BME 301

6-Signals and Systems

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 What are Signals?
• A Signal is a term used to denote the
information carrying property being
transmitted to or from an entity such as a
device, instrument, or physiological source
• Examples:
– Radio and Television Signals
– Telecommunications and Computer Signals
– Biomedical Engineering Signals

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 What is a System?
• A System is a term used to denote an entity that
processes or operates on Signal(s) to transform one
signal to another
– Manipulate
– Change
– Record
– Transmit
• A System has inputs and outputs
• Examples
– Amplifiers, Radios, Televisions
– Telephone, Modem, Computer
– Oscilloscopes, ECG, EEG, EMG

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 How do we describe Signals?
• Signals are associated with an independent
variable(s): e.g., time, single or multivariate spatial
coordinate
– Most instrumentation signals have time as their
independent variable
– A digital photograph or image has spatial coordinates as its
independent variables
• We can also represent a Signal by a waveform
• Signal Independent Variables can be either
Continuous (also called Analog) or Discrete
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Continuous-Time Signals

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 Discrete-Time Signals
A Discrete-Time Signal can be obtained from
a Continuous-Time signal by Sampling. 1.5
1.5

1 1

0.5 0.5

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
-0.5 -0.5

-1 -1

-1.5 -1.5

ωt nT s

Continuous-Time Signal Discrete-Time Signal

x(t) = sin(ω t) x(t ⇒ nTs ) ⇒ x(nTs ) = x[n] = sin (ω nTs )
where n is an integer: N1 < n < N 2
and Ts is the sampling period
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Discrete Time Signals

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 Representation of a System
• How do represent a system mathematically?
– Since a system transforms a signal into another we write:
y(t)=T {x(t)}
– where T is an operator to symbolize a system,
– x(t) is the signal that goes into the system: input signal
– And y(t) is transformed signal or output signal
• We can also represent it by a flow diagram

x(t) y(t)
T
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Example of a Continuous-Time System
• A squarer system: y(t)={x(t)}2
– The output equals the square of the input.
– This is the result of putting the sine wave into the squarer

Input: x(t) Output: y(t) = {x(t)}2

• This is an example of a continuous-time system

• We might be able to build this using an electronic circuit

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 Discrete Time Systems
• If we put a discrete-time signal into a system the output
may be a discrete-time signal
• This is called a Discrete-time system.
y[n]=T {x[n]}
• Using our squarer example: y[n]={x[n]}2
Input: x[n]
Output: y[n] = {x[n]}2

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 Mixed Systems
• Continuous-to-Discrete systems
y[n]= T {x(t)}
– Example: a sampler: y[n]=x(nTs)
• This is also called a A-to-D converter
• Discrete-to-Continuous systems
y(t) = T {x[n]}
– Example: An D-to-A converter
• The opposite of a sampler
• Takes the samples a recreates the Continuous Signal

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Graphical Representations of a System

x(t) y(t)= T {x(t)}

T {x(t)}

x(t) A
y(t)=[x(t)]2
AXB
B

Our Squarer Example

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 An Example
• Example: A music CD
Music Recorder x(t)

CD x[n]
x[n]
Optical Disk Optical Disk
A-to-D D-to-A
Writer Reader
Converter Converter x(t)

Stereo Listener

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 Sampling
• We can obtain a discrete-time signal by sampling a
continuous-time signal at equally spaced time
instants, tn = nTs
x[n] = x(nTs) -∞ < n < ∞
• The individual values x[n] are called the samples of
the continuous time signal, x(t).
• The fixed time interval between samples, Ts, is also
expressed in terms of a sampling rate fs (in samples
per second) such that:
fs = 1/ Ts samples/sec.

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 Continuous-to-Discrete Conversion
• By using a Continuous-to-Discrete (C-to-D) converter,
we can take continuous-time signals and form a
discrete-time signal.
• There are devices called Analog-to-Digital converters
(A-to-D)
• The books chooses to distinguish an C-to-D converter
from an A-to-D converter by defining a C-to-D as an
ideal device while A-to-D converters are practical
devices where real world problems are evident.
– Problems in sampling the amplitudes accurately
– Problems in sampling at the proper times

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 Shannon’s Sampling Theorem
• How frequently do we need to sample?
• The solution: Shannon’s Sampling Theorem: A
continuous-time signal x(t) with frequencies
no higher than fmax can be reconstructed
exactly from its samples x[n] = x(nTs), if the
samples are taken a rate fs = 1 / Ts that is
greater than 2 fmax.
• Note that the minimum sampling rate, 2 fmax ,
is called the Nyquist rate.

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 Sampling
• If we sample at the Nyquist rate or higher we can
always recover the original continuous signal.
• This is the ideal case practical cases present
errors
– You need a special filter to recover the original signal;
practical filter designs only approach the ideal case.
– Approximation methods are used.
– You need to know the highest frequency; but most of
the time you don’t know it.

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 Discrete-to-Continuous Conversion
• An D-to-C converter uses the samples to
reconstruct the continuous-time signal by
interpolation.
• There are various interpolation algorithms
which may be used:
– Zero-Order Hold
– Linear
– Cubic Spline

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 Interpolation
1 1

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10

-1 -1

Zero-Order Hold Linear

• Oversampling always improves the reconstruction

• Best reconstruction is Low Pass Filter or what the text
calls: Ideal Bandlimited Interpolation
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 Non-sinusoidal Signals
• Sampling and reconstruction processes for
any continuous-time signal is the same
– Shannon’s Sampling theorem
– Nyquist Rate fs ≥ 2fmax to eliminate aliasing
– Oversampling to improve interpolation
– Ideal (low pass filter) Bandlimited interpolation

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Conversion from Analog to Digital
• This an example of
sampling with levels
111
• There are 3 bits per 110 Δ
sample
101
• The zones are Δ units 100
wide
011
010
001
000
100 101 111 111 110 100 010 000

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 Digital to Analog Reconstruction
• This an example of the
reconstruction of the
original signal from the
coded samples 111 Δ
• This line is the 110
staircase approximation 101
of the samples from the 100
codes 011
• This line is the 010
approximation as a result 001
of the applying a low
pass filter to the staircase 000
100 101 111 111 110 100 010 000
approximation
• Note the quantization
error/noise

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 Analog vs Digital
• Noise
– Analog signals are prone to noise
– Noise is less damaging to Digital signals since we know
what values the digital signal takes on
• Circuitry
– Digital signals can be easily processed by electronic
circuits or Integrated Circuits – ICs
– Analog signals require filters and other elements to
assure that the signal is not distorted
• Transmission
– More digital information can be transmitted than analog
information over the same transmission lines.

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 Design Process
• System Design
– Initial Development
• Ideas from Customer Needs
• Develop Specs from Customer Needs
• Invent Possible Solutions to meet the Specs
• Design System Block Diagrams of the Preferred Solution
– Development of Prototypes
• Based on the Preferred Solution, a preliminary breadboard circuit design
is made and tested
• If breadboard design meets the Specs, then a prototype circuit is made
and tested
• If the prototype meets the Specs, then Production can begin
– Production
• Continual testing against the Spec are made to assure System Quality

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 Design Process
• Circuit Design
– Develop a Circuit Configuration
– Select Component Values
– Estimate Performance
– Construct Prototype
– Test
– Document

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 Integrated Circuits
• Building many circuits to fit into small
packages
• The process to build ICs is based on
technologies used to manufacture the transistor

n–type
p–type
n–type

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Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor
MOSFET (NMOS) Enhancement Mode
• Consists of Four terminals
– Drain which is n-doped material
G – Source also n-doped material
S D – Base which is p-doped material
Oxide
Metal Gate – Gate is a metal and is insulated from the Drain,
Drain Source and Base by a thin layer of silicon
Source
dioxide ~ .05-.1mm thick
W • Basically, an electric current flowing from drain to
source, iD, is controlled by the amount of voltage
(electric field) appearing between the gate and base
n+ L n+ (note that the base and source are usually tied
p together and therefore, it is referred to as the gate
to source voltage or gate voltage), vGS.
Substrate, body or Base
• iD flows through a channel of n-type material which
is induced by vGS. The amount of iD is a function of
B the thickness of the channel and the voltage
between drain and source, vDS
• However, the thickness of channel is controlled by
the level of gate voltage. (The width, .5 to 500 mm,
and length, .2 to 10 mm, of the channel is shown in
the diagram.)
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 IC Fabrication
Using Photolithography

Light

MASK
Photo Resist
SiO2

n-type Substrate

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 IC Fabrication
Using Photolithography

p-type Atoms

Photo Resist
SiO2

p-type Substrate

n-type Substrate

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 IC Fabrication
Using Photolithography

Light

MASK
Photo Resist
SiO2

p-type Substrate

n-type Substrate

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 IC Fabrication
Using Photolithography

n-type Atoms

Photo Resist
SiO2
n-type Substrate

p-type Substrate

n-type Substrate

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 IC Fabrication
Using Photolithography

Contacts

n-type Substrate

p-type Substrate

n-type Substrate

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 Homework
1. For the ECG signal following
a. What is the minimum sampling rate for the following periodic signal?
b. What would be a good sampling rate to choose to ensure that all of
the necessary features were captured?
Period: 1 sec
Smallest detail: 0.0005 sec

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 Homework
2. Describe the benefits of Digital Designs vs Analog
Designs.
3. In the Design process what governs the design?
4. What is the purpose of documentation during the
design process?
5. HONORS STUDENTS ADD THE FOLLOWING
For the typical human voice spectrum what would be the
minimum sampling rate? Assuming data is transmitted using
10bits/sec, how many levels are needed to converted the
voice signal from analog to.

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