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Geometric and Engineering
Drawing

This introduction to descriptive geometry and contemporary drafting guides the

student through the essential principles to create engineering drawings that comply
with international standards of technical product specification. This heavily updated
new edition now applies to CAD as well as conventional drawing. Extensive new
coverage is given of:

• International drafting conventions

• Methods of spatial visualisation such as multi-view projection
• Types of views
• Dimensioning
• Dimensional and geometric tolerancing
• Representation of workpiece and machine elements
• Assembly drawings

Comprehensible illustrations and clear explanations help the reader master

drafting and layout concepts for creating professional engineering drawings. The
book provides a large number of exercises for each main topic. This edition covers
updated material and reflects the latest ISO standards.
It is ideal for undergraduates in engineering or product design, students of
vocational courses in engineering communication and technology students covering
the transition of product specification from design to production.
Ken Morling trained as a mechanical engineer at Vickers Armstrong in 1956. He
helped develop many aircraft including the TSR2 and Concorde. In 1963 he
started teaching technical drawing to GCE O and A level students and wrote this
book first published in 1969. In 1965 he became a graduate of the Institution
of Mechanical Engineers and a Master of Philosophy in 1980 for development
in education. During the life of his book there have been three editions and two
translations into Spanish and Portuguese.
Stéphane Danjou is Professor of Mechanical Engineering and Plant Design at
Rhine-Waal University of Applied Sciences in Germany, teaching Engineering
Drawing, 3D CAD and Design. He started as a draftsman in a global acting
company, studied mechanical engineering and worked as Technical Director in
the packaging industry. With more than 25 years of experience in engineering
drawing, he specialises in product development, particularly within the context
of modern approaches in engineering design.
 Geometric and
Engineering Drawing

Fourth Edition

Ken Morling
Stéphane Danjou
Cover credit: iStock/matejmo
Fourth edition published 2022
by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa
business
© 2022 Ken Morling and Stéphane Danjou
The right of Kenneth Morling and Stéphane Danjou to be
identified as authors of this work has been asserted in
accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs
and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted
or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from
the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition published by Edward Arnold 1969
Third edition published by Routledge 2010
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British
Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record has been requested for this book
ISBN: 978-0-367-43127-3 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-367-43123-5 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-00138-6 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003001386
Typeset in Sabon
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
Contents

Prefacex
Acknowledgementsxii

1 Introduction to Engineering Communication 1

1.1 Product Development and the Engineering
Design Process 1
1.2 Communication Modes 3
1.3 Importance of Engineering Drawing 6

2 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing 9

2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Drafting Equipment 9
2.2.1 Manual Drafting 9
2.2.2 Computer-Aided Design (CAD) 15
2.3 Drafting Conventions 17
2.3.1 Standardisation 17
2.3.2 Line Conventions 19
2.3.3 Lettering 22
2.3.4 Drawing Layout 23
2.4 Scales 25
2.5 Types of Drawings 28
2.6 Technical Sketching 30
2.6.1 Pictorial Sketching 30
2.6.2 Sketching in Orthographic Projection 32
2.7 Planning the Drawing 34
2.8 Problems 36
vi Contents

3 Geometric Constructions 39
3.1 The Construction of Geometric Figures From Given
Data 39
3.1.1 The Triangle 39
3.1.2 The Quadrilateral 46
3.1.3 Polygons 50
3.1.4 Circles 57
3.2 Tangency 68
3.3 Loci 77
3.3.1 Loci of Mechanisms 79
3.3.2 The Cycloid 83
3.3.3 The Trochoid 85
3.3.4 The Involute 87
3.3.5 The Archimedean Spiral 89
3.3.6 The Helix 90
3.4 Problems 91

4 Methods of Spatial Visualisation 115

4.1 Introduction 115
4.2 Perspective Projection 118
4.3 Oblique Projection 121
4.4 Axonometric Projection (Isometric and Dimetric) 124
4.4.1 Conventional Isometric Projection (Isometric
Drawing) 126
4.4.2 Circles and Curves Drawn in Isometric
Projection 128
4.4.3 True Isometric Projection 131
4.4.4 Dimetric Projection 133
4.5 Multi-View Projection (First Angle and Third
Angle) 135
4.6 Auxiliary Elevations and Auxiliary Plans 142
4.7 Projection of Sectioned Solids 153
4.7.1 Section Planes 153
4.7.2 Conic Sections 154
4.8 Problems 163

5 Basic Concepts of Descriptive Geometry 183

5.1 Orthographic Projection 183
5.1.1 Projection of Lines 183
5.1.2 Projection of Planes 189
5.2 Enlarging and Reducing Plane Figures and Equivalent
Areas 195
 Contents vii

5.3 Intersection of Regular Solids 205

5.4 Developments 215
5.4.1 Prisms 216
5.4.2 Cylinders 219
5.4.3 Pyramids 221
5.4.4 Cones 223
5.5 Problems 225

6 Views 243
6.1 Basic Conventions 243
6.1.1 The Six Principal Views 243
6.1.2 Selection of Views 246
6.2 Special Views 246
6.2.1 Detail View 246
6.2.2 Partial Views 247
6.2.3 Broken Views 247
6.2.4 Auxiliary Views 248
6.2.5 Removed Views 249
6.3 Sectional Views 250
6.3.1 Conventions for Sections 251
6.3.2 Full Sections 254
6.3.3 Half Sections 254
6.3.4 Offset Sections 254
6.3.5 Broken-Out Sections 256
6.3.6 Aligned Sections 256
6.3.7 Profile Sections 258

7 Dimensioning 261
7.1 Introduction 261
7.2 Dimensional Values 263
7.3 Systems of Dimension Positioning 266
7.4 Arrangement of Dimensions 267
7.5 Presentation of Special Dimensions 273
7.6 Dimensioning Guidelines 278
7.7 Dimensioning Systems 282

8 Tolerancing 285
8.1 Dimensional Tolerances 285
8.1.1 Introduction 285
8.1.2 General Tolerances 287
8.1.3 Specific Tolerances 288
viii Contents

8.2 Fits 290

8.2.1 Introduction 290
8.2.2 Types of Fits 291
8.2.3 The ISO Code System 292
8.2.4 Fit Systems 295
8.2.5 Designation of Tolerances in Drawings 297
8.2.6 Tolerance Stack-Up 297
8.3 Geometrical Tolerancing 299
8.3.1 Introduction to Geometrical Tolerancing 299
8.3.2 Datums 301
8.3.3 General Rules for Indication 303
8.3.4 Types of Geometric Specification 305
8.4 Surface Texture 315
8.4.1 Surface Roughness Parameters 315
8.4.2 Indication of Surface Texture in Drawings 320

9 Representation of Workpiece Elements 325

9.1 Keyways 325
9.2 Splines and Serrations 326
9.3 Undercuts 328
9.4 Centre Holes 330
9.5 Corners and Edges 331
9.6 Knurling 335
9.7 Further Conventional Representations 336

10 Representation of Machine Elements 341

10.1 Threads 341
10.1.1 Screw Threads 341
10.1.2 Drawing Screw Threads 344
10.2 Fasteners 346
10.2.1 Screws, Bolts and Studs 346
10.2.2 Designation of ISO Screw Threads 346
10.2.3 Types of Bolts and Screws 348
10.2.4 Locking Devices 348
10.2.5 Rivets and Riveted Joints 351
10.2.6 Keys, Keyways and Splines 352
10.2.7 Cottered Joints 355
10.3 Problems 355

11 Assembly Drawings 361

11.1 Introduction 361
11.2 Assembly Views 364
 Contents ix

11.3 Parts Lists 365

11.4 Item Numbering 367
11.5 Revision Block 370
11.6 Reading Assembly Drawings 370
11.7 Problems 371

12 Some More Problems Solved by Drawing 383

12.1 Areas of Irregular Shapes 383
12.2 Resolution of Forces 383
12.3 Simple Cam Design 390
12.4 Problems 395

Appendix A: ISO Standards Mentioned in This Book401

Appendix B: Representation of Threaded Fasteners404
Index 405
Preface

Engineering drawings have been used to convey clear information about an

object or system for many decades. They are graphic representations of prod-
ucts and depict how an object is designed, how it functions and how it is sup-
posed to be manufactured and assembled. With the advent of comprehensive
computer-aided design (CAD) programs, the way engineering drawings are cre-
ated significantly changed. The introduction of three-dimensional (3D) CAD
systems especially has revolutionised the approach for conveying the specifica-
tions of a technical product. Although the tools for creating engineering draw-
ings have changed dramatically with time, the underlying principles are still the
same. The fundamentals of descriptive geometry are still necessary for many
applications of geometric drawing, and the same conventions and best prac-
tices still apply to the drafting process. Despite the rapid pace of computational
improvements and the resulting possibilities of supporting and rationalising
the drafting process, the basic concepts of geometric and engineering draw-
ing have lost nothing of their relevance. Nowadays, geometric drawing is an
essential skill for graphically solving geometric problems as part of a concept
phase in a design process and for understanding the theory behind CAD sys-
tems. Although the current trend is to communicate product data exclusively
with means of 3D CAD models for paperless production, we are far away from
sending engineering drawings into retirement. Engineering drawings, no mat-
ter if resulting from manual drafting or as end products of a CAD modelling
process, are still an efficient form of communication, required in all engineering
disciplines.
This fourth edition has been entirely revised and heavily updated. While
the fundamentals of geometric drawing have been taken from earlier editions,
some completely new chapters are included that emphasise each part of the
engineering drawing.
The new edition starts with an introduction to engineering communication
and some basics of engineering drawing such as drafting equipment, interna-
tionally agreed conventions and principal techniques of technical sketching. The
chapter on geometric constructions is almost unchanged from earlier editions.
It shows specific drawing solutions to many geometric problems. Before intro-
ducing readers to the different types of views in engineering drawing, methods

x
 Preface xi

of spatial visualisation and basic concepts of descriptive geometry are pre-

sented. New chapters thoroughly address the important topics of dimensioning
and tolerancing. Further, we introduce common representations of workpiece
elements and frequently occurring machine elements as well as assembly draw-
ings and their properties.
All chapters related to engineering drawing have been updated to the lat-
est recommendations from the International Organization for Standardiza-
tion (ISO), that is, best practices from the international standards developing
organisation.
However carefully one checks a manuscript, errors creep in. We shall be very
grateful if any readers who find errors let us know through the publishers.
S. Danjou & K. Morling
November 2021
Acknowledgements

To start with, I wish to express my sincere appreciation for the excellent work
Ken Morling has provided with all previous editions of this book. I am deeply
grateful for the opportunity to carry on with the success story he started more
than 50 years ago.
My special thanks to the following examination boards for giving their per-
mission to use questions from past papers. I am particularly grateful to them
for allowing us to change many of the questions from imperial to metric units.

Certificate of Secondary Education

Associated Lancashire Schools Examining Board
East Anglian Regional Examinations Board
Metropolitan Regional Examinations Board
Middlesex Regional Examining Board
North Western Secondary School Examinations Board
South-East Regional Examinations Board
Southern Regional Examinations Board
West Midlands Examinations Board

General Certificate of Education

Associated Examining Board
Local Examinations Syndicate, University of Cambridge
Joint Matriculation Board
University of London School Examinations
Oxford Delegacy of Local Examinations
Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examination Board
Southern Universities’ Joint Board

I especially thank the West Midlands Examinations Board, the Associated

Lancashire Schools Examining Board and the Southern Universities’ Joint
Board for allowing us to draw solutions to questions set by them.

xii
 Acknowledgements xiii

The extracts from BS 308, Engineering Drawing Practice and BS 3692, ISO
Metric Precision Hexagon Bolts, Screws and Nuts are taken from a number of
recent British Standards Institution Publications who have given their permis-
sion for the reproductions. Copies of the complete standards are available from
BSI, 2, Park Street, London W1A 2BS.
My sincere thanks to the publisher, Taylor & Francis, and its editorial staff
for making this fourth edition possible, and for showing so much sympathy
during these difficult times which affected so many of us.
I would like to express heartfelt gratitude to my beloved wife, Marie-Kristin,
and my children Lisanne and Eric for all their support, patience and encourage-
ment. Finally, this edition became reality because they tolerated my incessant
disappearances into my home office.
S. Danjou
The fourth edition has been compiled by Stéphane Danjou. I am very grate-
ful that he has offered me many opportunities to make contributions where he
thought they were appropriate. My thanks to S. Pagett for checking the manu-
script of the original publication.
K. Morling
Chapter 1

Introduction to Engineering
Communication

1.1 PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND THE ENGINEERING

DESIGN PROCESS
There are many different definitions for the engineering design process. How-
ever, they all share common attributes. In the broad view, engineering design,
sometimes also referred to as technical design, is a systematic process where
basic sciences such as mathematics and physics as well as engineering sciences
are applied to solve a given problem. So it is about devising a component or
a system while taking predetermined requirements into account to meet the
desired needs.
Usually, engineering design follows a well-defined sequence of process steps.
From a macroscopic perspective, the engineering design process can be broken
down into four stages (see Figure 1.1).
At the very beginning, a design engineer is confronted with a problem state-
ment. Note that a technical problem is given when the solution is not avail-
able with the help of already known means. As a result, it is the task of an
engineer to establish a clear task description by clarifying the frame conditions
and specifying the requirements. The latter can result from customer require-
ments such as performance, ergonomic or aesthetic requirements, from internal
requirements such as considerations with respect to manufacturing or costs,
or from external requirements like social and regulatory issues. The complete
set of requirements represents constraints the developed technical solution will
need to satisfy.
In a second step, the challenge is to develop one or more concepts that have
the potential to solve the given problem. This is usually done by establishing
a desired function structure and searching for working principles that fulfil
the subfunctions. When combining the found working principles into so-called
working structures while taking technical and economic constraints into con-
sideration, we will get a set of principle solution variants.
Once principle solutions have been found that meet given evaluation criteria,
the design process steps forward into an embodiment design phase where key
modules are defined. At this stage, the size of product features or assembly
components as well as their arrangement are determined. The outcome of the

DOI: 10.1201/9781003001386-1 1
2 Geometric and Engineering Drawing

Figure 1.1 The engineering design process.

embodiment design are detailed layouts with respect to main function carriers
and auxiliary function carriers. In addition to the basic rules of embodiment
design ‘clarity’, ‘simplicity’, ‘sustainability’ and ‘safety’, numerous so-called
principles of embodiment design and guidelines, depending on the selected
manufacturing process, have to be taken into account. Further, the design is
checked against errors, any kind of disturbing factors and possible risks.
A subsequent detail design process step, where all design details are finalised
and where compliance with initial requirements are checked with the help of
prototypes and tests, results into a set of product documents, partly needed for
production and operation. This can include:

• Manufacturing drawings
• Assembly drawings
• Bill of materials (BOM), also known as parts lists
• Production/assembly/transportation instructions
• User manual
• Manual for maintenance
• Spare parts lists

All documents are then checked with regard to completeness, correctness

and standards they need to comply with.
It can be seen that in the course of the engineering design process it is essential
to communicate to others first ideas, concepts and preliminary design modules
as well as the final design. The modern world of engineering is not a one-person
show. Instead, it is the result of interdisciplinary teamwork. Therefore, provid-
ing a clear picture of such a technical idea and conveying it to various people,
inside or outside an organisation, is of high importance and requires an effec-
tive and efficient mode of communication.
 Introduction to Engineering Communication 3

1.2 COMMUNICATION MODES
Since the beginning of humankind, people have developed several modes of
communication. One of the first communication modes was sound. A variety of
sounds had different meanings, such as warning others from an existing threat.
As a drawback, sounds could be interpreted in different ways, if not commonly
agreed on in a group. In addition, communication with the help of sound was
limited to basic information.
As civilisation improved, humans used signs for communication. This could
have been a fire signal, a pattern of stones, or symbols such as the ancient
Sumerian cuneiform and the Egyptian hieroglyphics which were developed
in 3500–3000 BC. With the development of alphabets, the written language
became a versatile and sophisticated mode of communication.
In the same period, humans started to express themselves with the help of
more complex sketches and pictures. Graphics language was born. Over the
millennia, graphic representations became a basic and natural form of com-
munication, regardless of the spoken language.
In the engineering field, the effectiveness of graphics language can be easily
seen when trying to fully describe an object verbally or in writing. While this
might be possible for simple objects, a precise verbal or written description
without ambiguity of a more complex object seems to be impossible. As an
example, see Figure 1.2 which shows a V8 engine block.

Figure 1.2 V8 engine block.

4 Geometric and Engineering Drawing

Graphic representations can be divided into artistic drawings, technical

drawings and (technical) illustrations. Drawings from artists are a form of
graphic expression of feelings or an idea and have appreciation as their focus.
The purpose of an artistic drawing frequently is aesthetic. This kind of draw-
ing is usually subjectively interpreted. In contrast, technical drawings have the
purpose of conveying clear information about an object or system, especially
how it is constructed or how it functions. As a result, technical drawings are
not subject to interpretation but have an intended meaning with no room for
misinterpretation.
While drawings and illustrations are both visual representations to convey
a particular message by its creator, an illustration is neither purely artistic nor
purely technical. Instead, an illustration usually supports the understanding
of an accompanying textual content. Within the engineer’s world, this kind of
graphic representation typically can be found in product documentation such
as user manuals, operator manuals or maintenance manuals, for example for
machines, automobiles or consumer products. As an example, Figure 1.3 shows
a technical illustration of a pillar drill.

Figure 1.3 Technical illustration of a pillar drill.

 Introduction to Engineering Communication 5

Technical illustrations enable us to transfer product-related information or

to convey complex matters. When communicating with the general public, this
type of graphic representation can enhance the interest and understanding of a
non-technical audience. Simplification of a product or assembly usually helps
to draw attention to the area, feature or component of interest. For that reason,
the illustration should resemble the product in question as much as possible but
should also omit details which do not contribute to understanding.
The reason that illustrations are so much better than a mere verbal descrip-
tion is that text always needs to be processed in a sequential manner. Illustra-
tions can be analysed within an instant and need no translation. In the end,
the saying ‘A picture is worth a thousand words’ also applies to technical
applications.
While technical illustrations can be the optimum communication mode for
certain applications, in some cases a pure graphical representation is not precise
enough and needs additional information, especially when it comes to commu-
nication on a more scientific level or between experts in the engineering field.
So the graphic representation would need to be enriched by specialised techni-
cal terminology and symbols. This brings us to technical drawings. In contrast
to artistic drawings and technical illustrations, this kind of graphic representa-
tion is a detailed and precise document that conveys information about how an
object is designed and functions, and how it is supposed to be manufactured
and assembled. The drawing is the road map which shows how a product func-
tions, how it had been designed or how it is going to be manufactured. To
guarantee that a technical drawing can be understood by any engineer, no mat-
ter of which origin or educational background, the elements of the graphic rep-
resentation follow a set of international standards. By applying internationally
developed and approved regulations to standardise the language used, ambigu-
ous interpretation can be avoided. Figure 1.4 depicts a technical drawing of the
previous example of a pillar drill. When comparing Figure 1.3 and Figure 1.4,
one can realise that comprehension of the overall geometry and identification
of individual components is much easier in the technical illustration. The tech-
nical drawing provides more information, such as the overall dimensions and
the geometric relationships between the components due to the sectional view,
which also enables identification of internal parts.
Nowadays, technical drawings are created with the help of computer-aided
design (CAD) software packages. In the 1970s and 1980s, the main purpose
of using a 2D CAD system was to create a technical drawing. With the intro-
duction of 3D CAD systems in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the desired end
product became a virtual three-dimensional model which contains a descrip-
tion of the geometry and serves as a common basis for downstream processes
such as simulation, analysis and machining. While manual drafting required a
large workspace, specific drafting equipment, and a lot of time to create and
edit a drawing, computer-based drafting allows accurate and reproducible
engineering drawings in a shorter time, since they can be automatically derived
from the driving 3D model. As already mentioned, creating a technical drawing
nowadays is not the sole advantage of such CAD systems. Further development
6 Geometric and Engineering Drawing

Figure 1.4 Technical drawing of a pillar drill.

of the functionality and increasing computing power led to expert systems for
conceptualisation and the design of technical solutions. Regarding communi-
cation, 3D CAD systems meanwhile offer various possibilities to represent an
object as realistically and as precisely as possible. Figure 1.5 demonstrates how
realistic the pillar drill from previous paragraphs can look when a rendered
model is created with the help of a modern CAD system.
If CAD systems can provide such impressive photo-realistic images of an
object, why do we need (manual) drafting then? It seems that drafting skills
are obsolete and that the necessary messages in an engineering design process
can be transported via virtual models which show all the characteristics of an
object to a very high level of detail.

1.3 IMPORTANCE OF ENGINEERING DRAWING

Engineering drawings still play a major role in the engineering design process
since they can be easily understood, once the drafting conventions are known.
They can also provide a lot of information regarding a technical solution,
beyond the apparently visible. Accompanied by standardised ideograms or
annotations, engineering drawings become the ideal mode of communication to
 Introduction to Engineering Communication 7

Figure 1.5 Rendered CAD model of a pillar drill.

convey information between the various parties involved in the design process
and even the product development process. Owing to their versatile possible
use, engineering drawings serve at minimum one of three purposes, frequently
all of them at the same time:

• Communication
• Visualisation
• Documentation

As an example, companies use engineering drawings, in either paper or digi-

tal form, to convey how to fabricate a part while taking all necessary specifica-
tions into account. For that reason, precision needs to be the foremost quality
of such a manufacturing drawing. However, communicating a part’s manufac-
turing requirements and specifications is not the sole application. There are
numerous interfaces across a company where a design solution needs to be
8 Geometric and Engineering Drawing

communicated and visualised without ambiguity. This includes the following

departments, depending on the specific industry branch:

• Mechanical design
• Electrical design
• Automation and control
• Research and development (R&D)
• Project management
• Purchasing
• Production
• Quality control
• Maintenance
• Service

Usually all these departments are somehow involved in a product’s life cycle
and therefore need a clear picture of the product. Engineering drawings repre-
sent the common communication medium and therefore can be considered to
be one of the most important documents in an industrial company.
Once a design is finalised, the design process needs to be diligently docu-
mented. One reason is to communicate the rationales behind a design deci-
sion, which can be understood even after years. Another advantage of thorough
documentation supported by engineering drawings is that future problem
statements might be of similar nature so that a new design could be based on
existing technical solutions. Apart from the internal usage of such documenta-
tion, engineering drawings are also created for legal and archival purposes.
They can prove necessary compliance with safety regulations or support the
patenting of a company’s intellectual property.
Chapter 2

Fundamentals of Engineering
Drawing

2.1 INTRODUCTION
As presented in Chapter 1, engineering drawings are never made up of graph-
ics language alone. As a rule, they are a combination of graphics language and
written language. Graphics in drawings use lines to represent edges, contours of
an object and even surfaces. To distinguish between different types of edges or
objects, a variety of different line types and line thicknesses is used. In addition
to that, different projection methods help in visualising the object of interest in
the best possible way in order to convey the necessary information. The types
of projection will be explained in Chapter 4.
Graphics language used in engineering drawings mainly describes a shape
and the appearance of an object. On the other hand, written language describes
the many details, including the size, location and specification of an object.
From the next section on, an overview is provided of the fundamental ele-
ments of graphics and written language, used for any kind of technical drawing.

2.2 DRAFTING EQUIPMENT

2.2.1 Manual Drafting

Basic Tools
Someone who wants to create a technical drawing, such as a draftsperson
or engineer, needs some basic tools for drawing. These should include the
following:

• A range of pencils
• Rubber
• Ruler
• Set squares
• Protractor
• Compasses
• Dividers
• Drawing board

DOI: 10.1201/9781003001386-2 9
10 Geometric and Engineering Drawing

• T-square
• Clips or tape
• Emery board or fine sandpaper

Pencils: You will need a selection of pencils. They are available with different
hardness grades, suitable for different applications. In Europe and most parts
of the world, pencil manufacturers use the HB grading system, based on the
letters H (hard), B (black = soft) and F (firm). A number indicates the level of
hardness. In the USA, the hardness scale is limited to five different grades only,
indicated by a number. Figure 2.1 gives an overview of pencil lead hardness
scales. For technical drawing purposes, a hard leaded pencil (5H) can be used
for light lines, a less hard pencil (2H) for the outlines, and a medium soft pencil
(HB) for printing. More than one pencil of each grade will save you from fre-
quent resharpening.

Rubber: Choose a good quality rubber, one that does not smudge.
Ruler: It is advisable to have a transparent ruler. It is also recommended to
have a ruler with metric and imperial units (Figure 2.2) since it might
happen that you are confronted with different unit systems.
Set squares: You will need at least two set squares: a 60° and a 45° set square
(Figure 2.3). It will be also useful to have an adjustable set square, which
will enable you to set the angle on the set square to anywhere between 0°
and 90°. If you have an adjustable set square, you can manage without
the other two.
Protractor: Similar to set squares, the protractor is usually made of transpar-
ent acrylic plastic and is helpful for laying out specific angles or measur-
ing an existing angle (Figure 2.4).

Figure 2.1 Pencil lead grades.

Figure 2.2 Ruler.

 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing 11

Figure 2.3 Set square (45°).

Figure 2.4 Protractor.

Compasses: Circles and arcs in your drawing are created with compasses.
You will need at least two compasses: a small spring bow compass (Fig-
ure 2.5, left side) for small circles and one for larger circles.
Dividers: Dividers are similar to compasses, except that they are not used
for drawing a circle or an arc. Instead, a pair of dividers (Figure 2.5, right
side) is very helpful when precisely transferring a distance between views
or from one drawing to another. A typical application is dividing a circle
or a straight line into equal parts by setting a distance repeatedly. For that
reason, both tips of the dividers are pointed.
12 Geometric and Engineering Drawing

Figure 2.5 Compasses and dividers.

Drawing board and T-square: Drawing boards for size A2 paper can be
bought with a fitted horizontal square which slides up and down on roll-
ers. A less expensive board is one that is used with a separate T-square
which slides up and down on the side of the drawing board and has to be
held in place when used (Figure 2.6).
Clips or tape: The best tape to use to hold paper on the drawing board is
masking tape, but metal drawing board clips are easier to use.
Emery board or fine sandpaper: This is used to ensure that the lead in the
pencils is kept sharp.

There are other instruments that will help you to draw quickly and accu-
rately. These include the following:

• French curves for drawing non-circular and irregular curves accurately

(Figure 2.7).
• Templates such as circle templates, branch-specific symbol templates and
templates with commonly used shapes (Figure 2.8).
• Scales (rulers with special markings for drawing items bigger or smaller
than they are in real life).
 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing 13

Figure 2.6 Drawing board with T-square and set square.

Figure 2.7 French curves.

14 Geometric and Engineering Drawing

Figure 2.8 Templates.

 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing 15

Using the Equipment

First, fix the paper to your board, using clips or tape. Then sharpen your pen-
cils, either to a point using a pencil sharpener or to a chisel shape using the
emery board and use this shape for drawing lines, drawing from the ends of
each line to meet in the middle. Use the emery board to sharpen your compass
leads to a chisel point too. Finally, draw a frame on your paper if required (see
Figure 2.20). Now you are ready to start drawing. Here are some exercises.
First construct an equilateral triangle (Figure 2.9).
Then find the centre of the circumscribing circle.
Draw the circumscribing circle.
Practice shading some parts with the 60° set square.
First draw a circle and step the radius around it six times, starting at the top
(Figure 2.10).
Draw the regular hexagon.
Shade the parts of the hexagon with the 60° set square.

2.2.2 Computer-Aided Design (CAD)

Recent decades have been characterised by an accelerating pace in the devel-
opment of computer technologies. Naturally, this advancement also affected
engineering activities, especially the design process and how technical draw-
ings are created. Software solutions for supporting such computer-aided design

Figure 2.9 Circumscribing circle of an equilateral triangle.

16 Geometric and Engineering Drawing

Figure 2.10 Regular hexagon.

process already exist since beginning of the 1960s. While at the beginning these
IT solutions were very limited in their functionality, especially in the 1980s and
1990s CAD evolved into a very sophisticated tool to create legible and accurate
technical drawings at considerable speed. With comprehensive advent of 3D
CAD systems in the 1990s, companies were able to increase their productivity
by creating virtual 3D models which can be used for numerous downstream
engineering processes such as drafting, simulation and manufacturing. Nowa-
days, 3D CAD systems are considered to be so-called product lifecycle systems
since they take different aspects from all stages of a product’s lifecycle into
account, i.e. from design through testing, production, commissioning, end use
and maintenance to recycling or disposal.
While in the past specialised and expensive CAD workstations were neces-
sary to run a CAD system, nowadays commercially available desktop comput-
ers or laptops for personal use can be used for standard CAD applications such
as drafting or simple 3D modelling. However, depending on the complexity of
the technical drawing, drafting can be a graphically and computationally inten-
sive task. When using modern 3D CAD systems, it may even be recommended
to consider a powerful graphics card, high-speed CPU and sufficient RAM.
Most CAD software suppliers even offer an overview of certified, i.e. tested
and approved, graphics cards to make sure that the hardware complies with the
system-specific requirements.
Apart from standard computer input devices such as mouse, keyboard and
scanner, there are many other available for CAD. As an example, graphics tab-
lets with an attached stylus can be used to ease cursor movements and the selec-
tion of menu commands. Alternatively to standard computer mice, a trackball
or 3D mouse can increase efficiency. Although the first CAD systems already
support touch and multi-touch gestures, this kind of input is not yet standard
for such applications.
As output devices, CAD applications require a monitor and a printer or plot-
ter to put the drawings created on screen on paper. It is recommended to use a
dual-monitor setup or a widescreen monitor to increase productivity.
Despite the potential advantage of increased efficiency by using modern CAD
systems, manual drafting skills are still important, especially for sketching,
 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing 17

quickly communicating and visualising an idea and for understanding the tech-
niques behind computer-aided drafting commands.

2.3 DRAFTING CONVENTIONS
The first step a manufacturer must take when they intend to produce goods is
to create a drawing. First, a designer will make a preliminary sketch and then a
draftsperson or engineer will make a detailed drawing of the design. Since nei-
ther the designer nor the draftsperson will actually manufacture the product,
the drawings must be capable of being interpreted by people in the workshops.
These workshops may be sited a long way from the drawing office, possibly
even overseas, so the drawings produced must be standardised so that anyone
familiar with these standards could make the product required, independent
of the local spoken language. This is why you will often see symbols used on a
drawing instead of words or abbreviations.
National as well as international standards specify the rules for engineering
drawing and should be carefully studied by every prospective engineer and
draftsperson.
The following chapters explain, within the international framework of ISO
128 (Technical product documentation and specification), the language of engi-
neering drawing.

2.3.1 Standardisation
To create clear, coherent and comprehensible drawings, an agreement regarding
the commonly used graphics language and written language is required. This
is mainly to make sure that a drawing can be understood by everyone with-
out ambiguity. The effectiveness of such drafting language emerged due to the
establishment of standards and conventions based on best practices. While the
latter is considered to be an instruction set on how to create and read drawings,
we use methods of descriptive geometry to implement graphics language. The
consistent application of standards in the drafting process guarantees that all
manufacturers, or others involved in the product development process, inter-
pret the drawing in the same way. This is a fundamental requirement for inter-
changeability of parts. Modern industry has been developed on the basis of
interchangeable manufacturing and therefore it requires national as well as
international standards.
Written or spoken language had been continuously standardised over centu-
ries and is still an ongoing process. The latest status of a standardised language
can be found in a dictionary. Likewise, engineering standards are regularly
revised and continuously updated. National as well as international organi-
sations make sure that best practices are turned into standards for various
industries.
With the transition to more elaborate manufacturing processes during the
Industrial Revolution in the 19th century, the need for precise machine tools
and interchangeable parts arose. Differences in local standards were making
18 Geometric and Engineering Drawing

trade very difficult, sometimes even impossible in terms of cost. As a conse-

quence, in 1901 the world’s first national standards developing organisation
was born, the British Engineering Standards Committee. After the First World
War, numerous countries followed and set up their own national standard bod-
ies. Finally, in 1947 the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
was founded by 25 national standards organisations to ease the exchange of
goods and reduce trade barriers. Currently, ISO consists of 165 members. In
1961 the European Committee for Standardization (CEN) followed, which
brings together the national standardisation bodies of 34 European countries.
The idea of EN standards is to successively substitute national standards of the
member states for European standards. Table 2.1 gives an overview of some
standardisation organisations.
Some of the standards developing organisations are supported by national
organisations such as the Association of German Engineers (VDI) in Germany
and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) in the USA.
Today, we are facing an almost innumerable variety of national and inter-
national standards, which complicates the appropriate selection. If not already
restricted by requirements and specifications, ISO standards should take abso-
lute precedence over regional (such as EN) or national standards. Within the
European Community, EN standards take higher precedence over national
standards of their member countries.
Sometimes we can observe a smooth transition from international to national
standards. For instance, an international ISO standard can be transformed into
an EN standard and finally into a national standard. The following list exem-
plifies some of the possible combinations:

• DIN xxxx – German standard with mainly national relevance.

• DIN EN xxxx – European standard which had been transformed into
a national standard. Whenever European standards are taken over, they
need to be adopted by the members of the European Committee for Stand-
ardization without any modifications.

Table 2.1 Examples of national and international standardisation organisations

Region/country Code Name of developing organisation

World ISO International Organization for Standardization

Europe EN European Committee for Standardization
Australia AS Standards Australia
Germany DIN German Institute for Standardization
Japan JIS Japanese Industrial Standards Committee
P.R. China GB Standardization Administration of China
United Kingdom BS British Standards Institution
USA ANSI American National Standards Institute
 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing 19

• DIN EN ISO xxxx – International standard, developed by ISO or CEN

and published by both organisations, which is transformed into a German
national DIN standard.
• DIN ISO xxxx – Directly from ISO adopted standard.

Within this book, we will mainly address international standards (ISO). All
ISO standards addressed in this book can be found in Appendix A.
The reader may refer to their own national standards whenever requirements
and specifications do not allow the application of international standards.

2.3.2 Line Conventions
Technical drawings usually consist of a variety of types of lines, each of them
with a specific meaning. Part 2 of the international standard ISO 128 estab-
lishes the different lines, their designations and examples of application. Most
commonly known line types are continuous lines, dashed lines and long-
dashed dotted lines, each of them available as a narrow or wide line. In fact
there are many more line types available for drafting. To get a clear over-
view, in ISO 128–2 the lines are classified according to the scheme shown in
Figure 2.11.
The most important basic line types are shown in Figure 2.12. Note, this is
just an extract out of 15 available basic line types and shows lines commonly
used in mechanical engineering practice. Note that the long-dashed double-
dotted lines are also referred to as phantom lines.
The basic types of lines can also vary with regard to their shape. As an exam-
ple, instead of a straight continuous line, the basic line type 01 can also be
shown as a wavy, spiral, zigzag or freehand continuous line.

Figure 2.11 Line type designation according to ISO 128–2.

Figure 2.12 Basic line types.

20 Geometric and Engineering Drawing

Table 2.2 Line groups and line thickness values

Line group Wide lines Dimensions, callouts, Narrow lines

(mm) annotations (mm) (mm)

0.25 0.25 0.18 0.13

0.35 0.35 0.25 0.18
0.5 0.5 0.35 0.25
0.7 0.7 0.5 0.35
1.0 1.0 0.7 0.5
1.4 1.4 1.0 0.7
2.0 2.0 1.4 1.0

As line subtypes, ISO 128–2 distinguishes only between narrow (subtype

1), wide (subtype 2) and extra wide (subtype 3), whereas for most engineering
drawings, only two thicknesses are needed, narrow and wide. The final thick-
ness value depends on the selected so-called line group. The width of all types
of lines can vary within a predefined series of thickness values, starting from
0.13 mm and ending at 2 mm, with a common ratio between two consecutive
values. Table 2.2 gives an overview of the different line groups and the associ-
ated line thickness values for different line subtypes.
The line group shall be chosen corresponding to the drawing type, the paper
size of the drawing and the applied scale. As a rule, in mechanical engineering
applications line group 0.5 is used.
The last part of the line type designation consists of a number indicating the
application of a line in technical drawings. As an example, the line type desig-
nation 01.1.5 indicates a continuous narrow line, which is used for hatching
(application number 5). For details regarding the application number, see ISO
128–2.
In Figure 2.13 and Figure 2.14, different types of lines are exemplarily shown
in technical drawing views. For clarity, according to the aforementioned clas-
sification, the visible outline is shown as a wide continuous line (basic line type
01, subtype 2).
When it comes to junctions between any non-continuous lines, they should
meet at a dash. Otherwise, this could lead to confusion. In case of parallel
lines of same line type, the lines should be shown staggered for clarity. How-
ever, while in manual drafting you have full control of how to draw any non-
continuous line, in CAD systems the exact position of each dash is hard or even
impossible to influence.
If two or more lines coincide in a view, a certain hierarchy of visibility needs
to be followed. Visible edges and outlines always take precedence over all other
line types. Hidden edges and outlines take precedence over cutting plane lines,
centre lines and extension lines. Centre lines are of higher hierarchy than exten-
sion lines, which have the lowest precedence. Figure 2.15 shows some examples
of overlapping lines and their hierarchy of visibility.
 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing 21

Figure 2.13 Examples of line types in a technical drawing of a toggle press clamp.

Figure 2.14 Examples of line types in a technical drawing of a tapered shaft.

In case (A) of Figure 2.15, a visible edge coincides with the centre line of the
hole. Since the visible edge takes precedence over all other lines, the visible edge
is shown and just outside of the outline the centre line is adumbrated. In case
(B), a hidden edge and the centre line of the hole fall together. The hidden line
is shown since the centre line has a lower precedence. In case (C), a visible edge
and a hidden edge coincide.
22 Geometric and Engineering Drawing

Figure 2.15 Precedence of lines.

2.3.3 Lettering
Owing to the fact that graphics language alone is not suitable to fully describe
an object without ambiguity, engineering drawings generally contain some
writing in the form of dimensions or notes. Since drawings sometimes need to
be reproduced (e.g. photocopy, blueprint, scan), legibility is of utmost impor-
tance. To avoid having someone create a drawing using a personal handwriting
style, whose interpretation highly depends on readability, lettering is standard-
ised nowadays. The requirements for lettering can be found in the international
standard ISO 3098.
Basically, we can distinguish the following lettering techniques:

• Freehand lettering
• Use of templates and manual lettering instruments
• Numerically controlled lettering and drafting systems (e.g. CAD)

Different styles of lettering can be applied in technical drawings. ISO 3098

considers different graphic character sets, inclination of lettering such as verti-
cal and sloped and finally the kind of alphabet (Latin, Greek or Cyrillic). In
most drawings, type style A (close-spaced) or type style B (normal) is used. Both
styles can be drawn vertical or italic, i.e. slanted to the right by 15°. Vertical
lettering style B is recommended by ISO 3098 for standard applications. Fig-
ure 2.16 shows a sample of Latin characters with lettering style A.
The height of upper case letters depends on the used line group. Since usu-
ally line group 0.5 is used, the line thickness for lettering is 0.35 mm (compare
Table 2.2). Character height equals line thickness multiplied by 10 and there-
fore results in 3.5 mm.
Many draftspersons develop great skills in printing by hand. If you need to
print manually, try both standard and italic and develop a style that suits you.
 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing 23

Figure 2.16 Lettering style A (vertical and italic) according ISO 3098.

2.3.4 Drawing Layout
Most paper comes in standard sizes. Metric sheet sizes are internationally
standardised in ISO 216. The underlying principle is to have a basic size A0
and to derive the next smaller sheet size by halving (compare Figure 2.17). This
leads to a set of geometrically similar sheet sizes. ISO 216 distinguishes a nor-
mal A series (regularly derived sizes) and an alternative B series.
Similarly, US customary sheet sizes are standardised by ANSI/ASME Y14.1
and range from ANSI A (smallest size) to ANSI E (largest size). In contrast to
ISO 216, the aspect ratio is not constant but alternating.
The largest sheet you are likely to use in technical drawing is A0 and the
smallest A4. If your drawing paper has no frame, then draw one. A minimum
of 20 mm is used on A0 and A1 from the edge of the paper to the frame line
and a minimum of 10 mm on A2, A3 and A4.
In order to space out the views that you will draw on your paper, use the
following formulas (A, B and C are the maximum sizes of your views) and the
p and q dimensions are the distances between the views.
You do not have to use exact dimensions which might complicate the sums;
use sensible approximations for A, B and C (Figure 2.18).
You may well have to add information to your finished drawing, and this
should be shown in a block. This information could include a drawing title,
the drafter’s name, the scale of the drawing, details of approval, the system of
projection used, and the date of creation.
In order to ensure compatibility when exchanging drawings, data fields of
such a title block are standardised in ISO 7200. It is recommended to have a
minimum set of information to facilitate the use and also reuse of the technical
drawing.
24 Geometric and Engineering Drawing

Figure 2.17 Sheet sizes according ISO 216.

Figure 2.18 Positioning of views to be drawn.

Figure 2.19 shows a typical title block which can be found on a techni-
cal drawing. Note that the title is given prominence over all the other infor-
mation. Also note that the system of projection is also given within the title
block. This is because assuming the wrong projection method could lead to
confusion. Optional data fields are highlighted in Figure 2.19. Although it is
not mandatory to provide the data fields shown, it is at least recommended.
Finally, it depends on the company size, the company structure and the inter-
nal processes.
 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing 25

Figure 2.19 Example of a title block.

The same title block is used for all paper sizes. For all landscape oriented
paper sizes (usually A0 to A3), the title block is located at the lower right corner
of the drawing space. For the size A4 which usually is positioned vertically, the
title block is situated in the lower part of the drawing space.
ISO 5457 provides details for drawing sheets such as the available sizes and
recommended layouts. The sheet sizes depend on the paper sizes specified in
ISO 216, but the available drawing space will be smaller since we have to
consider a drawing frame which limits the drawing space and some margins.
When a drawing becomes more complex, a grid reference system helps. Locat-
ing drawing details such as annotations or revisions will become easier when
using a grid of equal zones, overlaying the drawing sheet. ISO 5457 recom-
mends dividing each side of the drawing space into fields of 50 mm length.
The fields are vertically referenced with capital letters and horizontally with
numbers, located in the grid reference border and originating at the upper left
corner (see Figure 2.20).
You might also show an assembly with numerous components on your
drawing. For more detailed specification of the individual parts, a parts list can
be included in the drawing either in conjunction with the title block (compare
Figure 2.20) or placed at any other location. The list of part numbers would
be used only if several parts were drawn on the same drawing and would not,
therefore, be shown on every drawing.

2.4 SCALES
Before you start any drawing, you first decide how large the drawings have to
be. The different views of the object to be drawn must not be bunched together
or be too far apart. If you are able to do this and still draw the object in its
natural size, then obviously this is best. This is not always possible; the object
may be much too large for the paper or much too small to be drawn clearly.
In either case it will be necessary to draw the object ‘to scale’. The scale must
26 Geometric and Engineering Drawing

Figure 2.20 Drawing layout with grid reference system.

depend on the size of the object; a miniature electronic component may have
to be drawn 100 times larger than it really is, whilst some maps have natural
dimensions divided by millions.
There are drawing aids called ‘scales’ which are designed to help the draft-
sperson cope with these scaled dimensions. They look like an ordinary ruler, but
closer inspection shows that the divisions on these scales are not the usual cen-
timetres or millimetres, but can represent them. These scales are very useful, but
there will come a time when you will want to draw to a size that is not on one
of these scales. You could work out the scaled size for every dimension on the
drawing but this can be a long and tedious business – unless you construct your
own scale. This chapter shows you how to construct any scale that you wish.

The Representative Fraction (RF)

The RF shows instantly the ratio of the size of the line on your drawing and the
natural size. The ratio of numerator to denominator of the fraction is the ratio
1
of drawn size to natural size. Thus, an RF of or 1:5 means that the actual size
5
of the object is five times the size of the drawing of that object.
If a scale is given as 1 mm = 1 m, then the RF is

1 mm 1 mm 1
= =
1m 1000 mm 1000
 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing 27

Plain Scales
There are two types of scale, plain and diagonal. The plain scale is used for
simple scales, scales that do not have many subdivisions.
When constructing any scale, the first thing to decide is the length of the
scale. The obvious length is a little longer than the longest dimension on the
drawing. Figure 2.21 shows a very simple scale of 20 mm = 100 mm. The larg-
500
est natural dimension is 500 mm, so the total length of the scale is mm or
5
100 mm. This 100 mm is divided into five equal portions, each portion repre-
senting 100 mm. The first 100 mm is then divided into 10 equal portions, each
portion representing 10 mm. These divisions are then clearly marked to show
what each portion represents.

Diagonal Scales
There is a limit to the number of divisions that can be constructed on a plain
scale. Try to divide 10 mm into 50 parts; you will find that it is almost impossi-
ble. The architect, cartographer and surveyor all have the problem of having to
subdivide into smaller units than a plain scale allows. A diagonal scale allows
you to divide into smaller units.
Before looking at any particular diagonal scale, let us first look at the under-
lying principle.
Figure 2.22 shows a triangle ABC. Suppose that AB is 10 mm long and BC
is divided into 10 equal parts. Lines from these equal parts have been drawn
parallel to AB and numbered from 1 to 10.
It should be obvious that the line 5–5 is half the length of AB. Similarly, the
1 7
line 1–1 is the length of AB and line 7–7 is the length of AB. (If you
10 10
wish to prove this mathematically use similar triangles.)

Figure 2.21 Plain scale 20 mm = 100 mm or 1 mm = 5 mm.

28 Geometric and Engineering Drawing

Figure 2.22 Showing how to divide a line AB into 10 equal parts.

You can see that the lengths of the lines 1–1 to 10–10 increase by 1 mm each
time you go up a line. If the length of AB had been 1 mm to begin with, the
1
increases would have been mm each time. In this way, small lengths can be
10
divided into very much smaller lengths and can be easily picked out.
An example of diagonal scales follows.
This scale would be used where the drawing is twice the size of the natural
object and the draftsperson has to be able to measure on a scale accurate to
0.1 mm.
The longest natural dimension is 60 mm. This length is first divided into six
10 mm intervals. The first 10 mm is then divided into 10 parts, each 1 mm wide
(scaled). Each of these 1 mm intervals is divided with a diagonal into 10 more
equal parts (Figure 2.23).

Proportional Scales
It is possible to construct one plain scale directly from another, so that the
new scale is proportional to the original one. An example of this is given in
7
Figure 2.24. The new scale is a copy of the original one but is times larger.
4
The proportions of the scales can be varied by changing the ratios of the lines
AB to BC.

2.5 T YPES OF DRAWINGS

There are various types of technical documents used in a company, mainly
dependent on the type of production and the structural organisation of the
company. Most common technical communication media are technical draw-
ings and bill of materials (BOM). Freehand sketches are also important since
they can contribute to solution finding, serve as a basis for a discussion or are
necessary for measurements on site.
 Fundamentals of Engineering Drawing 29

2
Figure 2.23 Diagonal scale 20 mm = 10 mm to read to 0.1 mm (RF = ).
1

Figure 2.24 To enlarge a scale by a proportion of 7:4.

According to ISO 10209, the following types of technical drawings exist,

listed in alphabetical order:

• Arrangement drawing: Shows parts and their position relative to each

other. This drawing type is used for larger machines and installations.
30 Geometric and Engineering Drawing

• Assembly drawing: Identifies all components from a high-level group of

assembled parts. This drawing type also shows the relative position and/
or shape of the parts as well as their quantity.
• CAD drawing: Created with a CAD system and shows the full CAD model
or parts of it as presented on screen or printed on paper.
• Chart: Provides graphical information in the form of a graph, diagram or
table.
• Dimensional drawing: Specifies dimensions necessary for manufacturing
or mounting.
• Part drawing or detail drawing: Depicts a single part and provides the
necessary information for the complete definition of the part.
• Production drawing: Gives all information about a part required for its
production.
• Sketch: Prepared freehand or with the help of a CAD system, not necessar-
ily to scale or showing the right proportions.

2.6 TECHNICAL SKETCHING
The ability to sketch neatly and accurately is one of the most useful attributes
that an engineer or a draftsperson can have. Freehand drawing is done on
many occasions: to explain a piece of design quickly to a colleague; to develop
a design (see Figure 2.30); and even to draw a map showing someone how to
get from one place to another.
Technical sketching is a disciplined form of art. Objects must be drawn
exactly as they are seen, not as one would like to see them. Neat, accurate
sketches are only achieved after plenty of practice, but there are some guiding
rules.
Most engineering components have outlines composed of straight lines,
circles and circular arcs: if you can sketch these accurately, you are halfway
towards producing good sketches. You may find the method illustrated in Fig-
ure 2.25 helpful. When drawing straight lines, as on the left, rest the weight of
your hand on the backs of your fingers. When drawing curved lines, as on the
right, rest the weight on that part of your hand between the knuckle of your
little finger and your wrist. This provides a pivot about which to swing your
pencil. Always keep your hand on the inside of the curve, even if it means mov-
ing the paper around.

2.6.1 Pictorial Sketching
Freehand pictorial sketching looks very much like isometric drawing. Circles
appear as ellipses and lines are drawn at approximately 30°. Circles have been
sketched onto an isometric cube in Figure 2.26. You can see how these same
ellipses appear on sketches of a round bar material.
Isometric drawing will be explained in detail in Chapter 4. For the moment,
it is sufficient to know that an isometric view is one approach to represent a
three-dimensional object in two dimensions, i.e. on a two-dimensional plane.
Other documents randomly have
different content
 Chapter 23
ESCAPE

Jack’s first thought was that a rock slide had dammed

up the mine entrance. Sober reflection, however, told
him that such was not the case.

Obviously, someone had quietly shoved a great boulder

across the narrow opening.

“Joe Hansart!” he exclaimed. “He must have seen us

come in here.”

“We’re trapped, all right,” Warner muttered.

He and Jack applied their shoulders and heaved with all

their strength. They could move the rock a trifle, but not
enough to shift it from its position.

“Other rocks have been piled on top,” Warner gasped.

Once more the pair worked and heaved in unison, but

without the slightest success.

Exhausted, they sank back against the rock wall to

consider their desperate plight. Soon they would be
missed at the cabin. That was certain. But it was
doubtful Ken or Mr. Livingston would pick up their trail
to this remote ravine until many hours, perhaps days
had passed.

Meanwhile, they were without food or water. And Joe 193

Hansart might lie in wait for any rescuers and attack
them as he had attacked Jack.

“Crazy coot!” Warner exclaimed. “He’s outwitted us. We

became so intent on exploring the mine that we forgot
everything else.”

“Listen!” Jack directed suddenly.

He was certain he had heard a scratching sound on the

huge rock above their heads.

“Maybe it’s Joe Hansart piling on more stones!” he

muttered.

Together, the trapped pair shouted. At once the scraping

sound ceased.

“Someone’s out there,” Warner decided. “It must be

Joe. Maybe if we can convince him we don’t want any of
his gold, he’ll relent and let us out.”

They shouted, but only their own voices echoed weirdly

back in the pit. Desperately, they shoved again at the
rock barrier. This time they succeeded in dislodging
enough of the loose debris to permit a little daylight to
filter down.

As they nursed their bruised hands, they heard harsh

laughter.

“Joe, listen to reason!” Warner bellowed at him. “We

don’t want your stupid gold.”
“No?” asked a mocking voice.

Warner and Jack stiffened.

“That’s Walz!” the latter identified him. “Not Hansart!” 194

For a fleeting instant, the two prisoners took heart.

They thought they would be able to reason with the
motel owner.

“Listen!” Warner shouted to him. “There must have

been a rock slide. Help us get out of here!”

“And why should I do that?” the motel owner asked in

the same mocking tone. “You won’t make any trouble
where you are now!”

“Have you lost your senses?” Warner stormed.

“Quite the contrary,” Walz rejoined, plainly enjoying his

triumph. “You’ve both been a pain in my neck ever since
I set eyes on you. Now you get what you deserve.”

“What’s the idea blocking the exit?” Warner demanded.

“What’s your game?”

“My game? Only a little device to gain time. It was your

bad luck that you stumbled onto the vein.”

“The vein—” Warner started to explode, then held his

tongue.

“Oh, I saw you sneak into the mine after the old man
went away,” Walz rattled on.

“You’ve been down here yourself?”

“I have,” the motel owner admitted. His voice carried 195
plainly to the pair below, for he was close to the
opening between the rocks. “I found the gold ore, and I
have samples now in my pack.”

“What are you aiming to do with ’em?”

“I’ll have them assayed. But first I’m staking out a claim
to this section of the valley.”

“Sure someone hasn’t beaten you to it?”

“This is unclaimed valley—the entire hollow. Ranier told

me so. That dirty, low-down scamp deserted me. I’ll get
even with him when I get back to Elks Creek.”

“Listen,” Warner said in exasperation, “you’ve had your

little joke. Now let us out of here. We can’t raise that
rock from below, but you can roll it aside.”

“Maybe I can, but I’m not going to do it,” Walz retorted

coolly. “You trailed me to Headless Hollow, but you’re
not going to beat me filing a claim.”

“Who wants to file one, you stupid ox?”

“You!” the motel owner accused. “I’ve risked everything

to get this gold. Nothing is going to stop me now.
Nothing!”

“You’re welcome to the gold—whatever you can find,”

Warner said wearily. “Just let us out.”

“Never.”

At first, the trapped pair had not believed that the motel
owner seriously meant to keep them confined below,
but his intention could no longer be doubted.

“Walz, pay close attention,” Warner pleaded. “I came to 196

this place largely to see the grave of my father. The gold
—if there was any—didn’t mean too much to me.”

“That’s a lie!”

“It means everything to you, but you have the wrong

slant. Unless I’m mistaken, this mine would never pay
well enough to interest a company. Old Stony gathered
some rich ore, it’s true. He died without knowing that
the vein wasn’t extensive.”

“You’re wasting your breath,” Walz retorted. “Talk till

you’re blue in the face. It won’t move me. I have my
samples of gold, and I’m hitting the trail!”

“Walz—”

There was no answer. The two prisoners realized that

he had carried out his threat and left. They were indeed
trapped in the mine.

“Hap and Ken will start searching any minute now,” Jack
said, trying to remain cheerful. “If they come this way,
they may see that pile of rock.”

“And again they may not,” Warner grunted. “We may

never be found until it’s too late. Walz is a blackguard, if
I ever met one! Like as not, even after he’s filed his
claim he won’t send anyone.”

“There’s always Joe Hansart. He’ll be coming back.”

“Yeah,” Warner agreed, “our best hope probably lies 197

with him. But the old coot may stay away for days.
Meanwhile, we can get pretty fed up in this hole.”

The two sat down, their backs to the rough wall. Jack’s
clothing had only partially dried after his ducking in the
lake, so he was damp and uncomfortable.

“We’ve got to get out of here,” Warner said

determinedly. “You’ll get pneumonia, if we don’t.”

“No exit except this one?”

“The tunnel ended against a blank wall. I checked that.”

“If Walz could push that stone into place alone, the two
of us ought to be able to shove it away.”

“We’re pushing against gravity, Jack. He rolled it down

the incline. Besides, once he got it into place, he piled
on other rocks and debris. We’re caught like two
animals in a cage.”

Suddenly Jack straightened as a thought occurred to

him.

“That dynamite!” he suggested. “Any chance we could

blast our way out of here?”

“Maybe we could!” the rancher exclaimed. “It would be

risky business, though. Old dynamite, especially, is
dangerous to handle.”

“A tiny charge would turn the trick.”

“Sure,” Warner grinned, “providing we aren’t both blown 198

to bits before we set it off. But I’m willing to try.
Anything’s better than just waiting in this hole.”
The rancher would not allow Jack to go near the stored
boxes. He insisted, “You go and take refuge in the far
end of the tunnel.”

Using the utmost care, Warner placed the dynamite

sticks without accident. Breathing hard, he joined Jack
after the fuse had been set. For a full minute, they
waited tensely. Nothing happened.

“The stuff is dead,” Jack declared.

“Maybe not,” Warner said. “It was a long fuse. Wait.”

They waited. Suddenly the tunnel was rocked by a

terrific explosion. As they hit the earth, covering their
faces, small bits of rock showered down. When the dust
had cleared, they groped their way back to the
entrance. Climbing up through the debris, they saw
daylight. Warner squeezed out through the tumbled
rocks, and reached down to help Jack.

“We’re free and still in one piece,” the rancher chuckled.

Setting out from the ravine, they started for the cabin.
However, they had covered less than a third of the
distance when they saw Hap Livingston and Ken coming
toward them at a run.

“What happened?” Ken demanded, as he glimpsed the

dirt-streaked faces and disheveled clothing of the two.
“We heard an explosion!”

Tersely, Jack and the rancher related their harrowing 199

experience in the mine.

“Now Walz is streaking for Elks Creek!” Warner ended

the account. “He’s on a fool’s chase, in my opinion. I
could be wrong.”

“Shouldn’t we try to head him off?” Jack proposed

eagerly. “He’s not had too big a start.”

“It won’t take long to sling our equipment together,” Ken

added. “Maybe we can overtake him. We have a score
to settle, regardless of the gold!”

“It may not be necessary,” Warner advised quietly.

200
 Chapter 24
A FIGHT

His words were mystifying. Then the other three noticed

that the rancher had turned his gaze toward the distant
pass which guarded Headless Hollow. Far above them,
on the high cliffs, they saw two struggling men.

“Walz and Joe Hansart!” Jack exclaimed. “They’re

fighting.”

The watchers below were too far away to see the

struggle plainly. It was apparent, though, what had
happened. Evidently Walz had attempted to leave the
valley with his sack of sample gold, and Joe Hansart had
caught him. Now the two were locked in a death
struggle. As the Explorers watched in horror, the two
men fought close to the edge of the cliffs.

“They’ll kill each other, if we don’t stop them!” Mr.

Livingston exclaimed.

At a run, he and the others started for the pass.

The trail, such as it was, wound in a gradual climb. Jack 201

and Ken tried the steeper, direct route. Even so, they
were less than a third of the way up to the cliff when
they heard a hoarse, frightened shout.
Joe Hansart, despite his age, had overpowered his
adversary. Inch by inch, he crowded him to the edge of
the precipice. Walz rocked back and forth on the ledge,
fighting for his life. Beneath him yawned the chasm.

The end of that desperate struggle was inevitable.

Walz’ boot went over the slanting rock. He tried wildly

to regain a foothold, but could not. As he fell, he held
fast to the old man, pulling him along.

Locked in each other’s arms, the two men fell to a ledge

fifteen or twenty feet below. There they struck bushes
which in part broke their fall. Then over and over they
rolled, to the bottom of the long slope.

“What an end!” Ken gasped, shuddering.

Peering over the cliff, Jack saw Walz move one of his
hands. It revived his hope that the motel owner at least
might have survived the long drop.

“Quick!” he cried. “A rope!”

Ken went as fast as he could back to the cabin. Without

waiting, Jack scrambled down the steep slope.

He lost his footing almost at once and rolled. He 202

managed to break the fall with his hands, and brought
himself to a stop, unhurt, not far from the two injured
men.

Joe Hansart, he saw at a glance, was the more seriously

injured. The old man lay in a crumpled heap, bleeding
from a head wound. Walz was conscious, though in a
state of semi-shock.
“Help me,” he whimpered. “Help me. My leg is broken.”

Ignoring Walz for the moment, Jack checked Joe

Hansart’s bleeding. The wound was superficial. The old
man, however, was pale, and his lips were blue. His
pulse was weak and rapid. He drew breath irregularly
and with difficulty.

“Take it easy,” Jack advised. “Help is on the way.”

He moved the old man so that his head lay downhill. He

was relieved to see that this position restored Joe’s color
a trifle and improved his pulse, but he saw that the
prospector was quivering from shock and chill. Stripping
off his jacket, he covered the old man.

Leaving him for the moment, he turned his attention to

the whimpering motel owner.

“I’m dying,” Walz moaned. “The pain is horrible. Do

something!”

It was plain to see that the motel owner’s left leg was 203
broken. Possibly, too, he had suffered some internal
injuries. Jack, however, was inclined to doubt it, for
Walz, now that he had partially recovered from the
stunning impact, was becoming talkative.

“Don’t move,” Jack advised the moaning fellow. “Lie still

until we can splint that leg.”

Walz, disregarding the order, tried to pull himself to a

sitting position. The effort brought new pain.

“That fool has done for me,” he moaned. “I’ll never get
back to Elks Creek.”
“After the way you left Warner and me trapped in the
mine, you don’t deserve any help,” Jack said. “We ought
to leave you here to suffer.”

His words were not meant to be serious. Walz

nevertheless considered them so.

“Don’t leave me here,” he begged. “I can’t walk a step.

I’d never get back to Elks Creek alive. You must help
me!”

“And if we do?”

“I’ll give you a share of the gold,” Walz whispered. “I

swear it. I did wrong to take the map.”

“What about the way you left us in the mine?”

“I meant to send help to you as soon as I reached Elks

Creek,” Walz mumbled.

Jack had his own opinion on this matter, but he let it

pass.
“You wanted the gold from the very first,” he said. “It 204
was you, wasn’t it, who broke into Old Stony’s cabin
back in Rocking Horse? You beat him when he woke up
and found you trying to steal the map!”

The motel owner’s lips trembled, for he was not willing

to answer.

“And it was you,” Jack went on, “who stole Stony’s

nuggets from the bag of pinto beans. If you want any
help, admit the truth.”

“Am I going to die?” Walz asked, his voice quavering.

“You’re miles from a doctor,” Jack reminded him. “Unless

we can get help to you, the situation is bad.”

“I’m going to die,” Walz groaned. “I—I may as well tell

you the truth and get it off my conscience.”

“You slugged Old Stony?”

“It was an accident. I went to the cabin, hoping to get

the map—yes, I admit that. The old man woke up and
tried to stop me. I flew into a rage and hit him. Then I
ran.”

“Old Stony never knew it was you who tried to rob him,”
Jack said. “You can be thankful for that.”

“I felt terrible about it,” Walz sobbed. “I didn’t mean to

hurt Stony. Why, I liked the old duffer. I gave him a
good home. I fed and clothed him.”

“It was the thought of gold that turned you against

him.”
“And I found the gold too,” Walz whispered. “It meant 205
to me more than anything else. Now I’ve lost
everything.”

By this time Mr. Livingston and Warner had reached the

site of the accident. Ken soon came with the rope and
first-aid supplies.

While Mr. Livingston made a splint for Walz’ leg, the

others improvised a stretcher. They bound Joe Hansart
to it, and by dint of great labor and ingenuity they
finally carried him down to the valley floor and from
there to the cabin.

Meanwhile, the Scout leader had made Walz fairly

comfortable. Gradually, as it dawned upon the motel
owner that he might not die, he lapsed into sullen
silence.

It was only after he too had been transported to the

cabin that he began to deny his previous statements.

“I was out of my head,” he muttered to Jack. “If I said

anything about harming Old Stony, it was the bunk. I
don’t have any idea who broke into his cabin at Rocking
Horse.”

Jack and his friends avoided discussing the subject

further. Once they reached a town, they intended to
turn Walz over to the authorities. To get out of the
valley, however, was their first problem.

“We’re in a bad spot,” Warner admitted, drawing the 206

others aside for a serious conference. “Both of those
men need a doctor.”
“Hansart, especially,” Mr. Livingston added. “He has
scarcely opened his eyes since we got him here. We
need food and medical supplies.”

“There’s only one thing to do,” Warner decided.

“Something has happened to the Forest Service plane,
I’m afraid. I’ll start right away for Elks Creek. The only
thing—I hate to leave you alone here with two injured
men.”

“We’ll make out,” the Scout leader assured him. “Wait a

few hours, though, before you start. If I know Willie and
War, they won’t let us down.”

Ken and Jack set out the signal cloth near the lake,
hoping that any pilot flying that way would see it.
Several hours elapsed.

The day was clear, with very little wind. Conditions were
nearly perfect for flying, yet no plane appeared over the
mountains.

“Something must have happened to Willie and War,” Mr.

Livingston declared, pacing nervously up and down.
“Otherwise, help would have reached us by now.”

“They’ve had plenty of time to get through,” Warner

agreed. “To wait and hope any longer is foolish.”

Without further discussion, he gathered his gear 207

together. Jack and Ken walked with him toward the trail
to the pass.

“I’ll make as fast a trip as I can,” he promised.

A bright glare was on the jagged mountain peaks.

Staring toward the pass, Jack thought he saw a small
moving speck in the sky. He rubbed his eyes.
Imagination, he told himself, for he had given up hope
that the plane would come.

Then Ken let out an excited shout. He too had seen the
moving object against the dark mountainside.

“It’s coming this way!” Craig Warner cried, dropping his

pack.

For a few brief moments, the trio watched anxiously.

Would the plane turn back as it had done on the
previous occasion?

Warner finally identified it: “It’s a Forest Service ship,

with pontoons. Boys, I think it’s heading straight for the
lake.”

Fearful that the pilot might miss the cabin area or falsely
conclude that no one remained there, the three made
all haste back to the lake.

By the time they arrived there, breathless from running,

the roar of the powerful engines could be heard
distinctly. Hap Livingston had come hurrying out of the
cabin. Anxiously the four waited, waving their arms.

Their signals were unnecessary. As the plane made a 208

practice run, the watchers knew that help had arrived.
In fact, as the Forest Service ship dropped closer, Jack
was able to recognize War and Willie riding with the
pilot.

Again the plane circled. Down fluttered a parachute with

packages of food attached. It hit the ground about a
hundred feet from where the Scouts stood. Ken and
Jack ran to retrieve it.
“This will be a help,” Ken declared jubilantly. “But we
need medicines—and a doctor.”

Working fast, Mr. Livingston and Craig Warner ripped up

the signal cloth into two flags. These the Scout leader
attached to sticks. With the improvised wigwag device,
he then began sending the message:

“TWO MEN BADLY HURT. NEED MORE HELP.”

Over and over, he repeated the message. Whether or

not the flags could be correctly interpreted from above,
those on the ground had no way of knowing. The plane,
however, kept circling. Finally, the pilot dipped the wings
in signal.

“They got it!” Ken cried.

The watchers expected the plane to turn and head back

toward its base. Instead, it kept circling.

“The pilot is going to try a landing on the lake!”

Warner exclaimed. “He can get in, all right, but will he 209
ever be able to take off again?”

The seaplane came in low, skimmed above the willows,

and made a smooth landing. Jack, Ken, and the two
men waded out to meet their rescuers.

“You read my wigwag!” Mr. Livingston exclaimed,

embracing first Willie and then War, who splashed out
into the shallow water.

“Couldn’t get a reading except on one word—‘HELP’,”

Willie admitted. “We knew something was really wrong,
though, so we risked a landing.”
“Why did you turn back on your first trip here?” Ken
demanded.

“Engine trouble,” War explained briefly. “Just as we

came in sight of the pass, we had to turn and go back
to the base. What’s wrong here?”

“Quite a bit,” Mr. Livingston replied. “We have two men

on our hands—both badly hurt. We ought to get them
to a hospital without delay.”

After the seaplane had been anchored so that a

wayward wind would not dash it against rocks, the
group went into serious conference.

The pilot, Dave Fallouby, was confident he could get his 210
ship into the air again, if it was not too heavily loaded.
However, he could safely carry only three passengers. It
was decided that Walz, Hansart, and Mr. Livingston
should make the return flight with him, and that the
four Scouts with Craig Warner would go back to Elks
Creek afoot by easy stages.

Accordingly, the two injured men were carried by

stretcher and propped with blankets as comfortably as
possible in the plane. Mr. Livingston was the last to
climb aboard.

“We’ll rendezvous at the Elks Creek Hotel,” he said.

“Take it easy, boys, on the trail.”

Nervously, the four Scouts and Craig Warner watched as

the pilot stepped up the motors. The lake was small. If
Dave failed to gather speed rapidly, he might crash into
the rocks or willows.
With a mighty roar, the seaplane ploughed through the
waves. Its pontoons lifted slightly, only to drop again
into the water.

“Too heavily loaded!” Willie groaned.

“Dave will make it,” Warner said confidently.

A moment later the plane cleared the water. It skimmed

along barely above the lake for a distance.

“Climb—climb!” Jack muttered, his fists clenched.

The plane cleared the rocks at the far end of the lake.
Everyone took a deep, relieved breath.

Twice the ship circled after attaining safe altitude. Mr.

Livingston waved to reassure the Scouts that all was
well. Then the plane headed over the blue mountains
and soon was lost in the distance.

211
 Chapter 25
RENDEZVOUS

Jack sprawled on the hotel bed, munching an apple.

The Elks Creek weekly newspaper was spread before
him, but he had not been reading.

“Hap and Craig Warner are an hour overdue,” he

complained, looking at his watch. “Why don’t they get
here?”

“Because they’ve been held up at the hospital,” Ken

replied calmly. “Easy, boy! You’ve been fretting all
morning.”

Jack rolled off the bed. Going restlessly to the window,

he gazed down on the street below. It was nearly
deserted, and there was no sign of either the Scout
leader or the rancher.

“Joe Hansart is in a bad way,” Willie contributed from

the other side of the room. “That’s why they sent for
Warner and Hap.”

“I know,” Jack acknowledged. “I ought to be patient. It’s

just that I’m eager for news.”