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Newtonian Mechanics for Undergraduates
Essential Textbooks in Physics

ISSN: 2059-7630

Published
Vol. 1 Newtonian Mechanics for Undergraduates by Vijay
Tymms
 Essential Textbooks in Physics

Newtonian Mechanics for Undergraduates

Vijay Tymms
Imperial College London, UK
Published by
World Scientific Publishing (UK) Ltd.
57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE
Head office: 5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224
USA office: 27 Warren Street, Suite 401-402, Hackensack, NJ 07601

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Tymms, Vijay, author.
Title: Newtonian mechanics for undergraduates / Vijay Tymms, Imperial College London, UK.
Description: New Jersey : World Scientific, [2016] | Series: Essential textbooks in physics | Includes bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2015030925| ISBN 9781786340078 (UK) (hc : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781786340085 (pbk : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Mechanics--Textbooks.
Classification: LCC QC127 .T85 2016 | DDC 531--dc23
LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2015030925

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Copyright © 2016 by World Scientific Publishing (UK) Ltd.

All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval system now known or to be invented, without written
permission from the publisher.

For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood
Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. In this case permission to photocopy is not required from the publisher.

In-house Editors: Mary Simpson/Dipasri Sardar

Typeset by Stallion Press

Email: [email protected]

Printed in Singapore
Contents

1. Overview
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Why This Book is Needed
1.3 Who Will Benefit From This Book?
1.4 Assumed Prior Knowledge
1.5 Structure and Topics
Feedback for the Author

2. Introductory Concepts
2.1 Quantities, Units, and Coordinate Systems
2.1.1 Scalar and Vector Quantities
2.1.2 When Vectors Will Be Used and What Knowledge Will Be Assumed
2.1.3 Vector Notation in Print and in Handwriting
2.1.4 Knowing When a Quantity is Scalar or Vector
2.1.5 Units
2.1.6 Standard SI Prefixes
2.1.7 Coordinate Systems
2.2 Time, Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration
2.2.1 Time
2.2.2 What is Meant By “Time is Linear and Universal” and Some Musing on Time Travel?
2.2.3 Displacement
2.2.4 Velocity
2.2.5 Acceleration
2.3 Force, Mass (and Acceleration)
2.3.1 Mass
2.3.2 Force
2.3.3 Relating Force, Mass, and Acceleration
2.3.4 F = ma as a Cause-to-Effect Ratio and Other Examples in Physics
2.3.5 Watch out for Careless Alternative Definitions
2.3.6 Definitions of the Second, Metre, and Kilogram

3. 1D Motion
3.1 The Equations for Constant Acceleration
3.1.1 Setting up the Basic Situation
3.1.2 Finding x as a Function of t
3.1.3 Finding v as a Function of x
3.1.4 Two More Equations
3.1.5 Using the Equations for Constant Acceleration
3.2 Time-Dependent Forces
3.3 Displacement-Dependent Forces
3.4 Velocity-Dependent Forces
 3.5 More Complicated Forces

4. Newton’s First and Second Laws of Motion

4.1 Newton’s First Law of Motion
4.1.1 The Law is Not Valid in Accelerating Reference Frames
4.1.2 Nor is the Law Valid on Subatomic Scales
4.2 Introducing Linear Momentum Before Stating Newton’s Second Law
4.3 Newton’s Second Law of Motion
4.4 Derivation of F =ma and the Definition of the Newton
4.5 Simple F = ma Examples for a Point Particle
4.5.1 No Velocity, Balanced Forces
4.5.2 Constant Velocity, Balanced Forces
4.5.3 Constant Acceleration, Unbalanced Forces
4.5.4 Non-Constant Acceleration, Unbalanced Forces
4.5.5 Force Implies Acceleration and Acceleration Implies Force; Deduction and Induction
4.6 Alternative Statements of the Laws

5. Types of Force and Free Body Diagrams

5.1 Free Body Diagrams
5.2 Types of Mechanical Force
5.2.1 Weight
5.2.2 Normal Contact Force
5.2.3 Friction
5.2.4 Tension and Compression
5.2.5 Upthrust
5.2.6 Drag Force
5.2.7 Lift

6. Newton’s Third Law of Motion

6.1 Newton’s Third Law of Motion
6.2 Newton’s Third Law Pairs
6.2.1 Type 1: Long Range Forces (“Action at a Distance”)
6.2.2 Type 2: Contact Forces
6.2.3 Type 3: Fluid Pressure Difference Forces
6.3 Misuses and Apparent Paradoxes
6.3.1 Action and Reaction

7. Linear Momentum
7.1 Linear Momentum
7.2 Change in Momentum: Impulse
7.3 The Conservation of Linear Momentum
7.3.1 Proof of the Conservation of Momentum for a General Two Particle System
7.3.2 Conservation of Momentum for an N-Particle System
7.4 Using the Conservation of Linear Momentum
7.5 Splitting Momentum Into Components
7.5.1 Situations with a Resultant External Force Along One Component
7.6 Two Classic Physics Puzzles
7.6.1 The Sailing Boat and The Hair Dryer
7.6.2 The Lorry Driver and the Geese

8. Work, Energy and Power

8.1 Work
8.1.1 Definition, Units, and Values
8.1.2 More on the Angle between the Force and the Displacement
 8.1.3 Non-Constant Forces
8.1.4 Is the Work Done by Friction Positive or Negative? Some Words on Terrestrial Locomotion
8.2 Energy, its Conservation, and Types of Energy
8.3 Kinetic Energy and the Work–Energy Theorem
8.4 Power
8.4.1 Does the Work Done When Lifting an Object Depend on How Fast it is Lifted?

9. Potential Energy
9.1 Gravitational Potential Energy
9.1.1 More Familiar Interpretation
9.1.2 Potential Energy is Shared between Two or More Objects
9.2 General Case in 1D
9.3 Elastic Potential Energy
9.3.1 Stored Energy = × Constant × Variable2 Formulae Appear Quite a Lot in Physics
9.4 Conservative and Non-Conservative Forces
9.4.1 Introduction
9.4.2 Other Properties
9.4.3 Lifting a Box
9.5 Potential Wells
9.6 Mass–Energy Equivalence and E = mc2
9.6.1 Mass–Energy in General
9.6.2 Stretching a Spring
9.6.3 Charging a Battery
9.6.4 Kinetic Energy, Dissipation of Heat, and Cups of Tea
9.6.5 Climbing a Mountain
9.6.6 Combustion, Breathing, and Weight Loss
9.6.7 Nuclear Reactions

10. Collisions and Rockets

10.1 Collisions
10.1.1 Elastic Collisions
10.1.2 Inelastic Collisions
10.1.3 Superelastic Collisions
10.2 Reference Frames
10.3 Particle–Wall Collisions
10.4 Fluid Jet Pressure
10.5 Rocket Propulsion
10.5.1 The Basic Principle of Rocketry
10.5.2 Rocket Propulsion for a Constant Velocity Fuel Ejection.

11. Motion on a Curved Path

11.1 Uniform Circular Motion
11.1.1 General Kinematic Analysis
11.1.2 What This Tells Us
11.1.3 Example of An Object Travelling Around a Circular Banked Track
11.2 Motion on a General Curve with Changing Speed
11.2.1 More on the General Radius of Curvature and How to Use it with the Circular Motion Equation
11.2.2 Example of an Object Sliding Off a Round, Frictionless Hill

12. Simple Harmonic Motion

12.1 Amplitude, Period, Frequency and Angular Frequency
12.2 Sinusoidal Oscillations
12.2.1 A Simple Harmonic Oscillator Does not Necessarily Exhibit SHM
12.3 Two Examples of SHM
 12.3.1 What Does “Small Angle” Mean?
12.4 SHM and Uniform Circular Motion
12.5 Energy in SHM
12.5.1 Kinetic and Potential Energies
12.5.2 The Constant, k
12.5.3 The Potential Well Approach
12.5.4 Example with the Simple Pendulum Revisited
12.6 Other Features of SHM

13. Gravitation
13.1 Newton’s Law of Gravitation
13.1.1 The Gravitational Force is Weak
13.1.2 Point Masses
13.1.3 Example: Circular orbits about a planet (with a preface on Newton’s cannon)
13.1.4 The Inaccuracy of the Term “Weightless”
13.2 Gravitational Field Strength
13.2.1 Gravitational Field Strength and Weight
13.2.2 g: Gravitational Field Strength in Nkg–1 or Acceleration Due to Gravity in ms–2 ?
13.2.3 Inertial and Gravitational Mass
13.3 Gravitational Potential and Binding Energy
13.3.1 Proof of Equation 13.3
13.3.2 Escape Velocity
13.3.3 Black Holes and the Schwarzschild Radius
13.4 Gravitational Effects of A Spherical Shell
13.4.1 The Force on a Mass Outside a Hollow Sphere
13.4.2 The Force on a Mass Inside a Hollow Sphere
13.5 Planetary Variations in Field Strength

14. Rotational Analogues

14.1 Angular Velocity
14.2 Angular Acceleration
14.3 Rotational Kinetic Energy and Moment of Inertia
14.3.1 Single Particle
14.3.2 Several Particles
14.3.3 Continuum of Particles
14.3.4 Meaning of Moment of Inertia
14.3.5 Common Examples
14.4 Torque
14.4.1 Rotational Equivalent of Newton’s Second Law
14.5 Angular Momentum
14.6 A Bit More on Scalars, Vectors, and Tensors
14.6.1 Angular Velocity vs. Linear Velocity
14.6.2 The Moment of Inertia Tensor

15. Equilibrium and Balance

15.1 Centre of Mass
15.1.1 Discrete Particle System
15.1.2 Continuum System
15.1.3 L-Shaped Object
15.1.4 Importance
15.2 Centre of Gravity
15.3 Centre of Buoyancy
15.4 Equilibrium
15.5 Examples of Equilibrium
15.5.1 See-Saw
 15.5.2 Balancing Pencil
15.5.3 Leaning Ladder

16. Unbalanced Objects

16.1 An Unbalanced Light See-Saw
16.2 Rigid Object Toppling About A Pivot
16.2.1 The Forces
16.2.2 Unstable Equilibrium
16.2.3 Stable Equilibrium
16.2.4 Toppling
16.2.5 Accelerations for a Uniform Rod (with a Note on Why Balancing a Pencil on Your Fingertip is
Difficult But Balancing a Broom Handle is Easy)
16.2.6 The Tangential Linear Acceleration and a Surprising Result
16.2.7 Energy Approach
16.2.8 Variation of Forces with Angle
16.2.9 Oscillations About the Stable Equilibrium Point

17. Rolling and Sliding

17.1 The Condition for Rolling
17.1.1 Think About Riding a Bicycle
17.2 Rolling Friction — Why Rolling Objects Stop at All
17.3 Rolling Down an Inclined Plane
17.3.1 Analysis Using Energy
17.3.2 Analysis Using Dynamics
17.3.3 The Condition for No Slipping
17.4 An External Force Causing Rolling on a Flat Surface

18. Angular Momentum

18.1 Definition
18.2 Torque and Angular Momentum
18.3 Moment of Inertia and Angular Momentum
18.4 The Conservation of Angular Momentum
18.5 Examples of the Conservation of Angular Momentum
18.5.1 The Ice Skater (Or Less Agile Person Sat on a Rotating Platform)
18.5.2 The Bicycle Wheel Variant
18.5.3 Turning Yourself Around Without Translational Motion on An Ice Rink
18.5.4 The Physics of the Falling Cat
18.5.5 Kepler’s Second Law

19. Angular Momentum, Gyroscopes, and Precession

19.1 The Gyroscope
19.2 Application of Torque about the Pivot to a Spinning Gyro
19.3 Precession Formula
19.4 Analogy with Linear Circular Motion
19.5 Analysis of Precession in Terms of Forces and Velocities
19.6 Precession is Nothing to do with the Conservation of Angular Momentum
19.7 More Subtle Features of Gyroscopic Motion
19.8 The Earth’s Precession
19.9 Examples and Uses of Gyroscopic Motion

Bibliography

Index
1
Overview

1.1. Introduction
I have been teaching physics for 16 years, starting with secondary school teaching, then later university lecturing where I
taught the first year mechanics lecture course at Imperial College for four years from 2010–2014. Teaching this course
has been one of the most enjoyable parts of my career thus far, giving me an opportunity to rein-spect some of the most
fundamental concepts in the discipline for delivery to a demanding (though appreciative) audience, complete with
multiple demonstrations plus interesting problems and puzzles. During these years I developed and refined a set of
comprehensive course notes tailored for the students I was teaching. This textbook is an adaptation of the notes, altered
to appeal to a broader audience.

1.2. Why This Book is Needed

School syllabuses are in a state of constant flux. The breadth and depth of core physics and mathematics curricula taught
in schools varies a little from year to year and a lot from generation to generation. So while well-established subjects in
physics remain the same, the level of knowledge and understanding of students that enter university to study the
discipline varies. This means that lecturers have to constantly update their courses to suit their target audiences and make
the transition from A-level to degree as smooth as possible.
Although there are already many mechanics textbooks out there, there is a need for producing up-to-date reference
material to match the level of development of the target audience. Essentially, textbooks quickly become out of date and
there will always be a need for new ones. This particular one is designed to be in line with the level of physics and
mathematics that contemporary school leavers ready to start a physics or physics-related degree will have.

1.3. Who Will Benefit From This Book?

The lecture course that led to the creation of this book was designed specifically for first year physics undergraduates at
Imperial College and as such the direct target audience of this textbook are students making the transition from school to
university.
The book should also appeal to advanced A-level students unsatisfied with the level they have reached, and
especially those who are considering studying physics or physics-related subjects beyond school. It contains some A-
level material that is delivered at university level of presentation and should strengthen such students’ understanding
while also providing a smooth introduction to subtopics beyond the syllabus.
A-level physics teachers and first year university lecturers should also find the book useful; as well as the basic
subject matter, in-depth examples and problems, there are also suggestions as to basic demonstrations that can easily be
recreated in the classroom at minimal expense.

1.4. Assumed Prior Knowledge

Regarding mathematics, all the content that can feature in a standard A-level mathematics syllabus is assumed
knowledge throughout the text. Differential and integral calculus plus logarithms and exponents are used from the outset,
with a gentle introduction to good practice in the use of integral calculus outlined early on. Knowledge of vectors is also
essential, with scalar products being used from Chapter 5 and vector products from Chapter 14.
Regarding physics content, this course text goes from the ground up — i.e. in terms of classical mechanics
everything starts from the beginning, though occasionally in examples and discussions some other subdisciplines of
physics are invoked with a GCSE level of knowledge being assumed.

1.5. Structure and Topics

Readers of this text no doubt come from a broad range of backgrounds and have covered a wide range of high school-
level syllabuses. This means that some readers will have a lot more knowledge of mechanics than others already. This
course will start at a relatively basic level from the beginning and become quite advanced by the end. This means that all
students will find some of the course to be revision, but it will vary from person to person. No one will find the whole of
the course to be revision, and readers’ understanding of familiar concepts will be further enhanced by the course in all
cases.
An important thing to note about this textbook is that none of the material is redundant for any student taking a
physics degree — every topic, subtopic, equation and example is relevant to the journey towards understanding physics.
Whether you are aiming to excel at theory, experiment or computation, whether your interest lies in quantum field theory,
atmospheric physics or cosmology, all of the material within these pages is relevant and will be beneficial on your route
to becoming an expert.
The textbook follows a reasonably traditional route though is split into shorter chapters than most, which are of
variable length. It starts with an overview, defining and categorising the most important quantities in the discipline, i.e.
displacement, velocity, acceleration, force and mass. The next four chapters expand on this and bring in Newton’s three
laws of motion. Chapter 6 then briefly brings in linear momentum before introducing work and energy for the first time,
leading to a much more in-depth view of momentum and potential energy. The second half of the book starts with
motion on a curved path (not necessarily circular motion, though that is very much part of it) leading to simple harmonic
motion and gravitation. Chapters 13 to 18 deal with the dynamics of rotating objects, ending with a brief look at
gyroscopic motion and precession.

Feedback for the Author

I am happy to hear from any readers so please contact me via the publishers if you have any comments, queries or
criticisms.

Vijay Tymms, April 2015

2
Introductory Concepts

This chapter introduces the five most important quantities in classical mechanics, namely displacement, velocity,
acceleration, force, and mass. They are the most important quantities because it is impossible to make progress in the
subject without first having an appreciation of what these quantities mean and how they relate to each other. The chapter
provides definitions of the quantities at a level suitable to undergraduates and provides a discussion on what they
physically mean.
The chapter also provides an introduction to scalar and vector quantities, SI prefixes and highlights a sensible
approach to introducing new quantities and units that will be used throughout the text.

2.1. Quantities, Units, and Coordinate Systems

2.1.1. Scalar and Vector Quantities
In physics most measured quantities can be expressed by either:
(1) A magnitude only. These are known as scalar quantities or simply scalars. Examples of scalar quantities are
time, mass, energy, power and density.
Mathematical operations on scalar quantities are familiar, i.e. they add, subtract, multiply, and divide like
normal numbers.
Scalar quantities do not usually require any special notation to denote that they are scalars.
(2) A magnitude and a direction. These are known as vector quantities or simply vectors. Examples of vector
quantities encountered in classical mechanics are force, acceleration, velocity, momentum and torque.

2.1.2. When Vectors Will Be Used and What Knowledge Will Be Assumed
Mathematical operations on vector quantities are less familiar and more complicated than with scalar quantities but you
will be expected to know some of them to get through this book. Vector addition and splitting vectors into components
are absolutely essential and will appear from Chapter 5 onwards. Vector dot products will be required from a similar
stage, and vector cross products will be used in detail from Chapter 14 onwards. You should already have some
familiarity with some of these topics from high school mathematics and you should refer to your favourite mathematics
textbook or other resource if unsure. Vector calculus will not be used in this book as it is seldom seen at school and is
usually first met midway through the first year of university degrees in physics and applied mathematics in the UK. On
occasions where a knowledge of vector calculus could be utilised to enhance understanding, notes are written in the text
with optional further reading cited in order to allow the interested student to pursue the topic further.

2.1.3. Vector Notation in Print and in Handwriting

When writing vector quantities, it is essential to use some sort of special notation to denote the vector. In this textbook
they will usually be denoted in bold.
 In handwriting, the two most common and generally unambiguous conventions are either to draw an arrow above
or a tilde or straight line below the symbol . Just as inclusion of these accoutrements implies a quantity is a vector,
an omission means the quantity is a scalar, even if missed by accident. One must therefore be careful, especially if the
handwritten work is going to be studied by someone else.
That said, there are occasions where a vector quantity can effectively be treated as a scalar (for example, when
dealing with velocity along a straight line and the use of + and − symbols is sufficient to denote a direction); provided
the preamble to such work states matters clearly enough in these situations then a vector notation can be omitted.

2.1.4. Knowing When a Quantity is Scalar or Vector

When dealing with quantities in physics, it is usually important to know whether the quantity is a scalar or a vector. In
this book this will be stated whenever a new quantity is introduced. If unsure, a good question to ask yourself is whether
directions are required when adding parts of the same quantity together. For example, if two times in seconds are added
together it does not make sense to ask what directions they have (you do not add five seconds north to seven seconds
west) but if two displacements in metres are added then directions must be considered. Sometimes this will not be as
easy as it sounds but asking oneself this question usually assists in developing an intuitive feel for what a physical
quantity means.

2.1.5. Units
SI units will nearly always be used in this book. In classical mechanics the base SI units are the kilogram, the metre and
the second and all other derived SI units will be made from these.
However, for long units of time as humans we are thoroughly familiar with minutes, hours, days, weeks and years
rather than times stated in large numbers of seconds. For example, it does not assist intuition to state a time as 2.2 × 108
seconds when 7 years would be better understood by all. When speaking about physics it is always best to set up
scenarios in as easily understood a manner as possible, so for long times the more intuitive non-decimal system will be
used when necessary.
There are four other base SI units in physics: The ampere (electrical current), the kelvin (thermodynamic
temperature), the mole (amount of substance), and the less frequently encountered candela (luminous intensity) but they
do not appear in purely classical mechanics. If this sounds surprising think of any derived SI unit that belongs within the
discipline and reduce it to base units — you will find that anything solely within classical mechanics uses kilograms,
metres, and seconds and any quantity which does use other units is part of other subdisciplines of physics.

2.1.6. Standard SI Prefixes

The SI prefixes in Table 2.1 will be used throughout the text. If unsure then refer back to this table but as all physicists
use these abbreviations as part of their vocabulary it is well worth memorising them if you do not know them already.
The milli- to atto- prefixes are sometimes referred to as diminishing prefixes and the kilo- to exa- as magnifying
prefixes. Standard form for large numbers will of course be used as well.
Note that some of these prefixes are used more than others and some are used liberally for certain quantities but not
for others. For example, a mass of 7.0 × 103 kg would rarely be referred to as 7.0 Mg by most physicists despite this
notation being perfectly correct. This sort of thing is partly due to a logical decision to avoid confusion with other
symbols (the “M” usually means “mega” for 106 but in handwriting could be confused for a lower case “m” for “metre”)
and partly due to convention or rather what is currently fashionable within the physics community. Whenever a new
quantity is introduced, a short note on prefix notation and alternative units is provided.
Table 2.1: Standard SI prefixes
2.1.7. Coordinate Systems
The Cartesian coordinate system (x, y, and z orthogonal axes) will no doubt be the most familiar coordinate system to
most readers and will be the most often used system in this book. Plane polar or spherical polar coordinate systems are
more natural for certain concepts involving spherically symmetries and will be referred to occasionally. Other coordinate
systems will rarely be mentioned.
Although it may seem a little dogmatic on occasion to stick with Cartesian coordinates, this is deliberate — the
purpose of the book is to enhance the reader’s understanding of Newtonian mechanics and as such there are as few
distractions as possible to deviate from this understanding. Sometimes, however, bringing in a different point of view
(such as by presenting a physical scenario in an alternative coordinate system) can indeed enhance understanding and
this is done when necessary.

2.2. Time, Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration

2.2.1. Time
Time is assumed to be linear and universal. It is a scalar quantity with SI units of seconds (s). The second is one of the
three base units in classical mechanics. The range of times that one might realistically encounter in physics range from
10−18 s, i.e. 1 attosecond (the sort of time scale for electrons to redistribute themselves during chemical bonding), to
1017 s (the approximate age of the universe). You may also have heard of the notion of the Planck time — a duration of
approximately 10−43 seconds which is, according to some theories, the shortest possible quantum of time. For practical
purposes, however, the shortest time we can currently measure is of the order of a few attoseconds.
Regarding the SI prefixes, all of the diminishing SI prefixes are in common usage for time so you will see ms, µs, ns,
ps, fs, and as in use but you will never see the magnifying prefixes used as people will use standard form or the more
normal human systems for recording longer times.

2.2.2. What is Meant By “Time is Linear and Universal” and Some Musing on Time Travel?

No formal definition of time is provided, as it is assumed that all readers will be comfortable with what it is.1 This is not
really the place for a philosophical discussion on the fundamental nature of time, but let us provoke some thought by
stating that when it is said that time is linear it is meant that it passes at a rate of 1 second per second (or, mathematically
written, 1 (unity)) and that when it is said that it is universal it means that this is the case for:

All observers,
In all coordinate systems,
At all points in space,
At all points in time.
 If time were not linear for any observer then they would essentially be a time traveller of some description:

If an object found itself in a situation where then it would be travelling forward in time faster than normal —
i.e. it would be moving into the future,
If then the object would be travelling forward in time but slower than normal,
If then an object would be “frozen” in time,
and if then an object would be travelling backwards in time.

This is good fun to think about, and lends itself well to science fiction. Further on in your physics career when
learning about Einstein’s theories of special relativity and general relativity you will be able to re-inspect these ideas and
discuss whether the idea of non-linear, non-universal time is a possibility.

2.2.3. Displacement
The displacement of an object is defined as the distance and direction from its initial position, xinitial to its final position,
xfinal — i.e.

Displacement is a vector quantity with SI units of metres (m).

Measurable displacements can range from 10−15 m = 1 fm for the linear dimension of an elementary particle (e.g. an
electron) to 1026 m for the distance to the farthest galaxy, which can be thought of as an upper limit. As with time, there
is a proposed fundamental quantum of displacement known as Planck length, which is well below the limits of human
measurement and theorised to be of the order of ∼10−35 metres.
The scalar equivalent of displacement is distance and is also measured in metres. However, they are not the same
thing; if you walked in a circle of perimeter 10 m and came back to where you started, your distance travelled would be
10m but your total displacement would be zero.
The metre is the second of the three base units in classical mechanics. The SI prefixes in prevalent usage with metres
range from kilo to femto with all the variants in between. It is relatively unusual to use Mm or anything higher. The Earth
has a radius of approximately 6,400 km and most physicists will speak of it this way; hardly anyone refers to it as 6.4
Mm. Larger distances are on astronomical scales and standard form will often be used, or more convenient units such as
the astronomical unit (AU — the distance from the Earth to the Sun) for distances within the reaches of our solar system
and light years for larger distances still. For small distances the Angstrom — 10−10 m = 100 pm — is considered an old-
fashioned unit but is still in common usage as it is handy for discussing atomic sizes.

2.2.4. Velocity
If a point of origin is defined and an object moves such that its displacement relative to this point of origin changes, then
the object’s velocity, υ, relative to the origin is defined as its rate of change of displacement (with time).2 In equation
form this is written:

Both notations are equally valid, though in this book the former (Leibniz) notation will usually be used.
Velocity is also a vector quantity with a direction in the same direction as the infinitesimal change in displacement
relative to the origin. It has SI units of metres per second (ms−1 ).
Velocities can range from approximately 10−9 ms−1 for the relative motion between tectonic plates to 3.00 × 108
−1
ms for the speed of light in a vacuum, which is an upper limit.
The SI prefixes for velocities in general use range from kilo to micro. The speed of light would rarely be stated as
300 Mms−1 . For small velocities, other more intuitive units are often used; 10−9 ms−1 is approximately equal to 3
cm/year which is the same as 30 km per million years which gives more of a feel for the distances objects move on
geological time scales.
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541.
In the ordinary elementary schools in some of the Scottish
towns, large numbers of children pay for the dinners. (See
Appendix II., pp. 242, 245, 246.)

542.
The cost depends, of course, on the kind of food provided. At
Bradford, where a two-course dinner is given, the total cost
per meal, for administrative charges (the upkeep of the
Cooking Depot, the rent of the dining-rooms, the wages of the
staff, payment for supervision, the carriage of the food, sinking
fund, etc.), amounted in 1912-13 to 1·2d., and for food to
1·26d., making a total of 2·46d. About one-third of the meals
supplied were breakfasts, which are usually rather cheaper
than dinners, so that the cost per dinner would be slightly
more. (Bradford Education Committee, Return as to the
Working of the Education (Provision of Meals) Act for the year
ending March 31, 1913). At Edinburgh, where a one-course
dinner is given, the cost is ·9d. for food and 1d. for
administrative charges. (Report of the Edinburgh School Board
for 1912-13, p. 35.)

543.
We must add one other item of expenditure, which will be
necessary whatever course be adopted with regard to the
provision of meals, namely, the appointment of salaried
organisers for each group of schools, to supervise the work of
medical treatment, after-care, and all other activities directed
to the physical well-being of the child.

544.
Report of Proceedings of University Extension Oxford Summer
Meeting, 1913, p. 17.
545.
There appears to be no fixed dietary, the dinners being varied
each week.

546.
See ante, p. 48.

547. 8 Edward VII., c. 63, sec. 3 (2).

548.
Ibid., sec. 6 (1).

549.
Ibid., sec. 6 (2).

550.
Ibid.

551.
During the coal strike in the spring of 1912, some Boards in
the Fife district took action under section 6 and provided free
meals. (Report of the Chief Inspector for the Southern Division
for 1912, p. 11.)

552.
Report of the Committee of Council on Education in Scotland,
1912-13, p. 4.

553.
For the following account I am mainly indebted to the kindness
of Mrs. Leslie Mackenzie and Mr. I. H. Cunningham.

554.
Report of Select Committee on Education (Provision of Meals)
Bills (England and Scotland), 1906, Q. 4211; Report of Royal
Commission on Physical Training (Scotland) 1903, Vol. II., Q.
2396.
555.
Report of Special Sub-Committee on Meals for School Children,
in Minutes of London School Board, July 25, 1889, Vol. 31, p.
382.

556.
Edinburgh School Board, Memorandum on the Feeding of
School Children, 1910, pp. 5-6.

557. Two special officers have been appointed to make enquiries.

558.
There is no fixed scale in determining which children are
necessitous, but free meals are usually granted if the gross
income of the household is less than 3s. a head.

559.
For the week ending December 19, 1913, the number of
children fed was:—
Necessitous 442
Paying children 1,389
Parish Council children 207

560.
Evidence before the Royal Commission on the Poor Laws,
1909, Vol. VI., Qs. 61553-5.

561.
Ibid., Q. 61371 (12).

562.
Ibid., Q. 55247 (31).

563.
Report of the Royal Commission on the Poor Laws, 1909, 8vo
edition, Vol. III., p. 148.
564.
"Administrative problems arising out of Child Feeding," by J. A.
Young, in Proceedings of the National Conference on the
Prevention of Destitution, 1911, pp. 339-340.

565.
Report of Select Committee on Education (Provision of Meals)
Bills (England and Scotland), 1906, Qs. 3075-8.

566.
Evidence before the Royal Commission on the Poor Laws,
1909, Vol. VI., Q. 59728 (18); Report of London School Board
on Underfed Children attending School, 1899, p. 253.

567. See Dundee School Board, Report on the Feeding of School

Children, 1913, p. 31.

568.
Report of Glasgow School Board for 1911-12, p. 13.

569.
Report of Chief Inspector for Southern Division for 1912, pp.
11-12.

570.
Perth School Board, Officers' Report on the supplying of Meals
and Boots to School Children, 1912-13, pp. 1-3.

571.
Report of Chief Inspector for Southern Division for 1912, p. 12.

572.
Perth School Board, Officers' Report, 1912-13, p. 4.

573.
Dundee School Board, Report on the Feeding of School
Children, 1913, p. 11.
574.
Ibid., p. 15.

575.
Ibid., pp. 13-14.

576.
In the special schools for defective children at Paisley a two-
course dinner is provided at a charge of 8d. a week.

577. Report of Chief Inspector for the Northern Division for 1911, p.
24.

578.
"Can a sufficient mid-day meal be given to poor school children
... for ... less than one penny?" by Sir Henry Peek, 1883, p. 13.

579.
Report of Chief Inspector for the Southern Division for 1911, p.
27.

580.
Ibid., pp. 27-8.

581.
First Report on Medical Inspection of School Children in
Scotland, by Dr. Leslie Mackenzie, 1913, p. 51.

582.
"The Diet of Country Elementary School Children," by Dr.
Gordon A. Lang, in Rearing an Imperial Race, edited by C. E.
Hecht, 1913, p. 116.

583.
Report of Chief Inspector for Northern Division for 1906.
584.
"The Free Feeding of School Children," a reprint of the reports
by the Special Sanitary Commissioner of the Lancet, 2nd
edition, 1907, p. 7.

585.
Ibid., p. 8.

586.
Ibid., p. 9.

587. "The Cantines Scolaires of Paris," by Sir Charles A. Elliott, in

the Nineteenth Century, May, 1906, pp. 834-5.

588.
"Organisation des Cantines Scolaires à Paris," a manifold
manuscript report issued by the Direction de l'Enseignement
primaire, 3me bureau, 1912.

589.
"The Cantines Scolaires of Paris," by Sir Charles Elliott, in the
Nineteenth Century, May, 1906, pp. 835-6.

590.
According to the latest figures 70 per cent. of the children for
whom meals are provided receive them free.

591.
"Organisation des Cantines Scolaires à Paris," report by
Direction de l'Enseignement primaire, 3me bureau, 1912.

592.
Ibid.

593.
Ibid.
594.
"Caisse des écoles du 18e arrondissement," Exercice de l'année
1911, p. 34.

595.
Proposition tendant à l'ouverture d'un crédit de 10,000 francs
en vue de permettre à la Caisse des Ecoles du XVIIe
arrondissement d'organiser, à titre d'essai, une classe de garde
prolongée jusqu'à huit heures et une cantine du soir, déposée
par M. Frédéric Brunet, conseiller municipal, Septembre 19,
1912.

596.
"Organisation des Cantines Scolaires à Paris," report issued by
Direction de l'Enseignement primaire, 3me bureau, 1912;
"Necessitous Children in Paris and London," by George Rainey,
in School Hygiene, November, 1912, Vol. III., p. 198.

597. Ibid., p. 198.

598.
Ibid., pp. 198, 200.

599.
For the above description, see, besides the references already
quoted, Report of London School Board on Underfed Children
attending School, 1899, Appendix IX., pp. 262-5; "The
Cantines Scolaires of Paris," by Marcel Kleine, in Report of
Proceedings of the International Congress for the Welfare and
Protection of Children, 1906, pp. 65-82; "Feeding School
Children: The Experience of France," in the Manchester
Guardian, February 22, 1906; "Children's Care Committees in
Paris," in the Morning Post, March 19, 1909; "School Canteens
in Paris," by Miss M. M. Boldero, in the School Child, July,
1910; School Feeding, its History and Practice at Home and
Abroad, by Louise Stevens Bryant, 1913, pp. 77-93; Conseil
 Municipal de Paris, Procès Verbal, June 25, 1909, December
31, 1909, March 23, 1910.

600.
School Feeding, by Louise S. Bryant, 1913, pp. 93-94.

601.
London School Board, Report on Underfed Children attending
School, 1899, p. 265.

602.
Lancet Reports, 1907, pp. 50-56.

603.
Ibid., pp. 41-43.

604.
School Feeding by Louise S. Bryant, 1913, pp. 80, 94-97.

605.
Report of London School Board on Underfed Children attending
School, 1899, pp. 271-2.

606.
The Bitter Cry of the Children, by John Spargo, 1906, p. 277.

607. School Feeding, by Louise S. Bryant, 1913, p. 133.

608.
Report of London School Board on Underfed Children attending
School, 1899, p. 267.

609.
Lancet Reports, 1907, pp. 31, 33.
610.
Minutes of London School Board, May 26, 1898, Vol. 48, p.
1810.

611.
Lancet Reports, 1907, p. 20.

612.
[Footnote 5: For the following account, see Lancet Reports, pp.
24-30. It is interesting to note that this scheme for making
universal provision was introduced by the Conservative party.]

613.
School Feeding, by Louise S. Bryant, 1913, p. 141; Il Patronato
Scolastico Umberto 1° in Vercelli e la sua Opera al 31
Dicembre, 1912, pp. 5, 6.

614.
[Footnote 2: Ibid., p. 140.]

615.
"Prize Essays on Feeding School Children," 1890, pp. 65, 212-
4.

616.
Ibid., p. 65.

617. School Feeding, by Louise S. Bryant, 1913, pp. 17-18, 104.

618.
Ibid., pp. 18, 105.

619.
Ibid., pp. 99, 106.

620.
Ibid., pp. 114-5.
621.
"Prize Essays on Feeding School Children," 1890, pp. 66-70,
181-7, 197-8.

622.
Ibid., pp. 138, 198.

623.
London School Board, Report on Underfed Children attending
School, 1899, pp. 258, 260-261.

624.
Feeding of School Children in Continental and American Cities,
1906, p. 6.

625.
School Feeding, by Louise S. Bryant, 1913, p. 143.

626.
London School Board, Report on Underfed Children attending
School, 1899, p. 256.

627. Ibid., p. 255; Board of Education, Reports on Educational

Subjects, Vol. II., 1898, p. 682.

628.
London School Board, Report on Underfed Children attending
School, 1899, p. 256.

629.
Lancet Reports, 1907, pp. 14-15.

630.
Feeding of School Children in Continental and American Cities,
1906, p. 2; London School Board, Report on Underfed Children
attending School, 1899, pp. 259, 260-1.
631.
"Prize Essays on Feeding School Children," 1890, pp. 204-5.

632.
Feeding of School Children in Continental and American Cities,
1906, pp. 2, 4, 6.

633.
School Feeding, by Louise S. Bryant, 1913, p. 130.

634.
School Feeding, by Louise S. Bryant, 1913, p. 146.

635.
The Feeding of School Children in Continental and American
Cities, 1906, pp. 3, 5, 7.

636.
London School Board, Report on Underfed Children attending
School, 1899, p. 268; School Feeding, by Louise S. Bryant,
1913, p. 145.

637. The Bitter Cry of the Children, by John Spargo, 1906, pp. 114-
115, 275.

638.
Ibid., p. 276.

639.
School Feeding, by Louise S. Bryant, 1913, pp. 143-4.

640.
"Prize Essays on Feeding School Children," 1890, pp. 71-75.

641.
London School Board, Report on Underfed Children attending
School, 1899, pp. 270-271.
642.
Ibid., p. 270.

643.
Ibid., p. 269.

644.
See for a full description of the provision made in America,
School Feeding, by Louise S. Bryant, 1913.

645.
"Prize Essays on Feeding School Children," 1890, pp. 225-35.

646.
Poverty, by Robert Hunter, 1904, p. 216.

647. School Feeding, by Louise S. Bryant, 1913, pp. 147-50.

648.
Ibid., pp. 151-164.

649.
Ibid., pp. 164-8.

650.
Ibid., p. 19.

651.
Ibid., pp. 20, 182-3.

Transcriber's Note:
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was not changed.
One unpaired double quotation mark could not be
corrected with confidence.
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where necessary.
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