a computer.

Advantages
Very useful for making soft copies of images and other documents.
Often cheap, easy and portable.

Disadvantages
The quality of the scanned image may vary in quality depending on price.
The image must be clear in order to produce a clear image.

Output Devices
Soft Copy Output

Cathode Ray Tube

A Cathode Ray Tube Monitor is one major example of a once commonly used soft copy output device classified as a VDU
(visual display unit)). It uses vacuum tubes, and electron guns to increase the speed of moving electrons to display data
visually on a fluorescent screen in the form of light emitting dots.

The most popular use of these monitors was as a result in the rise of easily accessible personal computers and the bulky,
famously monochromatic televisions associated with the mid to late 20 th century.

Cathode ray tubes generally had screen resolution between 640 × 480 and 1600 × 1200 and 300dpi (dots per cubic inch)

Advantages of CRT
There is virtually no such thing a dead pixel on a CRT monitor
In this modern economy, CRT monitors are significantly less expensive than monitors of different types (e.g
Plasma screens and standard Lcd Monitors)
Disadvantages of CRT
CRTs are large and cumbersome making placement on most household surfaces awkward
CRTs can also experience permanent display damage from overuse. This can result in a permanent ghost image or
(“burn-in”)
Plasma Screen Monitors

Plasma screen panels (PSPs) are a type of panel display which operates using electrically charged ionized gases commonly
known as plasma. They are generally used in large, flat televisions exceeding 30 inches in display length

These VDs (visual displays) generally had screen resolutions between 1024 x 768 and 1920 x 1080 (aspect ratio- 4:3 and
16:9 respectively)

Advantages of PSPs
PSPs are superior in brightness uniformity in comparative brightness. Overall the brightness of these visual
displays is even in comparison to even LCDs
Produces deeper blacks drastically increasing the contrast ratio of the displays

Disadvantages of PSPs
Works poorly at altitudes above 6500ft due to differences in the gaseous pressure of the atmosphere and the gases
within the screen
They are also significantly heavier than LCDs and must be kept upright when being moved.

LCD Monitors

LCD stands for liquid crystal display and is one of the most common soft copy output devices of a modern computer. LCD
monitors use flat panel screens and liquid crystals which aid in the transmition of bits of arranged coloured light (pixels)
into visible images. LCD monitors are commonly used in small and/or portable consumer electronics such as cellphones,
digital cameras, video game devices. In addition, they are common in modern flat-screen televisions, desktop and laptop
computers

LCD displays have significantly more variation in terms of screen resolution and aspect ratio. Generally, LCDs have screen
resolutions between 1600 × 1200 and 5124 × 2880 (aspect ratios – 4:3 and 16:9 respectively)

Advantages of LCDs
LCDs did not have reflective glass screens which virtually eliminates all glare
Far thinner than CRT being between less than an inch and only a few inches in thickness.

Disadvantages of LCDs
Notably more expensive than CRTs as they are in higher demand
LCDs are noted for their affinity to have “dead” pixels as they do not use phosphors to create images.

Digital Speakers

These are a the most common form of electroacoustic transducer. It performs its function of emitting sounds by
converting an audio signal stored in some file and converting it to a corresponding sound. Speakers are used in just
about every modern electronic device that makes a sound (e.g desktops, laptops, computer tablets and
smartphones) . The same principle is present just with modifications based on size and functionality.

Advantages of Speakers
Speakers aid in computer accessibility of the visually impaired by providing a non-image-based form of data
output
Built-In speakers do not require peripheral speakers which increases portability while retaining functionality

Disadvantages of Speakers
Peripheral speakers with chords can be a hassle and is susceptible to short-outs and glitches
Wireless speakers are not only expensive but not compatible with all electronic
Hard Copy Output Devices
Plotters:
• Description, Functions and Locations:
A plotter is a special type of printer which uses computer commands to make line drawings with one to several automated
pens. What truly differentiate sit from regular printers is its ability to draw continuous point-to-point lines directly from
vector graphics files or commands. There are several types of plotters. An electrostatic plotter draws on negatively charged
paper with positively charged toner. While, a drum plotter draws on paper wrapped around a drum which turns to produce
one direction of the plot, while the pens move to provide the other direction, alongside several other types. Plotters are hard
copy output devices. Plotters are mostly used in the fields of architecture and engineering due to their abilities.

• Disadvantages:
Disadvantages are plotters are far more expensive than average printers, and are also very large therefore taking up much
more space.

• Advantages:
However plotters offer the advantages of a high quality printing resolution and that they are reliable and accurate.

Microfilms:
• Description, Functions and Locations:
A microfilm is hard copy output device which is a film containing microphotographs of a document. Microfilms function to
project and magnify images stored in microform to readable proportions.

• Advantages:
Microfilms are advantageous as they are quite stronger than traditional films and also microfilms are more stable.

• Disadvantages:
The disadvantages include the damage to the microfilm if exposed to high temperatures or humidity, also data retrieval from
the films can be time consuming.

Printers:
• Description, Functions and Location:
A printer is a hard copy output device prints characters, symbols, and graphics on paper. Printers can be found from any
common household to any office or school.

• Types:
Printers come under two main categories: Impact and Non-Impact. Impact printers have physical impact with printing paper,
while non-impact printers do not.

Impact printers include: Dot-matrix printer and line printer.

• Dot matrix printers are noisy, inexpensive, slow and of poor quality.
• Line printers are also very noise with low quality printing, however, are very fast.
Non- Impact printers include: Laser printers, Thermal printers and Ink-jet printers.
➢ Laser printers are incredibly fast with sharp detailed quality printing, but are very expensive.
➢ Ink-jet Printers print slower than laser printers but faster than dot-matrix printers, they are quiet and print in a
relatively good resolution.
➢ Thermal printers are fast and print in a high quality, however, they are expensive.

A 3D printer is a special printer which constructs a three-dimensional object from the information given using varying
materials.

• Advantages:
Advantages of printers are there convenience and versatility.

• Disadvantages:
Disadvantages are their cost and reliability.

Primary Storage
Memory devices hold programs or instructions that will later be processed by the CPU.

Types of Memory

Random Access Memory (RAM) - RAM chips hold the temporary instructions for the computer, where
the CPU accesses these instructions to carry out a task.

Advantage- The computer can access the data almost immediately

Disadvantage- The data stored in RAM is volatile and lost easily.

Read Only Memory (ROM) – ROM is built into a computer and contains basic instructions for input
and output of data. They cannot be changed, but only read by the computer whenever it is turned on.

Programmable ROM (PROM) – This is another type of ROM that can be programmed once before
being built into the computer and cannot be changed. Therefore it is one time programmable (OTP)

Erasable and Programmable ROM (EPROM) - This is similar to the PROM except it can be erased and
reprogrammed continually overtime. The data on the ROM chip is erased when it is exposed to strong
UV light, resetting the chip to its original un-programmed state.

They are more expensive than PROM, but are useful for development of applications by their ability to
be reprogrammed.
Secondary Storage

Secondary storage saves programs and data permanently whereas primary storage uses main memory,
which is temporary.

Difference between storage media and storage device

Storage media

Storage media (singular – medium) are the physical components on which data and information is
stored. Eg. CD, Floppy disk, Hard disk, Magnetic tape

Storage device

Storage device is a device that record and retrieve data instructions and information to and from storage
media. Eg. Floppy disk drive, CD drive, Hard drive, Magnetic tape drive

Categories of secondary storage

• Magnetic: Diskette, Hard disk, Magnetic tape, zip disk

• Optical Disk: CD-ROM, CD-R, DVD
• Flash memory drives

Magnetic Storage Media

Floppy disk

A floppy disk (diskette) is a removable disk that has a small storage capacity (1.44 MB).

Purpose of the Disk

➢ To store small programs

➢ To back up data files
➢ To store documents so that they can be used on more than one computer

Inside the disk

Inside the disk is a flat, round plastic disk coated with magnetic material. The disk is divided into
concentric circles called tracks

Track
How data is accessed on the disk?

Data can be accessed on the disk sequentially or directly

Precautions needed with floppy disks

❖ Don’t place the disk on a device that has or generates a magnetic field (e.g. speakers).
❖ Don’t Bend the disk.
❖ Don’t place the disk in hot or wet places.
❖ Don’t remove the disk from the drive when the disk drive’s light is on.
All disks must be formatted before use

Formatting is the process of preparing the disk for use in the computer. (Note that when a disk is
formatted all data is erased from the disk).

Zip Disks

Zip Disks are the diskette that can store more data and work more quickly. They can store 100 MB to
750 MB of data.

Zip disks are particularly useful for back up (copying) important data or for moving data easily from
one computer to another.

Magnetic tape

Magnetic tape is a cheap storage medium for storing large amounts of data.

How data is accessed?

Data can be accessed sequentially.

Purpose of the disk:

➢ Backing up hard disk

➢ Data entry using key-to-tape device
➢ Archiving data
Magnetic tape comes in the form of a reel or cartridge and is made of plastic that is coated with metal
oxide.

The tape is divided into parallel rows know as tracks. The most common tape is one with nine tracks.
Tracks one to eight each stores a bit in a byte. Track nine (9) is called the parity track. Each group of 9
bits is called a frame.
Hard Disk

A hard disk is a large capacity, rigid magnetic disk that is used for storing data. Data is read from or
written to a hard disk using an arm-like device known as a read/write head. This is a device that is used
to write data to the disk (store it on the disk) and to read data from the disk.

Data may be read from/written to a hard disk using either a moving read/write head or a fixed head. A
moving read/write head moves to the track that corresponds to the data while the disk is spinning. A
fixed read/write head does not move. Instead, there is a fixed head for each track. This gives the fixed-
head system the advantage of having a faster access time.

The access time is the time it takes for the data to be accessed. This is dependent on the seek time, the
time it takes the read/write head to get to a specific position on the disk.

The term “Hard Drive” refers to a collection of hard disks and read/write heads. Each disk disk/Platter
surface can have its own read/write head(s) in order to allow the quicker transfer of data.

How data is accessed?

Data can be accessed either sequentially or directly

A hard drive is used for storing a wide variety of things such as:

❖ Operating system
❖ Office programs
❖ Multimedia programs
❖ Games
❖ Images, songs
❖ Databases

Optical Storage
Data can be stored on optical disks; these are disks that are read using laser types of optical disk: CDs
and DVDs.

CDs and DVDs have different capacities and use slightly different optical technology. However they
look similar in that they are both disk-shaped objects with a hole in the middle and a reflective surface.

Both types of disk use the same method to read the data. A low-powered laser uses a lens to focus the
laser beam on a part of the disk. Under the plastic layer on the reflective side there are areas that reflect
light differently. The drive can detect these differences and converts these differences into ones and
zeros that can be interpreted by the computer.
How data is stored

Data is stored in tracks. However, an optical disk has only one track spiralling from the inside of the
disk (the hole in the middle) to the outside of the disk.

Compact Disk (CD)

CDs have taken the world by storm and for good reason. CDs are not much bigger than floppy disks,
yet a single CD can hold the same amount of data as hundreds of floppy disks (typically 650 or 700
MB).

CDs are cheap and fairly durable.

Types of CDs

CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory)

Most software manufacturers distribute their programs on CD-ROM because modern programs are
quite large and can take up hundreds of floppy disks. Manufacturers distribute the programs on CD
ROM as opposed to the other types of CD because it is the only type of CD found in the computer
industry that is really suited for mass production.

The original CD ROM is created by using a laser to burn it. From this master, thousand of identical
copies are created using CD ROM makers. A CD-ROM maker is expensive and not suitable for casual
use. CD-ROM can be read by CD-ROM drives.

CD-R (Compact disk Recordable)

Due to the expensive nature of a CD-ROM maker, it is not suitable for the average computer user.
However, the introduction of the CD-R and the CD-R drive provided small businesses and home users
with the ability to create CDs.

CD-R is a WORM storage media. This acronym stands for Write Once Read Many. It means that a
user can record on a blank CD-R but once he/she has finished recording, the CD-R can only be read. In
other words, after you have finished burning a CD-R, it becomes like a CD-ROM.

A CD-R has a special layer of transparent dye on top of the reflective layer. When the CD-R is being
recorded (burned), the CD-R writer heats up certain parts of the dye. This makes them opaque. Devices
that read CD-Rs can detect the difference between the transparent parts and the opaque parts.

CD-RW (Compact Disk Rewriteable)

This is a type of CD that allows data to recorded and erased several times. Like a CD-R, it has a dye
layer. However, this dye layer is more advanced. When heated at one temperature it becomes
transparent. At another it becomes opaque. CD-RWs are burned and read by CD-RW drives

DVD (Digital video/versatile Disk)

A DVD is the next generation optical disk. It has a larger capacity than a CD and has features intended
to reduce piracy. For example, a DVD encoded for the North American region can only be played in the
equipment bought in that region. DVDs can be used to store high quality movies.

DVD-ROM (Digital video/versatile Disk Read Only Memory)

Like a CD-ROM, DVD-ROM is a read only optical disk.

DVD-RW (Digital video/versatile Disk Rewriteable)

Like CD-RW, DVD-RW is an optical disk that can be erased and rewritten to.

Definitions

Bit- a binary digit, either 1 or 0 which is the smallest piece of data a computer can use.

Nibble- 4 bits of data a computer can use

Byte- 8 bits of data for a computer to use

Kilobyte- 1024 bytes of data (2^10 in binary is 1024)

Megabyte- 1024 kilobytes of data (1,048,576 bytes)

Gigabyte- 1024 megabytes of data (1,073,741,824 bytes)

Terabytes- 1024 gigabytes of data (1,099,511,627,776 bytes)

Word- the largest amount of data a computer can access at once (single cycle)

Word size- the number of bits that can fit in a computer word

Address- the identification of the location in memory a set of data or instructions is stored

Address content- the data stored in a specific address

Bi-stable device- a device able to output 1 or 0 by being in 1 of 2 possible states (on or off) e.g.
transistor
Calculating Storage

To get storage, you scale the larger unit to the smaller one e.g 2 Gb = 2048 Mb, then you
mutiply or divide appropriately by how much space is being used.

e.g. 50 Gb Hard Drive

80 Mb Movie

50 x 1024 = 51200 Mb
51200 Mb / 80 Mb = 640 Times the movie can fit

Computer Specifications

Data Representation

Types of Data

Analogue Data – data that is continuously changing e.g. height of students in a class (range)

Digital Data- data that can only be represented in one of two forms e.g. 0 or 1
Binary

Conversion- write out base 2 numbers e.g 64,32,16 then write a 1 below each number where
you can add it to get closer
to the number, and a zero
where it cannot

Reverse process to convert back

Binary Addition
Binary
Subtraction

Octal and Hexadecimal

Same process for these two, just replace with multiples of 8 and 16, and convert to decimal
before adding or subtracting, then convert back.

HEXADECIMAL LETTERS

A- 10 , B- 11 , C-12 , D = 13 etc. until G = 16

BCD (Binary Coded Decimal)

Convert each number into four bit decimal, then if it is positive or negative add 1000 if positive
or 1001 if negative.
ASCII

7 bit binary number represents a letter, just add or subtract from it the number of the letters
difference. e.g. A – E = 4, add 4 to Binary A they give you.

Two’s Compliment (e.g. -14)

1. Convert number to binary

-14 = 1110

2. Make it 8 bit by adding zeros to the front

00001110

3. Invert each bit

11110001

4. Add 1 if number is negative

11110001 + 1 = 11110010

Adding Two’s Compliment and Binary

This is done to subtract binary numbers. Convert the negative number to 2’s compliment and then add
the numbers. You don’t have to make it 8 bit to find the answer, just invert and add 1

Sign and Magnitude

The number is negative, so the sign is 1

Just number with necessary 0’s added to make it 7 bit then add 1 or 0 appropriately

e.g. -14 in 8 bit sign and magnitude = 10001110

Software
Software is a series of instructions that tells the computer what to do. It is classified into computer
programs and application software.

Computer programs are Windows 10, Mac OSX, while Applications are WhattsApp, Instagram.

Functions of Software

Software can

 Properly manage the computer operations

 Managing and effectively using system resources
 Running other software/making it possible to run software
 Allows communication with the computer
 Allows users to get things done

Categories of Software
There are two categories of software : System software
Application software

System Software

This type of software manages system resources, and is sometimes essential for the function of the
computer and other application software, facilitating the efficient use of the computer’s resources

Some of them work in the background and is not used by the computer

There are two types of System software: Operating System

Utility Software

The operating system is the most important software as it runs the computer. It controls all hardware
and software on the computer and allows interaction between the computer and user

It ensures that programs run properly and don't interfere with each other, components communicate
with each other, only authorized persons can use the computer, manages file management and the
sharing of internal memory etc.

e.g. Windows 95, Windows 7, Mac OSX, Linux, IOS, Unix

Utility software is focused on managing, maintaining and controlling the computer's system resources.
Their operations are usually focused on a specific task

e.g. Disk Defragmenters (MyDefrag)

Disk Compressors (Disk Doubler),
Firewalls and Antivirus (AVG)

Application Software

These programs perform specific tasks for the users. Users are able to do various things such as work,
play games, play music etc. through application software.

They are also called end user programs. Integrated Software is a collection of software e.g Microsoft
Office

There are four main categories of application software : General Purpose

Custom Written
Customized General Purpose
Specialized

General Purpose

This type of software is used to perform a wide range of tasks. It is normally used by a wide variety of
people in a large variety of jobs and personal tasks.

There are five main types of general purpose software

Word Processing – (Microsoft Word, Open Office Writer, Apple Pages)

Spreadsheets – (Microsoft Excel, Open Office Calc, Apple Numbers)
Database Management – (Microsoft Access, Oracle)
Communication – (Microsoft Outlook, Skype, FaceTime)
Graphics/Presentation – (Adobe Photoshop, Corel Draw)

Custom Written

This type of software is created/designed specifically for a user or organization by a programmer. It is

designed for the specific needs of a user/organization.

This enables a company to get their software exactly how they want it.

Examples are Account Billing Software

Accounting Software
Advertising Management Software
Asset Inventory Software
Customized General Purpose

This is a general purpose software that has been modified by a programmer to fit the needs of a
user/organization.

E.G. Oracle was edited for specific purposes by Sagicor and Guardian

Specialized

This software is designed for a specific area or task.

e.g. Expert System (E.S.)
Decision Support Systems (D.S.S)
Executive Information System (E.I.S)
Management Information System (M.I.S.)

User Friendly Programs

A user friendly program is a program that is created for easy use by persons who lack the technical
competence or knowledge of computers. It therefore:
• Must be easy for new users to start using
• Adjustable to different levels of expertise
• Have tour guide programs to help new users
• Limit the use of help manuals.
• Have tasks require little effort to complete
• Contain troubleshooting programs
• Possess help menus that give the user choices from a list

Portability of an operating system is its ability to work efficiently on any computer despite of
the manufacturer being different
Types of User Interface

There are three main types of user interface.

Command Driven User Interface

This type of user interface requires that the user input specific commands into the computer in
order to work and accomplish tasks. It is the least user friendly as it requires a deep
understanding of computers to work efficiently. However it is the fastest to input data into the
computer and requires the least amount of computer specs to operate. e.g. MS-DOS.

Menu-Driven User Interface

This type of user interface has the user select options from different menus they select or hover
over. There are two types of menus, Pull down menus which drop down from a larger selection,
and pop up menus which pop up when some action is done on the computer. It is more user
friendly than command driven user interface, but requires knowledge of where the options are
located to move efficiently. e.g. Folder in File Explorer

Graphical User Interface

This is the newest type of user interface where different icons are selected that give the
computers instructions on what to do. It is the most user friendly user interface, but requires the
most computer specifications to run e.g Windows 7, Android

Types of Processing

There are four types of Data Processing

Batch Processing

This is where data is collected into separate batches, which are then entered into the computer
one batch at a time. eg. Hollerith Cards. This type of processing continues until the job is done,
it runs out of data or an error occurs.

e.g. Credit Card Bills per Month, data on purchases held until end of month when released.

Advantages – Once data entered, computer can be left alone. Saves energy by turning off
once job is complete, more efficient task scheduling

Disadvantages- Needs a lot of trained staff and an expensive computer, delay in ending of
one set of data, and entering of another
On-line and Real Time Processing

Computers are on-line when they are on and connected to processor. On line processing
processes data when the computer in turned on, and data entered. e.g. printer

Real time processing system is always up to date, where data in constantly being entered, and
there is no delay or down time. e.g. missile defense. However, computer must always be on-
line and dedicated to the single task

Time Sharing

This allows several users to use the same computer at the same time, with a fraction of the
computing power being given to each. e.g. bank card mainframe

TERMS FOR DATA PROCESSING AND TIME SHARING

Task is the basic unit of work for a processor

Thread is the process within another process that uses the resources of the process it’s in

Throughput is the amount of data that is processed within a given period of time

Multiprocessing is the use of multiple processors to process user’s tasks

Multitasking is the processing of multiple tasks simultaneously

Multi-user is the allowing of more than one user to run programs at the same time

Multithreading is the ability to execute in multiple locations in a program using multiple threads.
Jobs in I.T.

Applications Programmer – translates analyst specifications for a program into an algorithm, then to
application software, They write, test and maintain the software as well.

Computer Engineer – Designs computer hardware, and is responsible for installing, repairing and
maintaining computer hardware.

Computer Operator – Performs hardware based activities to maintain computer operations, e.g. setting
up servers and mainframes

Computer Trainer – Sets up training sessions to provide education on computer programs or systems.

Consultant – Give organisations professional advice on computer system implementation and

improvement

Data Communications Specialist - Designs and maintains communications systems. Ensures things
like networks, intranets, videoconference, ISDN, internet, wirless etc. work properly.

Database Administrator – Designs, creates and maintains databases, and works with users to reduce
redundancy by ensuring the same format and different content.

Data Control Clerk – Monitors work coming in and out of a computer centre, puts incoming data into
forms for data entry operators, and checks outgoing data for errors.

Data Entry Operator – Receives work tasks for data entry, and inputs them.

Data Preparation Clerk – Prepares data on forms to give to the data entry operator

Data Processing Manager – Runs the entire data processing section, handles all software development
and operations.

Electronic Data Processing Auditor – Certifies that information released it at a high quality by careful
inspection.

End-user Support – Help to resolve any minor difficulty which users cannot, though not larger more
technical issues

Librarian – Manages data files and programs on physical media in a library

Maintenance Engineer – Fixes hardware faults and malfunctions, as well as installs new systems from
time to time

Network Manager/Administrator – Designs, develops and maintains LAN and WAN by selecting
appropriate software and hardware such as modems, routers etc. Also schedules maintenance of the
network and training sessions for users. Sets up security of the network and ensures resources like
printers and drives (Z drive) are shared properly.
Systems Analyst – Analyses system in place to see how they could be computerized, and gives
specifications on what would be needed to do so effectively.

Software Package Writer – Programmers that create software for a company or user for mass sale,
normally in a software house, and analyse and design.
System Programmer – Translates analyst-prepared specifications for control software into algorithms,
then into system software. They write, test and maintain the system software.

Software Tester – Ensures the application works the intended way, and has high quality standard

Webmaster – Responsible for maintaining a website by editing and updating text, graphics, links etc.
The can also add new pages to a website, so must be skilled in web design languages.

Web Designer – Responsible for visual appeal of a website, e.g. fonts, colours, images etc.

Web Developer – Builds websites by writing the code for it, and ensuring it runs smoothly.

Data Communication
Telecommunication is the process of using communication facilities such as the telephone and
microphone relays to send data over a far distance without changing it.

Data communication is the transmission of data from one location to the other in order to enable
communication between the locations. This is achieved through computers, transmission cables,
satellites and wireless technology

A network is a group of two or more computers linked together so that they can share resources
(hardware, software, data) and communicate with each other. e.g. LAN, MAN, WAN

LAN- Local Area Network

A LAN is made up of two or more computers connected to each other within the same geographical
area (not always within the same building). LAN is used in homes, schools and small-medium sized
businesses.

MAN- Metropolitan Area Network

A MAN is a network that interconnects users with computer resources in a geographic area or region
larger than LAN but smaller than WAN. MAN is used on university campuses and connecting
businesses in a city
WAN- Wide Area Network

A WAN is a network that covers a very large geographical area. WAN is used in large companies,
linking outlets across countries, or the Internet

Communication Media

Communication media are the components on which data travels from one location to another.
Communication media can either be wired, or wireless. Some examples of wireless media are satellite,
microwave, infra-red and bluetooth.

Wired Media

Twisted Pair

The twisted pair is the most convenient and cheap method of connecting computers and peripherals in a
network. It is the slowest of the three main types of wired media, therefore it is used for home
networking or small sites, where due to the small
distance, high speed is not needed.

Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable is more expensive than twisted pairs because it can transmit data at a higher speed. It is
used to transmit voice, video and data in a medium sized network.
Fibre Optic

Fibre optic cables are relatively expensive. They enable large volumes of data to be transmitted at very
high speed with little errors. A cable is often made of thousands of hair thin pieces of glass tubing,
which acts as a mirror, allowing beams of light to travel inside, carrying data.

Bandwidth

Bandwidth determines the volume of data that can be transmitted through a data channel each second.
The three main types of bandwidth are Narrow bond, voice band, broadband

Narrow band

In narrow band channels, data is transmitted at a slow speed, between 10 and 30 characters per seconds.
E.g. telegraph, dial up internet

Voice band

In voice band channels, telephone lines are utilized, allowing data to be transmitted at rates up to 8000
characters per second.

Broadband

In broadband channels, large volumes of data can be transmitted at high speed, over 100,000 characters
per second.
Topology

A hub is a central device where other computers are connected to. A server can be described as a hub of
hubs, therefore it must be powerful.

A server is not used like a normal computer, as its job is to solely manage the files and resources of all
other computers in the network.

To have a network, you must have network cabling, a network card in each computer, hub, file server,
and system software.

A peer-to-peer network has no server, as each computer acts like a mini server to the other computers.

The layout of computers in a network is called topology. The three main types of topology are star
topology, bus topology and ring topology.

Star topology has all computers connected to a central hub directly, so if one computer stop’s working,
the network will be fine, however if the hub breaks down, the network will too. They are also most
expensive to install with the most amount of wiring needed, but are the fastest overall

Bus topology is the simplest type of network, where each computer is connected to each other in a line,
therefore are cheap and reliable but if a cable or computer breaks, the entire network shuts down, also,
they are slower than star topology.

Ring topology a ring network, has computers connected in a ring, so there is no true start and end point,
so if a computer or cable breaks, the entire network breaks down as well.

Communication Systems

Communication systems classify lines that transmit data according the direction in which data flows in
them.

Simplex – data can be transmitted in only one direction. e.g. television, radio

Half Duplex – data can be transmitted in two directions, but not at the same time. e.g. walkie talkie

Duplex (Full duplex) – data can be transmitted in both directions, simultaneously e.g. cell phone.
Internet

The internet can be defined as a network of networks, connecting computers and files around the world.
It’s useful for communication through e-mail or chat rooms (IRC-internet relay chat).

The world wide web is the main way of accessing files over the internet, as an internet browser e.g.
Chrome links the files together, allowing for searches for specific files.

VoIP or Voice Over Internet Protocol is used to convert sound into data then to sound again, allowing
for sounds to be sent over the internet e.g. Skype.

You connect to the internet by the use of an internet service provider (ISP) which is connected to
your modem. ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) is a way to increase internet speed by
companies than just a telephone line. ASDL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line) is even faster than
ISDN, and just upgrades telephone lines instead of making new ones. This also means that users are
always connected to the internet, instead of having to dial-up manually each time.

Internet Protocol or Transmission Control Protocol (TCP/IP) are the rules governning how data is
sent and received over the internet, breaking down the data into packets which are sent, then re-
assembled based on those rules at the other computer. The IP address tells exactly which computer to
send data to over the internet.

The URL or uniform resource locator is what the browser uses to find the website you searched for

Different domain endings show what type of website tou are on. .com is a commercial site, .gov is a
government site, .org is the site for some organisation, .edu is an educational site etc.

The internet cache is the temporary storage of files on your computer as you use the internet, allowing
for faster loading speeds of these pages.

Internet blogs and podacasts are ways of communication through the internet. Blogs can be
considered digital diaries of internet users, which readers can comment on. Podcasts are audio or digital
recordings that can be downloaded and listened to away from the internet. Subscribing to a podcast
means new releases will be downloaded immediately.

An intranet is a private network or computers within a single organisation or school allowing for
private sharing of information, siftware distribution, databases etc. Access is restricted to those inside
it. This is done through the use of a firewall. Extranet is an addition to an intranet, allowing users
outside the company to get limited access to files inside the intranet.
Applications of I.T.

Commerce

In addition to e-commerce like Amazon, computers are used in regular commerce to aid in marketing
new products and promotions, developing new products, as well as stock control through the use of
barcode scanners and a point of sale (POS) that automatically updates sales and stock levels.

Banking

Banks greatly use computer systems to keep track of debit and credit card deductions and payments, as
well as Automated Teller Machines (ATM) allowing for cash to be withdrawn automatically.
Cheques are also processed using magnetic ink character reader (MICR)

Manufacturing

Computers aid manufacturing, by allowing for Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM), through the
use of machines or robots to repeatedly make specific shapes consistently. The also aid in the design
process through the use of computer aided design (CAD).

Science and Technology

Computers are used in weather forecasting to calculate with the large amounts of data, in medical
research to keep a patient database log for more effective treatment by doctors. Expert systems are also
involved, taking symptom information and giving a suggestion to the reason and treatment. There is
also medical imaging, notably Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) make detailed models and
pictures of internal structures. Virtual reality is also used for surgery training allowing detailed images
of a tumour for example.

Education

The uses of databases in schools is useful to keep track of student progress and grades, as well as keep
record of attendance, lateness etc. They are alos used for teaching and instruction through the use of
powerpoints for interactive teaching. Computer Aided Instrcution (CAI) and Computer Aided
Learning (CAD) are specialized software designed specifically for children to learn at their own pace.

Law Enforcement

Computer systems are used in law enforcement to keep records of criminals and citizens for things like
license expiration or alleged crimes. Also crime scene investigation is aided with cameras and
fingerprint detectors.
Recreation and Entertainment

This includes playing of online games, as well as console games, watching movies, listening to music,
reading documents, and internet enabled uses such as social media and youtube. In addition, computers
are used in the creation of movie special effects using computer graphics.

Telemarketing and Teleconferencing

Telemarketing is the use of telecommunications systems such as the internet to advertise goods and
services through e-mail and pop up ads, as well as notifications.

Teleconferencing is the use of digital devices for business meetings, without the need for travel though
the use of services like FaceTime and Skype.

Desktop Publishing (DTP)

This is a feature now included with normal word processing, allowing for complex visual designs at a
high quality for things like graphic designs for printing, allowing any skilled user to make professional
quality designs on computers for sale, adverisments etc.

Changes in the Workplace Due to I.T.

The use of I.T. in work in now inescapable, with many uses of them such as e-mail, spreadsheet,
database etc. In addition, many people now work for companies from home through the use of
telecommuting, making use of the teleconferencing services to eliminate the need to travel to work.
This means that someone in another country or part of the world can work as effectively as someone
who lives near.

However, there are some negative effects to I.T. in workplaces as well. One is the loss of jobs that need
practical skill, for example car assembly. These jobs are being replaced by the use of computers and
robots. Companies that would want to keep these workers would have to spend time and money re-
training them how to use them.

In addition, there is also the loss of social contact among employees at works due to teleconferencing,
and the need to use computers. There is also the issue of distraction from the internet, and time wasting.

There is also health concerns from the improper or overuse of computers. Repetitive Strain Injury
(RSI) is the pain, swelling and decrease in movement of the fingers, arms and neck from poor
computer use. However, this can be reduced by the use of short breaks, proper workstation setup, loose
grip on the mouse and arm rests, as well as good posture.
Back problems can also result from a poorly set-up workstation, which can be aided by having
adjustable chairs and monitors and breaks. Eye strain is also caused by frequent computer use, poor
lighting or poor positioning.

Computer Security
Computer is the protection of all parts of the computer, both hardware and software against all types off
damage, whether accidental or deliberate, as well as theft and corruption.

Data Security is the protection of data against deliberate or accidental damage and unauthorized
access.

Data Integrity is the consistency, accuracy and reliability of data. Basically ensuring the data stored is
correct

External Threats

Accidental Deliberate
Electrical power surges Physical theft of hardware
Natural disasters Hackers
Corporate espionage and competition
Terrorist activities

Internal Threats

Accidental Deliberate
Viruses from e-mail attachments Employee fraud e.g. fake orders for money
Internal software bugs causing damage Angry employee causing damage for revenge
Files being corrupted or accidentally erased
Errors in entering the data
Malware

Malware is all types of software that is harmful, intrusive or unwanted

A worm is a stand-alone computer program that can automatically replicate itself and spread through
computers and networks

A virus is a piece of data that has a detrimental effect on hardware or other pieces of data. It is different
from a worm because the user must run a program for it to cause damage, therefore it cannot self-
replicate

A hacker is an individual who attempts to gain unauthorized access to data or a computer system

Phishing is attempting to gain access to private and important information by disguising as a

trustworthy source e.g. family member, usually through e-mail

Spyware is software which tries to gain information about a user or organization without their
knowledge or consent.

Adware is a software that makes money automatically by popping up ads on an users computer, which
is often intrusive and annoying.

A Rootkit is a collection of software that enables access to a computer and unauthorized data access,
typically more destructive and powerful than normal viruses and worms

Spam is email sent in bulk to many different computers, often containing viruses.

A Trojan is a malicious program which hides itself in a more normal looking program.

Protection

An anti-virus program is a simple step that protects software from viruses, by scanning documents for
viruses and removing them. However, by itself, it is not good enough for all viruses, as new ones are
constantly made to evade anti-viruses. Another important way is to be cautious when downloading files
or opening strange emails.

A database needs to be protected, because it can hold vital information for a company that would fail to
work without it. The main way is through file back-ups of files and databases, and store them
elsewhere. This prevents corruption from destroying years of hard work. These backups must be
regularly updated to ensure security.

Old data can also be archived on a device with slow speed but high storage in case an old version of a
file is needed,
Encryption

When data is sent through networks, it can be intercepted by anyone and the information being sent
copied and used for other purposes. This loss of privacy is a major issue with electronic
communication.

In order to secure the data, a system called encryption is used, changing the data into a code so that it
cannot be understood by someone who doesn’t have the key.

One way a company might encrypt is like this.

A letter is replaced by the letter five letters later in alphabetical order. For example, the letter A is
replaced by F, B is replaced by G and so on. Note that the letter A is considered to be following the
letter Z

Information Misuse

Due to the public availability of the internet and networks, data sensitive to individuals is likely to be
found in the database of an organization. Therefore laws have been put in place to govern the use of
data and software.

One example of this is proprietary data which is data exclusive to a specific company that cannot be
used by others. Taking this data is called piracy. This involves copying the files and selling it without
giving the money to the original creator, or not paying at all for a paid service.

Propaganda is a potential negative effect of information distribution, as it allows for internet users to
spread very quickly and very widely information that may be false, or in support of a political group or
regime.

Computer Fraud is caused by criminals using computer systems to take peoples credit card information
and make their own purchases, or gaining access to financial accounts of people, and changing the
details to route money to them

Unauthorized Access is the root of all data misuse issues, and hacking or cracking a system to gain
access to a system without log in information can cause changing or theft of vital information for
blackmail or ransoms.

Electronic eavesdropping is using electronic devices to intercept information being transported between
individuals. This can be done with cellphone towers, fax, telephone lines, radio waves etc. This is a
major threat to privacy, and is countered mainly by encryption.
Industrial Espionage is when competing companies attempt to get an advantage by stealing or gaining
access to information such as expansion plans, marketing strategy, research findings etc. though
hackers, or sending spies to steal or take pictures of classified documents.

Computer Surveillance uses computers and the internet to gather information about the user and their
online behaviour or computer actions without their knowledge or consent, causing a lack of privacy and
security and opens up the option for blackmail. There are not many ways to prevent surveillance and it
can be done in several ways such as:

Using Utility Software – (packet sniffing) using a network to monitor the packets of data being sent
through the network. This can be done with utility software of a computer on the network, or by the
server itself.

Monitoring from a distance – You can gather information on a computer by collecting and processing
the radiation signals given off by the computer, allowing the data to be displayed without the user
knowing.

Hardware devices – One example is a device called a keyboard logger, which records the keystrokes on
a keyboard, which after the device is retrieved, can show things like passwords or vital security
information. However, you must have direct access to the computer itself.
Errors
Errors are part of any computer information system. There are several approaches to dealing with the
problems that errors cause, specifically detecting when errors occur (so that they can be corrected) and
preventing errors (so that they do not occur). Here a few approaches are considered.

Data entry
Sometimes data cannot be automatically scanned into the system for storage, so a common way is to
type the data directly into the computer system. Data entry errors would then occur when an operator
enters data using a keyboard and mixes up digits and/or letters. Example, the number 32 may be
entered as 23 (This type of data entry error is called a Transposition/Typographical error.)

Accidental errors occur unintentionally: data is entered or a command is issued by mistake, in good
faith but in error.

Deliberate: If errors are made deliberately then the user probably knows enough to get round any
validation checks. Examples include a disgruntled employee entering fictitious data into a company’s
database. Possible solutions to this problem include file access permission imposed by the operating
system, vigilances of the administrator and cross referencing data to other supposedly reliable sources.

Software and hardware errors

There are two types of errors here. Software might malfunction, erasing or corrupting previously
entered data, Hardware may develop a fault that corrupts data; examples of such faults are bad
sectors on hard disk or bad memory, or a power surge. The application may appear to accept data
correctly but when that data is retrieved it is corrupt.

Transmission errors
Transmission errors occur when data is sent from one computer to another. The data received by
one system is the not the same as that by the sender.
Validation
Data validation is the computerized checking of input data for errors (data that may be unreasonable
or incomplete) before it is processed. There are many different methods of validation. The most
appropriate method(s) to use will depend upon what data is being entered. The most common methods
are:
• Presence check – This type of check ensures that the data is actually entered and can be used on
any field in a database. For example, everyone in a particular database must be given a job title.
Therefore a presence check could be carried out on the form field in each employee’s record to
ensure that a job title is entered in the form.

• Data type check – This is also known as character or alphanumeric check. When a database is
created each field in the database is given a data type. Whenever data is entered into a field the
database will check that it is of the correct type, e.g. alphabetic or numeric. If it if not, then an
error message will be displayed and the data will have to be re-entered.

• Check digit – This is an extra digit added to the end of a code. It is used to detect errors arising
from transcription and also to ensure that codes originally produced by a computer are re-
entered into another computer correctly. It is calculated from the other digits in the number.
Check digits are included in barcode numbers.

• Parity checks – All data is transmitted as a sequence of 1s and 0s. A common type of error that
occurs during data transmission is that a bit is swapped from a 0 to a 1 or a 1 to a 0 by electrical
interference. Parity checks detect this type of error, by adding an extra digit to data to make the
total number of 1s (or 0s) either odd or even. (Parity checks aren’t very good at detecting errors
where more than one bit in a byte is changed. Note that a parity check can also be considered a
verification check rather than a validation check since the parity check ensures that data is
correctly transferred between locations)

• Range check – Range check ensures that the data entered is within a certain range. For
example, when you enter a number corresponding to a month of the year, the range of
acceptable numbers is 1 to 12.
 • Consistency check – This check compares the contents of two or more fields to make sure that
they make sense. There are occasions when some data fields are related. This check compares
new data with previous data.

Verification

Data verification is the checking for mistakes such as transcription errors when data is copied from one
medium or device to another. Verification checks do not guarantee that entered data is correct. You
should be aware that if the original form was completed incorrectly, then the entered data may pass
some verification checks despite being incorrect.
One way to guarantee that the data is entered accurately, a procedure called double (data) entry. Double
entry is where the same data is entered twice, sometimes by different people. If the data differs between
the two entries, it does not get processed. It can be expensive and time-consuming to use this method
but it does ensure very accurate data capture.

Visual check
One verification method is to use on-screen prompts. After a set of data is entered, it is redisplayed on
the screen. The user is prompted to read it and confirm that it has been entered correctly. If the user has
entered any data incorrectly, it is re-entered. This method of verification is not very reliable since many
data entry personnel will not read the information that is redisplayed or check it carefully against the
source document. However, the method is relatively cheap to use.
Accidental errors can also be prevented by verification in asking for confirmation of instructions. For
example, if you try to delete files the computer may ask ‘Are you sure [y/n]?’ or it may display a
summary of input data and ask for verification of its validity before the data is stored.

File organization and access methods

File organization and access relates to the use of records, fields and files.
 • A record is a collection of related data items (possibly of different types) stored in fields and
: treated as a single entity for processing.

• A field contains a single data item, and many fields comprise a record. Each field has a name
and one is the key field used to identify the record.

• A data file is a collection of records holding the same types of information but about
different objects or individuals.

A file has three important characteristics:

1. Whether it is a permanent or a temporary file.

2. The way in which the records of the file are organized on the secondary storage device. This is
called file organization.

3. The way in which records are accessed (or located).

Master and transaction files

Many businesses and organizations regularly access, modify and store large amounts of files. These
files are given special names to identify their purpose. A master file is a permanent file which is
kept-up-to-date and stores the main information, summary data and key fields in the data.

The master file contains two types of data:

• permanent data, such as employee personal data ,payroll data employee status and job title

• Less permanent data, which is updated on a regular basis, such as hours worked and
taxes deducted.

A transaction file is a temporary file which is used to update the master file after a certain time
(at the end of each day or week, for example). The transaction file updates the master file. The
records in the transaction file are used to perform three important operations:

• Add: put a new record into the master file.

• Update: change the contents of a record or a field that already exists.
• Delete: remove a record from the master file.

There is also another file, known as the change file or transaction log, which keeps a record of
changes to the transaction file. This is important, as many businesses need to record the history of
what transactions have taken place and not just the latest one.
Record matching

A primary key is normally used to identify the record you want to update or delete. It is a field in
the record whose value is unique to that record -. For instance, in a student record, the StudentId is
normally used as the key field. Without a key field to identify the record you want you cannot
delete or update records.

To delete or update records in a master file, compare the primary key in the transaction record with
that in the master file record. If there is a match, you can update or delete the master file record. If
both files are ordered on the key field, then this record matching operation functions correctly, but if
either the transaction or master file is unordered, record matching can’t work.

The system flow chart for the process is shown in Fig 5.19. There are two input files, the old master
file or grandfather file, and the transaction file. There is one output file called the new master file.
The pseudocode for the update process is as follows. The 'EoF' marker is an end of file marker
placed in the file directly after the last record thus allowing a variable number of records to be
stored.

File organization and access

Files and records need to be organized so they are easily accessible and easy to update when
necessary. People and organizations capture and store a lot of data. A database is an organized
collection of data. Star Manufacturing is a large company that uses a database to keep data about all
aspects of the business. The database has several components:

⎯ A file is an entire set of data. For example, Star Manufacturing has a file in its database that
contains information about all its suppliers. A file can be a collection of as many records as
needed.
⎯ A record is a subset of data (a collection of fields) found in a file. Each record in Star
Manufacturing's file refers to a supplier.
⎯ A field is a piece of data contained in a record. Each record in Star Manufacturing's database
contains fields with information about the supplier's name, address, type of product they
supply, payment details, and so on.

FILE

Field 1
Field2

Field 3
Record 1 Record 2 Record 3
Figure 17.3 The structure of a database
File organization and access methods Sequential and serial

Sequential file ordering is where records are stored in a logical order. Records can be arranged
according to name, date, size or any other field. In an office environment, many records are kept
in sequential order, such as employee details, payroll information and customer records. It makes
sense to sort them in sequential order, such as alphabetical order, so they are easier to understand
if you have to view a large number of records at once.

Serial file ordering is similar to sequential file ordering, except the records are not stored in any
order. They are simply stored one after the other as they are added, similar to new items on a to-
do list. This type of ordering is often used to capture transactions as they occur during the day.
This is useful because it provides an easy way to go back and check a transaction. They may be
reorganized into a sequential order after they have been checked, processed or backed up.

Sequential access means accessing records one by one in the order they are stored until the right one is
reached. This type of access is used with sequential file ordering. It can be slow if there is a lot of data
to go through, but it is very effective for accessing, viewing and modifying records in large batches.

Serial access works in the same way - the records are read one by one in the order they are stored until
the desired record is found.

Random file ordering and access

Random file ordering, also known as direct access file ordering, is where files are stored in any
order. The computer maps where all this data is stored so you can immediately access it when you
search for it. Think of a one-dimensional array where each array element has an index number to
mark its location. This type of file ordering is useful if you want fast access to records, or if you want
to store data that is unrelated or does not need to be in any particular sequence.

Random access, or direct access, allows you to access the record you want without having to go
through any others. The computer locates the data item using the indices.

Index sequential file ordering and access

Index sequential file ordering uses an indexed file to store records. In other words, records are stored in
this file in sequential order and a set of indices are used to refer to each item stored in the file. Each
record can be accessed via its index number. This file ordering is a combination of
sequential and random file ordering and is used when records need to be sorted in sequence but
individual records must be quickly accessible.

Index sequential file ordering uses both types of access to search for records. Sequential access is
used to go through each record, and direct access is used to find a specific record.
For example, Star Manufacturing keeps a file with supplier records. To be able to place an order with a
supplier, that supplier's individual record must be accessed - this requires direct access. At the end of a
financial quarter, Star Manufacturing prints out an ordered list of all supplier information so it can do a
financial review. This requires sequential access.

Using methods of ordering and access

The way that records are stored and accessed depends on the types of record, what they are used for
and even the form of storage. For example, a bank may store data about its daily transactions using
magnetic tape, which stores data using sequential file ordering. Therefore sequential access is used to
access those records. A school will have a record for each student, stored on a file.

Each student's record must be accessible to review or update information, but all records must be
printed out at the end of each school year to allocate students to new classes. This type of setup
would benefit from direct and sequential file ordering, so index sequential file ordering and access is
probably the best system to use.

Documents used for Information Processing

A source document is one that contains data that is going to be input into a computer system.
When an employee takes a document and enters the data into a computer system, the document is
referred to as a source document. Once the data has been entered it should be filed away safely, and not
thrown away. That is because the data may have to be checked again.

Machine-readable and human-readable documents

A human –readable document is any document that needs to be read by humans.

Many forms are filled in by hand and the employee has to read them before entering the data on a
keyboard. These are called human-readable documents.

Handwriting can be very difficult to read, and sometimes the employee has problems working out what
is written. This can be improved by asking the person writing the document to use capital letters.
Sometimes a series of boxes are placed on a form to try to force the writer to separate out the letter to
make them clearer.
These forms must be designed so that their instructions are clear and concise leaving no doubt as to
how to enter the data onto the form. For example, the format for dates could be specified as
‘dd/mm/yyyy’ so that the format ‘mm/dd/yy’ is not used in error.

Machine-readable document is one on which the data can be ‘read’ by an input device, such as a
scanner or mark reader.

Introduction to web page design

Every day new websites are appearing and existing ones are being updated and modified. There are
specific application programs, such as: Microsoft FrontPage, Microsoft word and note pad that provide
the tools for you to design and create your own web pages and to edit exiting ones.

HyperText Markup Language (HTML) is a universal language that all web browsers can interpret.
The most common browsers are Microsoft Internet Explorer and FireFox. Browsers let you view
HTML files, but not create them.

The use of HTML helps in two major ways:

➢ To share documents – HTML was created to help users share documents on the Internet, so that
a browser can read a basic HTML document.
➢ To link to other documents - Hyperlinks use an Internet address for the related document s in
the HTML code for the page. Clicking on the hyperlink either downloads the related material
or views the document.

Planning your web pages

Your first task is to decide what you are going to put on your web pages. This task will be easier if you
spend some time planning your website. You should consider the following features that make a good
web page.

Content
The messages of your website should be presented in a manner to capture the attention of those who
visit it. The initial screens should attract visitors’ interest so that they want to browse the site. The main
screens and connecting web pages should supply enough information and maintain a visitors’ interest
enough to encourage repeat visits. The use of one or more combinations of colour, images, sound,
video and tone of language can capture or lose the visitor’s attention.

Organization
Web pages should be well organized, with information arranged in categories and subcategories. This
helps the user to browse through information in a sequential and logical manner, so that interesting sub-
topics can be selected for further reading.
Navigation
Navigational links can include pull-down and pop-up menus or links to other pages or documents. Any
visitor to a website should be able to move through the main categories or pages in a logical manner or
go directly to an area of interest.

Many websites also use breadcrumbs. These are navigational links that are seen in a single line below
the page header (breadcrumbs show the path that a visitor has taken to access the current page).
Breadcrumbs show the path a visitor would have to access the current page. An example of a
breadcrumb is:
Home > Furniture > Chairs > Leather Chairs
The visitor should be able to go directly back to the opening screen or main web page from the current
web page. This can be done by clicking on the Home link or on the breadcrumbs. Also, it is useful to
provide the option for users to see other web pages that are related to your web page content.

Economy
You should be aware of the number of web pages a visitor must view before seeing the page of interest.
Also, not all users have the same Internet connection so modem speeds for dial-up customers may
increase the time taken to view a page that has many images or video.

Security
A website should have ample security features to assure confidence if users are providing sensitive
data, such as credit card or personal information. These security features should include measures to
prevent hackers and viruses from compromising the integrity of data, information, and hardware.

Useful information on web pages:

Tags
Tags are used to label headings, paragraphs, numbered lists, quotations, tables, hyperlinks, forms and
frames. Some tags simply give important information to the browser – that is, these tags do not make
any visible changes that you can see in your browser.

There are many pairs of tags. The beginning tag has brackets < > around the letter or word, while the
ending tag contains a forward slash in it such as </ >. These codes around a tag indicate that it is not
normal text but an instruction that needs to be executed. You therefore do not see these codes on web
page. The beginning tag tells your browser to execute the code, while the end tag tells the browser to
stop executing the code. You can write tags in upper case, lower case, or both.
 HTML Skeleton:
<HTML>
<Head>
<Title> </Title>
</Head>
<Body>
</Body>
</HTML>

Table showing examples of hidden tags and their explanation

Tags Explanation
HTML tags Usually found at the beginning and end of your document
<HTML> </HTML>
Head tags Instructions that will not be printed directly on your web page.
<Head> </Head>
Title tags Belong within the HEAD tags. Any text typed between these tags is
<Title> </Title> shown at the top of the browser. Note that this text does not name
your web page but serves as a guide to the purpose of the web page
Body tags Most of the HTML code is written between these tags. It is this
<Body> </Body> content that we see on a web page.

Examples of tags that format the content in a webpage

Tag Example Explanation
Heading <h1>text</h1> Identifies major headings and subheadings. H1 is a
major heading , while h2 and h3 are subheadings
Paragraph <p1>text</p1> Identifies normal text in the web page
Bold <b>text</b> Makes the text between the tags bold
Underline <u>text</u> Underlines the text between the tags
Italic <i>text</i> Italicises the text between the tags.

Hyperlinks

Visitors to a website use hyperlinks to move from web page to web page. A hyperlink can be an icon,
image, or word that automatically opens another file or document for viewing. You should therefore
have a table of contents or home area to allow visitors to select specific areas of interest. Be sure to
create a link from each page that will return the user to that home page. You click on a hyperlink to:
➢ Be directed to the other web page, file or document

➢ Be directed to another position within the web page

➢ Send an e-mail message using contact details given on the website.

 Naming your Home page

You should save each document as a web page, but it is important to save your home page as
“index.html” since this name denotes the first page on any website. Also, try to keep your files, images
and documents organized by creating a folder just for your web pages.

Html Codes

Purpose Codes

Headings <h1>Text </h1> (largest heading)

<h2> Text </h2>
<h3> Text </h3>
<h4> Text </h4>
<h5> Text </h5>
<h6> Text </h6> (Smallest heading)

Paragraph <p> This is a paragraph </p>

Line break <br /> or <br> Text </br>

style="background-color:yellow"
Styles

style="font-size:10px"

style="font-family:Times"

style="text-align:center"

Link <a href="url"> Link text </a>

Open link in a new <a href="http://www.w3schools.com/"

window target="_blank">Visit W3Schools!</a>

Image <img src="url" />

Unordered List <ul>
<li>Coffee</li>
<li>Milk</li>
</ul>

Ordered List <ol> to change the order of listing use (type=”A” or “a” or “i” or “I”)
<li>Coffee</li>
<li>Milk</li>
</ol>

Definition List <dl> (Defnition list)

<dt>Coffee</dt> (dt- definition term)
<dd>Black hot drink</dd> (dd- definition description)
<dt>Milk</dt>
<dd>White cold drink</dd>
</dl>

Table
<table border="1">
Tr – Table row <tr>
<th>Tableheader</th>
Th – Table heading <th>Tableheader</th>
</tr>
Td – Table data <tr>
<td>sometext</td>
<td>sometext</td>
</tr>
</table>

HTML TAGS
Name TAG USE Notes

Hyperlink <a href = <a href="http://www.w3schools.com">This is

> </a> a link</a>

Image <img src= <img src="w3schools.jpg" width="104"

/> height="142">

<img src="w3schools.jpg"
alt="W3Schools.com" width="104"
 height="142">

<p>
Image <img src="smiley.gif" alt="Smiley face" The image can float to the
Floating style="float:right;width:42px;height:42px;"> right or to the left of text
The image will float to the right of the text.
</p>
The HTML style attribute
Background <body <body style="background-color:lightgrey"> has the following syntax:
colour style= > style="property:value"

Font This <h1 style="font-family:verdana">This is a The font-family property

placed in heading</h1> defines the font to be used
an for an HTML element:
existing <p style="font-family:courier">This is a
tag paragraph.</p>

Font color This <h1 style="color:blue">This is a The font-family property

placed in heading</h1> defines the font to be used
an for an HTML element:
existing <p style="color:red">This is a
tag paragraph.</p>

Font size This <h1 style="font-size:300%">This is a The font-size property

placed in heading</h1> defines the text size to be
an used for an HTML element:
existing <p style="font-size:160%">This is a
tag paragraph.</p>

Name TAG USE Notes

<form> Example using text:

Forms . HTML forms are used to collect
form <form> user input.
elements First name:<br>
. <input type="text" name="firstname">
</form> <br> The <form> element defines an
Last name:<br> HTML form
<input type="text" name="lastname">
</form>

Example using radio:

The <input> element is the
<form> most important form element.
<input type="radio" name="sex" value="male" The <input> element has many
checked>Male variations, depending on the
<br> type attribute.
<input type="radio" name="sex" Here are the types used:
value="female">Female
</form> Type Description

See more form examples: Defines normal

texttext input
http://www.w3schools.com/html/html_forms.asp - the default width
of a text field is
20 characters
Defines radio
button input (for
radio
selecting one of
many choices)

Defines a submit
submit button (for
submitting the
form)
Excel
Excel Functions

VLOOKUP Function

VLOOKUP is an Excel function to lookup and retrieve data from a specific column in a table.
VLOOKUP supports approximate and exact matching. The V stands for vertical. Lookup
values must appear in the first column of the table, with lookup columns to the right.

Its purpose is to lookup a value in a table by matching on the first column. The return value is
the matched value from a table.
=VLOOKUP(value, table, col_index, [range_lookup])

Value = The value to look for in the first column of the table. (e.g. A3)

Table = The table from which to retrieve a value (e.g. A3: C:15)

Col_index = The column in the table from which to retrieve a value (e.g. 3)

Range_lookup – [optional] TRUE = approximate match (default). FALSE = exact match

Rank Function

Use the RANK function to compare numbers to other numbers in the same list. If you give the
RANK function a number, and a list of numbers, it will tell you the rank of that number in the
list, either in ascending or descending order.

Syntax
=Rank (number, ref, [order])

RANK Function Arguments

There are 3 arguments for the RANK function:
• number: The number to rank
• ref: We want to compare the number to the list of numbers. Use an absolute reference
e.g: ($B$2:$B11), instead of a relative reference (B2:B11)so the referenced range will
stay the same when you copy the formula down to the cells below
• order: (optional) This argument tells Excel whether to rank the list in ascending or
descending order.
• Use zero, or leave this argument empty, to find the rank in the list in descending order.

For ascending order, type a 1, or any other number except zero.

IF FUNCTION

The IF function can perform a logical test and return one value for a TRUE result, and another
for a FALSE result. For example, to "pass" scores above 70: =IF (A1>70,"Pass","Fail"). More
than one condition can be tested by nesting IF functions.

Purpose
Test for a specific condition

Return value
The values you supply for TRUE or FALSE

Syntax
=IF (logical_test, [value_if_true], [value_if_false])

Arguments
logical_test- A value or logical expression that can be evaluated as TRUE or FALSE.
value_if_true- [optional] The value to return when logical_test evaluates to TRUE.
value_if_false- [optional] The value to return when logical_test evaluates to FALSE.

When you are constructing a test with IF, you can use any of the following logical

= equal to, > greater than, >= greater than or equal to, < less than, <=, less than or equal to, <>
not equal to.

CONCATENATE FUNCTION

The word concatenate is just another way of saying "to combine" or "to join together". The
CONCATENATE function allows you to combine text from different cells into one cell. In our
example, we can use it to combine the text in column A and column B to create a combined name
in a new column.

Before we start writing the function, we'll need to insert a new column in our spreadsheet for this
data. In our example, we'll insert it to the right of column B.

=CONCATENATE(B2, A2)
Filtering

Filtering is the process of selecting some of the records of a worksheet, on the basis of certain criteria.
Excel has autofilter and advance filter.

Autofilter allows selection criteria based on only a single field, while advance filter allows more
complex selection criteria.

Advance filter have criteria placed in a spreadsheet and the advanced filter is used to select records
Database Management

A database is an organized collection of information e.g. telephone book, mailing list, recipe book

In Ms Access, a database is a set of an organized collection of related information to a specific purpose

or topic

Some tools in Ms Access to work with data are sorting, extracting, summarizing

Database Hierarchy

Database Hierarchy

1. Database – organized collection of related information

2. Table – collection of records in rows and columns.
3. Record – row of data/collection of related fields
4. Fields – single column of database
5. Byte- a group of 8 bits
6. Bit – a binary digit (1 or 0)

Table – a table is a collection of related records, made of a set of rows and columns. It is also called a
relation

Record – a record is a row of data, or a collection of related fields in a database. A tuple is a row of
data in relational databases, giving information about a particular entity

Field- a single column in a database table that stores data. Also called an attribute in a database. One
item of data such as a singular address is called a data value
Byte – a group of eight bits, usually representing a single character. e.g. 110000001 = A

Bit- an acronym for a binary digit, either 1 or 0

Keys

A primary key is a unique field that is used to identify each record in a database table, such as ID # or
TRN.

A candidate key is a field that could possibly act as the primary key for a table if more than one fields
are unique. A secondary key is a candidate key that is not the primary key

A composite key is a primary key consisting of two are more fields together, such as a course being
offered a course in various times of the year by various lecturers, both fields must be combined to make
a suitable primary key

A foreign key is a field from one table linked with the primary key of another.

Data Types

Every field has a data type. A field’s data type indicates the kind of data that the field stores, such as
large amounts of text or attached files.

A data type is a field property, but it differs from other field properties as follows: It is set in the table
design grid, not field properties pane, a field’s data type determines what other properties the field has,
and a data type must be set when a field is created.

Text - Use for text or combinations of text and numbers. 255 characters maximum

Memo - Memo is used for larger amounts of text. Stores up to 65,536 characters. Note: You cannot sort
a memo field. However, they are searchable

Currency - Use for currency. Holds up to 15 digits of whole dollars, plus 4 decimal places. Tip: You
can choose which country's currency to use

AutoNumber - Auto-number fields automatically give each record its own number, usually starting at 1

Date/Time - Use for dates and times

Yes/No - A logical field can be displayed as Yes/No, True/False, or On/Off. In code, use the constants
True and False (equivalent to -1 and 0).Note: Null values are not allowed in Yes/No fields

Number - Used to store numbers with or without decimal places.

Ole Object - Can store pictures, audio, video, or other BLOBs (Binary Large Objects)
Hyperlink - Contain links to other files, including web pages

Lookup Wizard - Let you type a list of options, which can then be chosen from a drop-down list

Byte - Allows whole numbers from 0 to 255

Integer - Allows whole numbers between -32,768 and 32,767

Long Integer - Allows whole numbers between -2,147,483,648 and 2,147,483,647

Single - Single precision floating-point. Will handle most decimals

Double - Double precision floating-point. Will handle most decimals

Decimal - Allows numbers from -9.999…x 1027 to 9.999… x 1027 with decimal places

Elements of a Database

Tables
Forms
Queries
Reports
Macros
Modules

Elements of a Table Views of a Table Views of a Form

Records Design View Layout View

Fields Datasheet View Design View
Form View

Relationships

Relationships link data from individual tables to increase the usefulness of the database. Table
relationships increase the power of the database, by allowing data to be stored separately, but managed
and retrieved collectively.

One to one - e.g. owner has one pet

One to many – e.g. owner has several pets
Many to one – e.g. pet has several family members as owners

Once a relationship is created, you can see it in the datasheet view all things which are related

Referential Integrity means data in both tables must be the same for database to be created.
Referential Integrity

Referential integrity protects related data that is stored in multiple tables.

For example it would prevent a customer in a customer’s table from being deleted if the customers ID
also appears in the order table

Query

A query is the name for any database manipulation operation.

The most commonly used is a select query which a way of selecting what fields in what records are to
be displayed
Advantages and Disadvantages of Digital Databases

Advantages Disadvantages

Can save enormous amounts of paper as well as The computer(s) and peripherals required can cost
filing space a lot

Data can easily be entered by keyboard or If the computer, or computer network, is not
scanners working, then the database cannot be used

Speed- data can be found, calculated and sorted Security is very important as some people may
very quickly attempt to get access to confidential information.
Sometimes this may involve illegally hacking into
the program or data

Data can easily be changed and updated The database file can become corrupted or
infected by a computer virus. This can lead to file
not working properly. In some cases, the database
may not work at all. Making a back-up copy of the
database is therefore essential
Data needs to be entered only once, yet can be There is often a limit to the size of a database file
represented in many different ways. A whole
range of different queries and reports can be
produced
Data can be checked on entry Some databases can be complicated to use
Passwords can be set to allow access only to those Data stored about people may be incorrect
with permission to use the database
The data structure of a database can be changed, Some databases require much time to be spent on
with new fields added, even after the database has staff training, which can be costly
been created. A paper-based system would have to
be restarted from scratch
Data can be imported and exported to other
programs
A database file can be automatically linked to
others
Databases can be shared with other users if the
computer is a part of a local or wide area network.
This includes the internet.
 Problem Solving
A problem is a situation where there are barriers or difficulties between you and something you want.

A solution is a series of steps or actions that will overcome the difficulties.

Steps

 Define the Problem

 Analyse the Problem
 Propose and Evaluate possible solutions
 Choose and develop most appropriate algorithm
 Test and Validate the algorithm
 Implement the Algorithm (Write the program)
 Test and Debug
 Document and Maintain Programme

Define the Problem - One has to look carefully and identify exactly what the problem is and write it
down. This is called the PROBLEM STATEMENT.
Example: Accept two numbers (values). Calculate and display the sum of the two numbers.

Analyse the Problem - This step helps you to take a complexed problem and break it into smaller or
easily manageable components. It is the most important step in problem solving. Carefully identify the
input, processing, output and storage

Propose and Evaluate Possible Solutions - This step involves examining all the possible solutions to
the problem and then select the best one, given the resources available (e.g. time)

Develop an Algorithm - An algorithm is a finite number of accurate, unambiguous steps that solve a
problem There are many different methods used for writing algorithms.
Examples of algorithms are: narrative, flowcharts, pseudocode, design structures, top down design
approach, bottom up design approach, etc.

Test Algorithm – A good way of testing an algorithm is using a trace table, which can identify logical
errors in the algorithm
Pseudocode

A pseudocode is an imitation computer program written using mathematical notations and English-like
statements to describe the logics to solve a problem or carry out a procedure.

Pseudocode is made up of several statements:

• Output Statements
• Input Statements
• Assignment statements
• Control statements

When writing pseudocodes we use two key words BEGIN and END to state that we are starting our
process and stopping the process, however, please note that these words does not affect the process.
The word BEGIN is placed before all the statements in the pseudocode and END is placed at the end of
all the statements within the pseudocode. See example below:

BEGIN

Statement1
Statement2
Statement3

END

OUTPUT STATEMENTS

The output statement is a statement used to get information to the programmer or computer user. The
key words used for output statements are PRINT, OUTPUT, DISPLAY or WRITE; however we will
be using PRINT.

NB. The information that we print to the screen must be placed between quotation marks “ “.
Literals

INPUT STATEMENTS

The input statement is used to get data from outside the computer via some input device into a variable
for manipulation by the pseudocode. The two key words used for input statements are READ and
INPUT, however we will be using READ.

Before we explore input statements further we must understand a few terms.

Variable: In math a variable is a symbol, word or letter used to represent an unknown value. When we
write programs we don’t know the value of which the user will enter into the program. E.g. I could ask
a user to enter two numbers and that user enters 20 and 10 another could enter 5 and 15 and so on.
These values are unknown to me (the programmer). So it is therefore necessary to use variables for
unknown values.

A variable is a named location in memory, the value of which may change during execution of a
program.
Memory

Num1 Num2 Fname Lname

Notes:

Rules for writing variable names:

1. Variable names must be one word.

2. Variable names should not begin with a number
3. Variable names should reflect what is being stored in them
4. Names should not be more than 64 characters.
5. Variable names should not be a reserved word

Observe the diagram above depicting variables in memory. The small boxes are the actual space
(variable) in memory where the data will be stored. Of which the data can be changed during the
execution of the program based on the definition of a variable. However these spaces must be labeled
or be identified. Programmers use what are called identifiers (see definition below) which can be
variable names (Num1, Num2, Fname, Lname) to identify what is being stored in a variable.

Constant: This provides locations for storing data which do not change value during execution of a
program.

Identifier: This is the name invented by a programmer for a data item. An identifier can be the name of
a variable or a constant. E.g. Num or Pi.

The value of a variable can be changed by an input statement or an assignment statement (This will
be looked at later).
ASSIGNMENT STATEMENT
Assignment statements are used to give initial value to variables and to change the value assigned to a
variable.

The assignment statement has two parts, the Lvalue and the Rvalue. The Lvalue refers to the variable
as the storage location where the Rvalue will be stored. The Rvalue refers to a value, which may be the
result of an expression or the content of another variable. The arrow () is used as the assignment
operator.

Consider the following Assignment statement:

Days  28

Rate  500

This can be interpreted as follows, store the value 28 in the variable days and 500 in the variable rate.

Consider the following assignment statement:

Salary  Days * Rate

The Lvalue is “salary” on the left and the Rvalue is the expression on the right, “days*rate”. The
assignment can be interpreted as, multiply the value in the variable days by the value in the variable
rate and store the result in variable salary.

BEGIN
READ A
READ B
READ C
CA
A B
BC

Print A, B, C
END

We can analyze problems by finding out the Input, process and output, creating what is called an IPO
(Input, process, Output) table.
Based on the question we can arrive at the following IPO table.

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

Three numbers Calculate sum sum
If, Then and Else
 LOOP CONSTRUCTS/ ITERATIONS

Loops are used to repeat a set of statements in a program. There are two types of loops, Definite and
indefinite.
Definite loops run for a specific amount of times e.g. (FOR) while the indefinite loops run for an
unspecified amount of times e.g. (WHILE-DO, DO-WHILE, REPEAT-UNTIL)
Definite loop
FOR LOOP
Construct

Initialization (optional)
FOR counter  starting value TO ending value DO
STATEMENTS TO BE REPEATED
ENDFOR counter  counter + 1

Initialization

This is giving a variable a starting value.

e.g. sum  0

When do we initialize?
• When the variable is on both sides of the equation ( sum  sum + num)
• When a variable is used in a comparison in an IF statement. (IF num > max THEN)

Accumulator statement
This statement allows a new value to be added to a previous total to get a new total

Total  Total + newvalue

In math we can add 5, 10 , 15

0 is our start total

5 is our new value 0 (previous total) + 5 (new value) = 5 (new total)
10 is our new value 5 (previous total) + 10 (new value) = 15 (new total)
15 is our new value 15 (previous total) + 15 (new value) = 30 (new total)

Trace Tables
❖ A trace table is a tool in the form of a table that is completed by going through the instructions
in an algorithm with given data to arrive at a solution.

❖ Trace table design:

• A column should be drawn for each variable used in the algorithm.

• Rows are used to store values in each variable as they pass through the variables.

➢ Trace tables are used for:

➢ Checking an algorithm to determine if it will produce correct results.

➢ Testing for the presence of logic errors (errors that occur due to out—of-sequence instructions,
faulty comparisons and selections)
➢ Testing understanding of how the control structures (IF and Looping statements) work.
What is a program?
A computer program is a set of instructions that tell a computer what to do and how to perform a task.

Programming languages

❖ Programming languages, like human languages, consist of a grammar and a set of rules that
govern how elements of the grammar combine to form instructions.
❖ The set of rules is called the syntax and must be strictly followed for programming instructions
to be valid.

Categories of programming language

Low-Level Language – These languages are machine dependent. That is, the code written can
only be understood by the particular computer or processor that was used to write the code.
Example:
1. First generation language o
Second generation language

High-Level Language – These languages are machine independent. That is, programs written
on one computer can generally be used on another similar computer. They also use keywords
similar to English and are easier to write.
Example:
a. Third generation language
• Fourth generation language
o Fifth generation language

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First Generation Languages (1GL)
First generation languages which is also called Machine Language, consists of strings made up of 1s
and 0s. Each machine language instruction is made up of two parts, the operation code and the operand.
The operation code is the operation to be performed such as addition or multiplication 2 and the
operand is the data or memory storage area on which the operation is to be performed.

Example:
11011101 1011011

01001100 1011100

11011100 1011011

Advantages of 1GL

Fastest to execute because it is already in the language that the computer understands.
Uses the processor and memory more efficiently

Disadvantages of 1GL

Difficult to decipher
Machine dependent
Time consuming/ tedious to write

Second Generation Languages 2GL

Second generation languages, also known as Assembly Language is written using mnemonic codes.
That is, short codes that suggest their meaning. These codes represent operations, addresses that relate to
main memory and storage registers of the computer. Typical codes might be: LDA, STO, ADD, NOP etc.

Example: LDA A, 20 {load accumulator A with the value 20}

ADD A, 10 {add the value 10 to accumulator A}

STO B, A {store contents of accumulator A into storage register B}

NOP {No operation (stop here)}

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Advantages of 2GL

Easier to write than machine language

Disadvantages of 2GL

Machine dependent
Requires translation

Third generation Languages 3GL

Third generation languages or High Level Languages have a grammar and syntax that closely
resemble human languages and mathematical notations.

Language Example
Pascal PROGRAM Addition (Input, Output);

Designed to be used in teaching programming and Var

in business programs. Num1, Num2, Sum : Integer;

BEGIN
Pascal was developed by Niklaus Wirth, a Swiss READLN (Num1, Num2);
computer scientist in 1970 and is named after Sum := Num1 + Num2;
Blaise Pascal, the 17th-century mathematician who END.
invented the mechanical calculator.
BASIC – Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Please Research

Instruction Code
Designed for beginners to use

C – Developed by Bell Laboratories in the USA Please Research

(Now AT&T)
FORTRAN – FORmulator TRANslator Please Research

Designed for use by engineers and scientists for

complex mathematical calculations

COBOL – COmmon Business Oriented Language Please Research

5|Page
Advantages of 3GL

It uses English words and symbols, and is therefore even easier to write.
It is machine independent.

Disadvantages of 3GL

Execution is slower than low level languages

Requires translation
May take up more storage, in the case of a compiled program.

Fourth Generation Languages 4GL

Fourth Generation Programming Languages use statements similar to those used in human language.

Examples:
Database query languages, e.g. SQL (Structured Query Language)
Report generators, e.g. Oracle Report
GUI creators, e.g. Visual Basic

SQL code:

USE STOCKLIST

SELECT ALL Items

WHERE Price >$10.00

6|Page
Fifth Generation Programming Languages 5GL
A Fifth Generation Language is programming using a visual or graphical development interface to create
source languages that are usually compiled with a 4GL language compiler. 5GLs are designed to build
specific programs that help the computer solve specific problems. They are essentially 4GLs with a
knowledge base. 5GLs are often used in Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Examples:
OPS5 (Official Production System)
Prolog (Logical programming)

Mercury

7|Page
What is a Translator program?
A translator program is a software that converts source code into an object code.

Examples:

Assembler
Interpreter
Compiler

What is a “Compiler”?

A compiler is a translator program that translates high level programming languages to machine
language. The compiler converts the entire source code to an object code which is saved as a separate
copy from the source code. Compilers are used on languages such as C, C++ and Pascal.

What is an Interpreter?
An Interpreter is a translator program that converts source code to object line by line. The object code
created is not stored, hence the need for constant translation. Interpreters are used on languages such as
JavaScript and BASIC.

What is an Assembler?
An Assembler is a translator program that converts assembly language/code to an object code/machine
language.

8|Page
The Steps of Programming Implementation

There are several steps that must be completed before a program can be put in use by a user.

1. Source Code Writing

2. Compilation

3. Linking

4. Execution

After successful execution of a program, the user is able to use the program to complete the task(s) it
was created for. However, program implementation also has a last phase which takes place over the
lifetime use of the program. This phase is called:

5. Maintenance

1. Source Code Creation

Before a program can be ran or placed into production, it must be written or planned. The goal or
outcome of the program must be known and the written step by step procedures to achieve the goal
must be documented. This can be done by writing the steps on paper.

The procedures must then be converted into the syntax of a suitable programming language. This
“typed up” version of the code or procedures is known as the SOURCE CODE.

2. Compilation

In this phase, the compiler scans the source code for syntax errors. If there is no error, the code is either
made into an executable file. The end result of this phase is called object code.

The executable file is the source code converted to its machine language equivalent.

Note: Sometimes linking has to take place before the object code is created.

9|Page
 3. Linking

Linking is a process that takes place when more than one object code is needed in order to create an
executable code.

The linker is responsible for this task. It creates a link among object codes after the completion of the
compilation phase.

Errors are sometimes received at this stage. These may be:

Syntactical errors – where rules of the language are disobeyed and

Linking errors – files are not found.

4. Execution

In the execution phase, the program is seen in a console (e.g. DOS Window) or as an application.
Instructions written in the program are carried out by the operating system.

At this stage, errors such as logic and run time errors may be found.

Run Time Error: Fault within the program that may cause the program to crash (malfunction).

Logic Errors: Errors in the output received from the program due to errors in the
sequence of calculations or lines of code.

5. Maintenance

A program or application sometimes requires maintenance after it is placed into production (in use). In
this phase, sections (modules) in the program may be deleted, corrected or added in order to please the
users’ needs. This is a continuous process due to the fact that requirements change.

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Illustration of a compiler

11 | P a g e
What is a “Programming Error”?

A programming error is a fault that occurs during program compilation and or execution. These errors
either cause programs to crash (stop) or produce the incorrect result(s).

Types of Programming Errors

There are three main types of programming errors:

Syntax Errors

Logic Errors and

Run - Time Errors

The Syntax Error

Syntax, according to Dictionary.com, is “the grammatical rules and structural patterns governing the
ordered use of appropriate words and symbols for issuing commands, writing code, etc., in a particular
software application or programming language”

In shorter terms, syntax can be defined as the rules of a programming language which must be obeyed
in order to have a successfully ran program.

Syntax errors are the most common errors in programming and are mostly caused by simple mistakes.

Possible causes of syntax errors:

In Pascal, failure to end each line of code with a semicolon will result in syntax errors.

Misspelt variable names within the program.

Missing keywords

No declaration of variables

12 | P a g e
E.g.

Writeln (‘Enter your name)

The above line of code will result in two syntax errors.

1. The single quotation mark is missing from the on-screen prompt statement.

2. The semicolon at the end of the print statement is missing.

Logic Error

If something is logical then it is considered to make sense.

Logic errors occur when simple errors are made by a programmer; the flow or sequence of the program
leads to incorrect results.

Most logic errors occur in mathematical operations where incorrect symbols are used in calculations.

E.g. The following is a line from a Pascal program which is to calculate the sum of 3 numbers.

Sum := (num1*num2+num3);

Note: There is no syntax error in the line of code. However, the sum of three numbers is calculated by
adding each number. In the example above, the multiplication sign was used instead of the plus sign.

Runtime Error

As the name suggests, runtime errors occur while a program is being executed. These error s are
sometimes cause by the input received from the user, lack of memory space on the computer or a
popular calculation of trying to divide a number by zero. These errors are the most difficult errors to
trace because sometimes, the exact cause may not be visible.

E.g. Value:=30/0; OR

int age = “name” An integer variable can only store integer values and not data of other data-
types.

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Error Finding and Recognition

There are two ways in which a programmer can locate errors within his or her programs.

These are by using:

1. Debugging Techniques

2. Testing Techniques

Debugging

Debugging a program is a three step process.

1. Detection / Error Locating

2. Diagnosis

3. Correction

Detection deals with the process of finding where the errors are located within the source code of the
program; diagnosis tries to determine the cause of the error. After these two steps are completed,
correction can take place.

Several tools and techniques can be used to carry out the debugging process.

Debuggers – tools used to assist programmers in locating errors in a program.

Traces – Printout of the step by step flow of the program.

Variable Checks – Displays the value of variables at different points within the program.

Step Mode – The program is executed line by line until the error occurs.

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Testing

Testing is the process of using data within a program to ascertain whether or not the correct result is
received.

This technique uses “test data” or “test cases” which are entered into the program while it is being
executed.

Test Cases

Test cases are documents that are used to store information such as the input data, expected results of the
program, the actual results received after entering the data and necessary comments.

Test case/ data must be written to test all the modules (sections) of a program to ensure that the
correct output is received at all times.

Dry Run Testing

“Dry Run” is the term used to describe the checking of a program for errors without the use of a
computer or compiler.

Dry run testing is a technique used by many programmers. This technique involves the use of trace
tables, algorithms and pseudo-codes. The programmer “runs” through the program, jotting the results
down on paper. This is done before any coding starts (with a programming language).

NOTE:

The difference between testing and debugging is that testing uses test cases to find out if errors
exist while debugging tries to locate errors which exist and work on correcting such errors.
 Pascal Programming

Program Outline
{Author:

Date: COMMENTS

Description:

PROGRAM name_of_program; PROGRAM HEAD

USES

CRT;

CONST DECLARATION

VAR

BEGIN

STATEMENTS; BODY/ PROGRAM MAIN

END .
COMPARISON OF CODES
CODE TYPE PSEUDOCODE PASCAL
Constant Constant Const
Pi3.14 Pi=3.14;
Declare Variables Declare VAR
Num1, num2, num3 AS INTEGER Num1, num2 : Integer;

Array declaration DECLARE VAR

ARRAY name[5] AS STRING name: Array[1..5] OF STRING;

Initialization Sum 0 Begin

Sum:=0;
END.

Output PRINT” hello world” BEGIN

WRITELN(‘Hello world’);
WRITE (‘Hello world’);
END.

Input READ num BEGIN

READLN (num);
READ (num);
END.
Assignment Sumnum1+ num2 BEGIN
Sum:= num1+num2 ;
END.
BEGIN
FOR loop FOR counter ← 1 TO 10 DO FOR counter := 1 TO 10 DO
PRINT "Hello world!" WRITELN ('Hello world!');
ENDFOR END.

When there are multiple lines in

the construct, they are placed
between a begin and end;

BEGIN
FOR counter := 1 TO 10 DO
BEGIN
WRITELN ('Hello world!');
WRITELN ('Hello world2!');
END; //end of loop
END.
WHILE loop WHILE num <> 0 DO BEGIN
sum ← sum + num WHILE num <> 0 DO
ENDWHILE sum := sum + num;
END.

When there are multiple lines in

the construct, they are placed
between a begin and end;

BEGIN
REPEAT UNTIL REPEAT REPEAT
PRINT "Hello World" WRITELN ('Hello World');
X ← X +1 X := X + 1;
UNTIL X > 5 UNTIL X > 5;
END.

IF-THEN IF A > B THEN BEGIN

PRINT A IF A > B THEN
ENDIF WRITELN (B);
END.

When there are multiple lines in

the construct, they are placed
between a begin and end;

IF-THEN-ELSE IF A > B THEN BEGIN

PRINT A IF A >B THEN
ELSE WRITELN (A)
PRINT B ELSE
ENDIF WRITELN (B);

END.

NB. NO semi-colon before an

ELSE

When there are multiple lines in

the construct, they are placed
between a begin and end;
NESTED IF-THEN-ELSE IF age <= 3 THEN BEGIN
PRINT “hi” IF age <= 3 THEN
ELSE WRITELN (‘Hi’)
IF age <= 10 THEN ELSE
PRINT “ hello” IF age <= 10 THEN
ELSE WRITELN (‘Hi’)
IF age <= 18 THEN ELSE
PRINT “No” IF age <= 18 THEN
ELSE WRITELN (‘Hi’)
PRINT “Yes” ELSE
ENDIF WRITELN (‘Hi’);
ENDIF
ENDIF NB. NO semi-colon before an
ELSE

When there are multiple lines in

the construct, they are placed
between a begin and end;

SYMBOL PURPOSE
= Constant assignment or comparison in an if
statement
:= Assignment operator
; Terminates a line
. Terminates the program