Date: 10/05/2025

Class: Crash Course 12 hour Session

Syllabus Topic: Review of Syllabus

Title: Review on all CAPE Pure Maths U1 Modules

Modules of the CAPE Pure Mathematics Unit 1 Syllabus

This unit consists of 3 modules.

Module 1: Basic Algebra and Functions

Topics are:

• Reasoning and Logic

• The Real Number System - ℝ

• Algebraic Operations

• Functions

• Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

• The Modulus Function

• Cubic Functions and Equations

Module 2: Trigonometry, Geometry and Vectors

Topics are:

• Trigonometric Functions, Identities and Equations

• Co-ordinate Geometry

• Vectors

1
Module 3: Calculus I

Topics are:

• Limits

• Differentiation I

• Integration I

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Topic Page Number

Module 1

Reasoning and Logic 4

The Real Number System - ℝ 20

Algebraic Operations 38

Functions 47

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 70

The Modulus Function 88

Cubic Functions and Equations 109

Module 2

Trigonometric Functions, Identities and Equations 113

Co-ordinate Geometry 160

Vectors 181

Module 3

Limits 206

Differentiation I 225

Integration I 259

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 Module 1 – Basic Algebra and Functions

Topic 1 – Reasoning and Logic

Objective 1: Identify simple and compound propositions

Definitions:

A proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both.

A simple statement cannot be broken up into more than one sentence.

For example, “The exam is easy” is a simple statement.

A compound statement can be broken up into two or more simple statements.

For example, “I am eating a burger and fries” can be separated into two simple

statements, “I am eating a burger” and “I am eating fries”.

Connectives:

Connectives are used to formulate compound statements.

Name Connective Symbol

Negation not ~
Conjunction and ∧
Disjunction or ∨
Conditional if…then →
Biconditional if and only if (iff) ↔

Note:

In the topic of Logic, common letters are used to represent statements and the symbols

are used to represent the connectives.

4
Objective 2: Establish the truth value of compound statements using truth tables

Negation

Truth Table for ~𝑝:

Opposite of the truth value.

𝑝 ~𝑝
𝑇 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇

Conjunction

Truth Table for 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 :

Only true when both are true.

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝∧𝑞
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇 𝐹
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹

Disjunction

Truth Table for 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 :

Only false when both are false.

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝∨𝑞
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 𝐹 𝑇
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹

5
Conditional

Truth Table for 𝑝 → 𝑞 :

Only false when 𝑝 is true and 𝑞 is false.

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝→𝑞
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇

Biconditional

Truth Table for 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 :

Only true when both are true and when both are false.

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝↔𝑞
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇 𝐹
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇

You can be asked to fill out the truth table for a compound statement.

6
Question:

Construct a truth table for each of the following:

1. ~(𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞)

2. 𝑝 → (𝑞 ∧ 𝑝)

Solution:

1. ~(𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞)

𝑝 𝑞 ~𝑞 𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞 ~(𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞)
𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇

2. 𝑝 → ~(𝑞 ∨ 𝑝)

𝑝 𝑞 𝑞∨𝑝 ~(𝑞 ∨ 𝑝) 𝑝 → ~(𝑞 ∨ 𝑝)

𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇

7
Objective 3: State the converse, contrapositive and inverse of statements

A conditional statement is of the form 𝒑 → 𝒒.

Normally, we would read this as “If 𝑝, then 𝑞.”

Converse, Inverse and Contrapositive

Let 𝑝 and 𝑞 be two propositions.

The conditional statement is of the form 𝑝 → 𝑞.

The converse of this statement is 𝒒 → 𝒑.

The inverse of this statement is ~𝒑 → ~𝒒.

The contrapositive of this statement is ~𝒒 → ~𝒑.

Question 1:

Find the inverse of ~𝑝 → 𝑞.

Solution:

The inverse is: 𝑝 → ~𝑞

Question 2:

Find the contrapositive of 𝑞 → 𝑝.

Solution:

The contrapositive is: ~𝑝 → ~𝑞.

8
Objective 4: Determine whether two statements are logically equivalent

Logically Equivalent Statements

Two statements are said to be logically equivalent if they have identical truth tables.

Question:

Using a truth table, verify that the following are logically equivalent:

1. 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ≡ ~𝑝 → 𝑞

2. 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ≡ ~(~𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞)

Tip: Ensure to justify your answer.

Solution:

1. 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ≡ ~𝑝 → 𝑞

𝑝 𝑞 ~𝑝 𝑝∨𝑞 ~𝑝 → 𝑞
𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹

Comparing the truth values in columns 4 and 5, we see that they match up.

Therefore, 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 ≡ ~𝑝 → 𝑞.
Q.E.D.

9
2. 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ≡ ~(~𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞)

𝑝 𝑞 ~𝑝 ~𝑞 𝑝∧𝑞 ~𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞 ~(~𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞)

𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹

Comparing the truth values in columns 5 and 7, we see that they match up.

Therefore, 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 ≡ ~(~𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞).

Q.E.D.

10
Tautology and Contradiction

Definition:

A tautology is a compound statement that is always true.

Example:

The statement 𝑝 ∨ ~𝑝 is a tautology.

𝑝 ~𝑝 𝑝 ∨ ~𝑝
𝑇 𝐹 𝑇
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇

From the table, the column for 𝑝 ∨ ~𝑝 is always true.

Hence, 𝑝 ∨ ~𝑝 is a tautology.

Definition:

A contradiction is a compound statement that is always false.

Example:

The statement 𝑝 ∧ ~𝑝 is a contradiction.

𝑝 ~𝑝 𝑝 ∧ ~𝑝
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
𝐹 𝑇 𝐹

From the table, the column for 𝑝 ∧ ~𝑝 is always false.

Hence, 𝑝 ∧ ~𝑝 is a contradiction.

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Laws of the Algebra of Propositions

Another name is Laws of Boolean Algebra.

The following laws are used to simplify compound propositions.

Law or Rule “AND” “OR”

Double Negation Law ~(~𝑝) = 𝑝

Identity Law 𝑝∧𝑇 =𝑝 𝑝∨𝐹 =𝑝

𝑝∧1=𝑝 𝑝∨0=𝑝

Domination Law 𝑝∧𝐹 =𝐹 𝑝∨𝑇 =𝑇

𝑝∧0 =0 𝑝∨1 =1

Idempotent Law 𝑝∧𝑝 =𝑝 𝑝∨𝑝 =𝑝

Commutative Law 𝑝∧𝑞 =𝑞∧𝑝 𝑝∨𝑞 =𝑞∨𝑝

Associative Law (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ 𝑟 = 𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑟 = 𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟)

Distributive Law 𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) = (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑟) 𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) = (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑟)

De Morgan’s Law ~(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) = ~𝑝 ∨ ~𝑞 ~(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) = ~𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞

Complement Law 𝑝 ∧ ~𝑝 = 𝐹(0) 𝑝 ∨ ~𝑝 = 𝑇(1)

Absorption Law 𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) = 𝑝 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) = 𝑝

Tip:

When writing out your proof, ensure that you include which laws were used.

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Question:

Show that 𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨ ~𝑝) ≡ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞.

Ensure to state any laws used in your proof.

Solution:

Taking L.H.S:

𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨ ~𝑝) = (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ ~𝑝) [Distributive Law]

𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨ ~𝑝) = (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ 𝐹 [Complement Law]

𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨ ~𝑝) = 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 [Identity Law]

∴ 𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨ ~𝑝) ≡ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞
Q.E.D.

13
Past Paper Question – June 2018 – Question 1(a)

(a)(i) Let 𝑝 and 𝑞 be any two propositions. Complete the truth table below. [4]

𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒 (𝒑 ∨ 𝒒) ~(𝒑 ∨ 𝒒) ~𝒑 ∧ ~𝒒

𝑇 𝑇

𝑇 𝐹

𝐹 𝑇

𝐹 𝐹

(ii) Hence, state whether the statements ~(𝒑 ∨ 𝒒) and ~𝒑 ∧ ~𝒒 are logically

equivalent. Justify your response. [1]

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Past Paper Question – June 2018 – Question 1(a) – Solution

(a)(i) Let 𝑝 and 𝑞 be any two propositions. Complete the truth table below. [4]

𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒 (𝒑 ∨ 𝒒) ~(𝒑 ∨ 𝒒) ~𝒑 ∧ ~𝒒

𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹

𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹

𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹

𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇

(ii) Hence, state whether the statements ~(𝒑 ∨ 𝒒) and ~𝒑 ∧ ~𝒒 are logically

equivalent. Justify your response. [1]

~(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) and ~𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞 are logically equivalent because their truth values are the

same according to the last two columns in the truth table above.

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Past Paper Question – June 2022 – Question 1

(a) (i) Let 𝑝 and 𝑞 be any two propositions. Complete the truth table below. [3]

𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒒 (~𝒒 ∧ 𝒑) 𝒑 ∨ (~𝒒 ∧ 𝒑)

𝑇 𝑇

𝑇 𝐹

𝐹 𝑇

𝐹 𝐹

(ii) Hence, state whether the statements (~𝒒 ∧ 𝒑) and 𝒑 ∨ (~𝒒 ∧ 𝒑) are logically

equivalent. Justify your response. [2]

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Past Paper Question – June 2022 – Question 1 – Solution

(a) (i) Let 𝑝 and 𝑞 be any two propositions. Complete the truth table below. [3]

𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒒 (~𝒒 ∧ 𝒑) 𝒑 ∨ (~𝒒 ∧ 𝒑)

𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇

𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇

𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹

𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹

(ii) Hence, state whether the statements (~𝒒 ∧ 𝒑) and 𝒑 ∨ (~𝒒 ∧ 𝒑) are logically

equivalent. Justify your response. [2]

(~𝒒 ∧ 𝒑) and 𝒑 ∨ (~𝒒 ∧ 𝒑) are not logically equivalent because they do not have

the same truth values according to the last two columns in the truth table

above.

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Past Paper Question – June 2023 – Question 1(a)

(a) (i) Let 𝒑 and 𝒒 be any two propositions. Complete the truth table below. [3]

𝒑 𝒒 𝒑→𝒒 𝒒→𝒑 (𝒑 → 𝒒) ∧ (𝒒 → 𝒑)

𝑇 𝑇

𝑇 𝐹

𝐹 𝑇

𝐹 𝐹

(ii) Hence, state whether the statements 𝒒 → 𝒑 and (𝒑 → 𝒒) ∧ (𝒒 → 𝒑) are logically

equivalent. Justify your response. [2]

18
Past Paper Question – June 2023 – Question 1(a) – Solution

(a) (i) Let 𝒑 and 𝒒 be any two propositions. Complete the truth table below. [3]

𝒑 𝒒 𝒑→𝒒 𝒒→𝒑 (𝒑 → 𝒒) ∧ (𝒒 → 𝒑)

𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇

𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹

𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹

𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇

(ii) Hence, state whether the statements 𝒒 → 𝒑 and (𝒑 → 𝒒) ∧ (𝒒 → 𝒑) are logically

equivalent. Justify your response. [2]

The statements 𝒒 → 𝒑 and (𝒑 → 𝒒) ∧ (𝒒 → 𝒑) are not logically equivalent

because their truth values are not the same according to the last two columns in

the truth table above.

19
Topic 2 – The Real Number System - ℝ

Objective 1: Use the concepts of arithmetic operations

You are required to know the applications of the concepts of identity, closure, inverse,

commutativity, associativity, distributivity addition, multiplication and other simple

binary operations.

Commutativity

Let 𝐴 be a non-empty set and ∗ be an operation.

Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴.

The operation ∗ is commutative if and only if 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒃 ∗ 𝒂.

Associativity

Let 𝐴 be a non-empty set and ∗ be an operation.

Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐴.

The operation ∗ is associative if and only if (𝒂 ∗ 𝒃) ∗ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∗ (𝒃 ∗ 𝒄).

Distributivity

Let 𝐴 be a non-empty set and let ∗ and ∆ be any two operations.

Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐴.

∗ distributes over ∆ if and only if 𝒂 ∗ (𝒃 ∆ 𝒄) = (𝒂 ∗ 𝒃) ∆ (𝒂 ∗ 𝒄).

For example, multiplication distributes over addition for the set of real numbers.

That is, 𝑎(𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐 , ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ.

20
Identity

Let ∗ be a binary operation on a non-empty set 𝐴.

If there exists a 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒆 element 𝑒 ∈ 𝐴 such that 𝒂 ∗ 𝒆 = 𝒆 ∗ 𝒂 = 𝒂, for all 𝒂 ∈ 𝑨,

then 𝑒 is called the identity element in 𝐴.

For addition of the real numbers, 𝑒 = 0.

That is 𝑎 + 0 = 0 + 𝑎 = 𝑎, for all 𝑎 ∈ ℝ.

For multiplication of the real numbers, 𝑒 = 1.

That is 𝑎 × 1 = 1 × 𝑎 = 𝑎, for all 𝑎 ∈ ℝ.

Inverse

Let ∗ be a binary operation on a non-empty set 𝐴.

An element 𝑎 −1 is called an inverse of 𝑎 under the binary operation ∗ if

𝒂 ∗ 𝒂−𝟏 = 𝒂−𝟏 ∗ 𝒂 = 𝒆, for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴,

where 𝑒 is the identity element under the operation ∗.

For addition of the real numbers, the inverse element is −𝑎.

That is 𝑎 + (−𝑎) = (−𝑎) + 𝑎 = 0, for all 𝑎 ∈ ℝ.

1
For multiplication of the real numbers, the inverse element is 𝑎 ∈ ℝ except when 𝑎 = 0.

1 1
That is 𝑎 × 𝑎 = 𝑎 × 𝑎 = 1, for all 𝑎 ∈ ℝ, 𝑎 ≠ 0.

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Objective 2: Perform binary operations

Binary Operations

A binary operation “∗” is closed with respect to a set 𝐴 if for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴, 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 ∈ 𝑨.

Question:

Given that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 2𝑎𝑏, where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ, answer the following:

(a) Is the set of real numbers closed under ∗?

(b) Prove that the operation is commutative.

(c) Find the identity element 𝑒.

(d) Using the result from part (c), find the inverse element of 𝑎.

Solution:

(a) Consider 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ and let ∗ be the operation.

Then 2𝑎𝑏 ∈ ℝ.

So, 2𝑎𝑏 ∈ ℝ, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ.

∴ The set of real numbers closed under the operation ∗.

(b) Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ.

Well,

𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 2𝑎𝑏

𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 2𝑏𝑎 [∵multiplication is commutative]

𝑎∗𝑏 =𝑏∗𝑎

∴ ∗ is commutative.

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(c) Let 𝑎 ∈ ℝ.

Now,

𝑎∗𝑒=𝑎

2𝑎𝑒 = 𝑎
𝑎
𝑒 = 2𝑎

1
𝑒=
2

1
∴ The identity element is 𝑒 = 2.

1
(d) The identity element is 2.

Let 𝑦 = 𝑎−1 .

Then, we have,
1
𝑎∗𝑦 =2

1
2𝑎𝑦 = 2

1 1
𝑦 = 2 × 2𝑎

1
𝑦 = 4𝑎

1
∴ The inverse element is 𝑎−1 = 4𝑎, for all 𝑎 ∈ ℝ, 𝑎 ≠ 0.

23
Objective 3: Perform basic operations involving surds

Definition:

A surd is an expression that includes a root symbol.

Surds are used to write irrational numbers precisely.

3
Examples of surds are √2, √5, √12, etc.

Rules of surds

√(𝒂𝒃) = √𝒂 × √𝒃
𝒂 √𝒂
√( ) =
𝒃 √𝒃

Note: √𝑎 + 𝑏 ≠ √𝑎 + √𝑏

24
Objective 4: Use the summation notation (Σ)

Sequences and Series

A sequence is a set of terms which follow a rule (pattern).

Example Pattern
3, 7, 11, 15, 19, … Increases by 4
1, 4, 9, 16, 25, … Square numbers
5, 10, 15, 20, 25, … Multiples of 5

A series is the sum of the terms in a sequence.

The general term of a series is represented by 𝑢𝑛 where 𝑛 ∈ ℕ.

Example General term

3 + 7 + 11 + 15 + 19 𝑢𝑛 = 4𝑛 − 1
1 + 4 + 9 + 16 + 25 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑛2
5 + 10 + 15 + 20 + 25 𝑢𝑛 = 5𝑛

Sigma Notation

The symbol, 𝚺 (sigma) means “the sum of”.

We can write a series using sigma notation.

Summation Laws

1. ∑𝒏𝒓=𝟏 𝒌 = 𝒌𝒏
where 𝑘 is a constant.

Eg. ∑5𝑟=1 3 = 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3
= 5(3)
= 15

25
 2. ∑𝒏𝒓=𝟏 𝒂𝒓 = ∑𝒌𝒓=𝟏 𝒂𝒓 + ∑𝒏𝒓=𝒌+𝟏 𝒂𝒓

where 𝑘 is a constant.

Eg. 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 = ∑8𝑟=1 𝑟

= ∑4𝑟=1 𝑟 + ∑8𝑟=6 𝑟

= ∑3𝑟=1 𝑟 + ∑8𝑟=4 𝑟

3. ∑𝒏𝒓=𝟏 𝒌𝒂𝒓 = 𝒌 ∑𝒏𝒓=𝟏 𝒂𝒓

where 𝑘 is a constant.

Eg. ∑8𝑟=1 3𝑟 = 3 ∑8𝑟=1 𝑟

4. ∑𝒏𝒓=𝟏(𝒂𝒓 + 𝒃𝒓) = ∑𝒏𝒓=𝟏 𝒂𝒓 + ∑𝒏𝒓=𝟏 𝒃𝒓

Eg. ∑5𝑟=1(𝑟 + 𝑟 2 ) = ∑5𝑟=1 𝑟 + ∑5𝑟=1 𝑟 2

Standard Results

𝒏(𝒏+𝟏)
1. ∑𝒏𝒓=𝟏 𝒓 = 𝟐

𝒏(𝒏+𝟏)(𝟐𝒏+𝟏)
2. ∑𝒏𝒓=𝟏 𝒓𝟐 =
𝟔

𝒏𝟐 (𝒏+𝟏)𝟐
3. ∑𝒏𝒓=𝟏 𝒓𝟑 = 𝟒

26
Question:

Compute ∑5𝑟=1(𝑟 + 2)

Solution:

∑5𝑟=1(𝑟 + 2) = ∑5𝑟=1 𝑟 + ∑5𝑟=1 2

5(5+1)
∑5𝑟=1(𝑟 + 2) = + 2(5)
2

5(6)
∑5𝑟=1(𝑟 + 2) = + 10
2

30
∑5𝑟=1(𝑟 + 2) = + 10
2

∑5𝑟=1(𝑟 + 2) = 15 + 10

∑5𝑟=1(𝑟 + 2) = 25

27
 Objective 5: Prove mathematical statements

Principle of Mathematical Induction

Mathematical induction is a technique used to prove that a statement 𝑃(𝑛) holds for every
𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 number, 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, 3, …

Steps:
𝑷(𝒏) 𝑷(𝟏) 𝑷(𝒌) 𝑷(𝒌 + 𝟏) Prove 𝑷(𝒌 + 𝟏) Conclude

Proposition Assumption Proof of End

Hypothesis (statement)
(statement)
Base
Hypothesis
Case

Divisibility Tests and mathematical induction

Definition of divisibility:

If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are integers, 𝑎 divides 𝑏 if there is an integer 𝑐 such that 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑏.

The notation 𝒂|𝒃 means that 𝑎 divides 𝑏.

For example, 5|10 since 5 × 2 = 10.

28
Past Paper Question – June 2018 – Question 1(b)

(b) A binary operation ⊕ is defined on the set of real numbers, ℝ, as 𝑎 ⊕ 𝑏 = 2𝑎 + 3𝑏

for all 𝑎, 𝑏 in ℝ.

(i) Calculate 5 ⊕ 2. [1]

(ii) Prove that ⊕ is closed in ℝ. [3]

(iii) Determine whether ⊕ is commutative. [3]

29
Past Paper Question – June 2018 – Question 1(b) – Solution

(b) A binary operation ⊕ is defined on the set of real numbers, ℝ, as 𝑎 ⊕ 𝑏 = 2𝑎 + 3𝑏

for all 𝑎, 𝑏 in ℝ.

(i) Calculate 5 ⊕ 2. [1]

𝑎 ⊕ 𝑏 = 2𝑎 + 3𝑏

5 ⊕ 2 = 2(5) + 3(2)

5 ⊕ 2 = 10 + 6

5 ⊕ 2 = 16

(ii) Prove that ⊕ is closed in ℝ. [3]

ℝ is closed under ⊕ if 𝑎 ⊕ 𝑏 ∈ ℝ, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ.

Since multiplication is closed under ℝ,

If 𝑎 ∈ ℝ, then 2𝑎 ∈ ℝ.

If 𝑏 ∈ ℝ, then 3𝑏 ∈ ℝ.

Since addition is closed under ℝ, then 2𝑎 + 3𝑏 ∈ ℝ.

Hence, ℝ is closed under ⊕.

Q.E.D.

30
(iii) Determine whether ⊕ is commutative. [3]

𝑎 ⊕ 𝑏 = 2𝑎 + 3𝑏

𝑏 ⊕ 𝑎 = 2𝑏 + 3𝑎

Since 2𝑎 + 3𝑏 ≠ 2𝑏 + 3𝑎, then 𝑎 ⊕ 𝑏 ≠ 𝑏 ⊕ 𝑎.

Hence, ⊕ is not commutative.

31
Past Paper Question – June 2017 – Question 1(d)

(d) Use mathematical induction to prove that

8 + 16 + 24 + 32 + ⋯ + 8𝑛 = 4𝑛(𝑛 + 1) for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ. [7]

32
Past Paper Question – June 2017 – Question 1(d) – Solution

(d) Use mathematical induction to prove that

8 + 16 + 24 + 32 + ⋯ + 8𝑛 = 4𝑛(𝑛 + 1) for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ. [7]

Let 𝑃(𝑛) be the statement: 8 + 16 + 24 + 32 + ⋯ + 8𝑛 = 4𝑛(𝑛 + 1) for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ.

Looking at 𝑃(1):

L.H.S. = 8

R.H.S. = 4(1)(1 + 1)

R.H.S. = 4(1)(2)

R.H.S. = 8

Since L.H.S. = R.H.S., 𝑃(1) is true.

Assume 𝑃(𝑘) is true.

That is, 8 + 16 + 24 + 32 + ⋯ + 8𝑘 = 4𝑘(𝑘 + 1)

Looking at 𝑃(𝑘 + 1).

That is, 8 + 16 + 24 + 32 + ⋯ + 8(𝑘 + 1) = 4(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)

We need to prove 𝑃(𝑘 + 1).

Taking L.H.S:

33
8 + 16 + 24 + 32 + ⋯ + 8(𝑘 + 1) = 8 + 16 + 24 + 32 + ⋯ + 8𝑘 + 8(𝑘 + 1)

8 + 16 + 24 + 32 + ⋯ + 8(𝑘 + 1) = 4𝑘(𝑘 + 1) + 8(𝑘 + 1) [from assumption]

8 + 16 + 24 + 32 + ⋯ + 8(𝑘 + 1) = 4(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘) + 4(𝑘 + 1)(2)

8 + 16 + 24 + 32 + ⋯ + 8(𝑘 + 1) = 4(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)

8 + 16 + 24 + 32 + ⋯ + 8(𝑘 + 1) = R.H.S.

∴ If 𝑃(𝑘) is true, then 𝑃(𝑘 + 1) is also true.

Since 𝑃(1) is true, and since 𝑃(𝑘 + 1) is true when 𝑃(𝑘) is true, then by the principle

of mathematical induction, 𝑃(𝑛) is true for all 𝑛, ie.

8 + 16 + 24 + 32 + ⋯ + 8𝑛 = 4𝑛(𝑛 + 1) for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ.

Q.E.D.

34
Past Paper Question – June 2019 – Question 1(d)

(d) Use mathematical induction to prove that 5𝑛 − 1 is divisible by 4 for 𝑛 ∈ ℕ. [8]

35
Past Paper Question – June 2019 – Question 1(d) – Solution

(d) Use mathematical induction to prove that 5𝑛 − 1 is divisible by 4 for 𝑛 ∈ ℕ. [8]

Let 𝑃(𝑛) be the statement:

5𝑛 − 1 is divisible by 4 for 𝑛 ∈ ℕ

Looking at 𝑃(1).

51 − 1 = 4 which is divisible by 4.

∴ 𝑃(𝑛) is true for 𝑛 = 1.

Assume 𝑃(𝑘) is true.

That is, 5𝑘 − 1 is divisible by 4

∴ 5𝑘 − 1 = 4𝑚, where 𝑚 ∈ ℕ

⇒ 5𝑘 = 4𝑚 + 1

Looking at 𝑃(𝑘 + 1).

That is, 5𝑘+1 − 1 is divisible by 4.

We need to prove 𝑃(𝑘 + 1).

5𝑘+1 − 1 = 5𝑘 ∙ 5 − 1

5𝑘+1 − 1 = (4𝑚 + 1)(5) − 1

5𝑘+1 − 1 = 20𝑚 + 5 − 1

5𝑘+1 − 1 = 20𝑚 + 4

5𝑘+1 − 1 = 4(5𝑚 + 1) which is divisible by 4

36
∴ If 𝑃(𝑘) is true, 𝑃(𝑘 + 1) is also true.

Since 𝑃(1) is true, and since 𝑃(𝑘 + 1) is true when 𝑃(𝑘) is true, then by the

principle of mathematical induction, 𝑃(𝑛) is true for all 𝑛, ie.

5𝑛 − 1 is divisible by 4 for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ.

Q.E.D.

37
Topic 3 – Algebraic Operations

Objective 1: Use the Factor Theorem

Factor Theorem

The factor theorem states that:

(𝒙 − 𝒂) is a factor of 𝒇(𝒙) if and only if 𝒇(𝒂) = 𝟎.

Question:

Consider 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4

Determine if (𝑥 − 2) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥).

Solution:

Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4.

If (𝑥 − 2) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥), then 𝑓(2) = 0.

𝑓(2) = 2(2)3 − 3(2)2 − 4(2) + 4

𝑓(2) = 2(8) − 3(4) − 8 + 4

𝑓(2) = 16 − 12 − 8 + 4

𝑓(2) = 0

Since 𝑓(2) = 0, then (𝑥 − 2) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥).

38
Objective 2: Use the Remainder Theorem

Remainder Theorem

The remainder theorem states that:

A polynomial 𝒇(𝒙) when divided by (𝒙 − 𝒂) gives the remainder 𝒇(𝒂).

39
Objective 3: Extract all factor of 𝑎𝑛 − 𝑏 𝑛 for positive integers 𝑛 ≤ 6

Even powers:

𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐 = (𝒙 − 𝒚)(𝒙 + 𝒚)

𝒙𝟒 − 𝒚𝟒 = (𝒙 − 𝒚)(𝒙 + 𝒚)(𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 )

𝒙𝟔 − 𝒚𝟔 = (𝒙 − 𝒚)(𝒙 + 𝒚)(𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙𝒚 + 𝒚𝟐 )(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝒚 + 𝒚𝟐 )

Odd powers:

𝒙𝟑 − 𝒚𝟑 = (𝒙 − 𝒚)(𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙𝒚 + 𝒚𝟐 )

𝒙𝟓 − 𝒚𝟓 = (𝒙 − 𝒚)(𝒙𝟒 + 𝒙𝟑 𝒚 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒙𝒚𝟑 + 𝒚𝟒 )

Pattern: As the powers of 𝑥 decrease, the powers of 𝑦 increases in each term.

40
Objective 4: Use the order of polynomial expressions

Polynomials

A polynomial is an expression that consists of variables and coefficients.

The degree or order of a polynomial with one variable, like 𝑥, is the highest power of 𝑥.

For example, 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 + 5 has degree 3.

Comparing Polynomials

A polynomial of the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 has degree 1 and is called 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓.

A polynomial of the form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 has degree 2 and is called 𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄.

A polynomial of the form 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 has degree 3 and is called 𝒄𝒖𝒃𝒊𝒄.

41
Past Paper Question – June 2015 – Question 1(b)

(b) The polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑝𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 𝑞 has a factor (𝑥 − 5) and a remainder of 24

when divided by (𝑥 − 1).

(i) Find the values of 𝑝 and 𝑞. [4]

(ii) Hence, factorize 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑝𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 𝑞 completely. [5]

42
Past Paper Question – June 2015 – Question 1(b) – Solution

(b) The polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑝𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 𝑞 has a factor (𝑥 − 5) and a remainder of 24

when divided by (𝑥 − 1).

(i) Find the values of 𝑝 and 𝑞. [4]

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑝𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 𝑞

Since (𝑥 − 5) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥), then by the Factor Theorem, 𝑓(5) = 0.

𝑓(5) = (5)3 + 𝑝(5)2 − (5) + 𝑞

0 = 125 + 25𝑝 − 5 + 𝑞

0 = 120 + 25𝑝 + 𝑞

25𝑝 + 𝑞 = −120 → Equation 1

Since 𝑓(𝑥) has a remainder of 24 when divided by (𝑥 − 1), then by the

Remainder Theorem, 𝑓(1) = 24.

𝑓(1) = (1)3 + 𝑝(1)2 − (1) + 𝑞

24 = 1 + 𝑝 − 1 + 𝑞

𝑞 = 24 − 𝑝 → Equation 2

Substituting Equation 2 into Equation 1 gives,

25𝑝 + (24 − 𝑝) = −120

24𝑝 = −120 − 24

24𝑝 = −144
−144
𝑝= 24

𝑝 = −6

43
 Substituting 𝑝 = −6 into Equation 2 gives,

𝑞 = 24 − (−6)

𝑞 = 24 + 6

𝑞 = 30

∴ The values of 𝑝 and 𝑞 are 𝑝 = −6 and 𝑞 = 30.

(ii) Hence, factorize 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑝𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 𝑞 completely. [5]

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑝𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 𝑞

Since 𝑝 = −6 and 𝑞 = 30, then 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 30.

We are given that (𝑥 − 5) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥).

By long division,

𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 6

𝑥 − 5 | 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 30
𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2

−𝑥 2 − 𝑥
−𝑥 2 + 5𝑥
−6𝑥 + 30
−6𝑥 + 30

So, we have,

𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6)

𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 2)

44
Past Paper Question – June 2022 – Question 1(b)

(b) Determine the values of 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐, such that

2𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 12 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 1) − 𝑏(𝑥 − 3) + 𝑐. [9]

45
Past Paper Question – June 2022 – Question 1(b) – Solution

(b) Determine the values of 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐, such that

2𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 12 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 1) − 𝑏(𝑥 − 3) + 𝑐. [9]

2𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 12 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 1) − 𝑏(𝑥 − 3) + 𝑐

2𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 12 = 𝑎(𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2) − 𝑏𝑥 + 3𝑏 + 𝑐

2𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 12 = 𝑎𝑥 2 − 3𝑎𝑥 + 2𝑎 − 𝑏𝑥 + 3𝑏 + 𝑐

2𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 12 = 𝑎𝑥 2 − (3𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑥 + (2𝑎 + 3𝑏 + 𝑐)

Comparing and equating corresponding coefficients gives:

𝑎=2 → Equation 1

3𝑎 + 𝑏 = 7 → Equation 2

2𝑎 + 3𝑏 + 𝑐 = 12 → Equation 3

Substituting Equation 1 into Equation 2 gives:

3(2) + 𝑏 = 7

6+𝑏 = 7

𝑏 =7−6

𝑏=1

Substituting 𝑎 = 2 and 𝑏 = 1 into Equation 3 gives:

2(2) + 3(1) + 𝑐 = 12

4 + 3 + 𝑐 = 12

7 + 𝑐 = 12

𝑐 = 12 − 7

𝑐=5

46
Topic 4 – Functions

Objective 1: Define mathematical notations and terms related to functions

Ordered pairs:

An ordered pair consists of two elements, denoted by (𝑎, 𝑏), where 𝑎 is the first element

and 𝑏 is the second element.

Mapping

➢ A mapping is a rule which assigns to each object in one set, a particular object in

another set.

➢ In other words, a mapping from 𝑋 to 𝑌 is rule which assigns each object in 𝑋, a

particular object in 𝑌.

➢ 𝑋 is called the domain of the mapping and 𝑌 is called the co-domain of the

mapping.

Example:

Let 𝑋 = {2,3,9} and 𝑌 = {8,12,27}. Consider the relation “is a factor of”.

Then, the arrow diagram below represents this mapping.

𝑋 𝑌

2 8
V V VV V

3 12

9 27

The set of ordered pairs: {(2,8), (2, 12), (3,12), (3, 27), (9, 27)}

47
Types of Mappings
There are FOUR types:

One to One
𝒙 𝒚

∎ ∎ NOTE:
V One to One:-
∎ ∎ One input is mapped unto 1 output.
V

In other words, one output came from

∎ ∎ one input.
V

input output

One to Many

𝒙 𝒚

∎ ∎
V

NOTE:
∎ ∎ One to Many:-
V

One input is mapped unto 2 or

∎ more output.

input output

Many to One
𝒙 𝒚

∎ ∎
V

NOTE:
Many to One:-
∎ ∎
V

Two or more input is mapped

unto 1 output.
∎

input output
48
 Many to Many
𝒙 𝒚

NOTE:
∎ ∎

V
Many to Many:-
Two or more input is mapped
∎ ∎

V
unto 1 output
∎ ∎ AND
V One input is mapped unto 2 or
more output.
input output

Functions
➢ A function is a mapping in which every element in the domain is mapped onto a

unique element in the codomain.

➢ Relations that are functions:

1. One to One NOTE:

Not every relation is a
2. Many to One function BUT every
function is a relation.
➢ Relations that are not functions:

1. One to Many

2. Many to Many

Consider,

𝑿 𝒀

𝑙 𝑎

𝑚 𝑏

𝑛 𝑐

49
The 𝒅𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏 of the function is 𝑋 = {𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛}.

The 𝒄𝒐𝒅𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏 of the function is 𝑌 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑}.

The 𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 of the function is the set = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}.

Note: The codomain is the set of elements that are possible and the range is the actual

set of values that are assigned to an element in the domain.

Domain, Co-domain and Range:

Definitions:

➢ What can go into a function is called the domain.

➢ What may possibly come out of a function is called the co-domain.

➢ What actually comes out of a function is called the range.

Graphical Representation:

codomain range

domain

50
The vertical line test

The vertical line test is used to determine whether a mapping is a function.

If you can draw a vertical line through any part of the graph of the function and it cuts

the graph at most once, then it is a function. If it cuts the graph more than once, it is not

a function.

Example:

𝑦 =𝑥+3

NOTE:
Any line drawn parallel
to the 𝑦-axis will cut
the graph at most once.

51
Injective Functions

➢ A function, 𝑓, is said to be injective if for every 𝑦 in the codomain, there is at most

one 𝑥 in the domain such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦.

➢ An injective function is also said to be a one-to-one function.

➢ An injective function is one whose graph is never intercepted by any horizontal

line more than once.

Surjective Functions

➢ A function, 𝑓, is said to be surjective if for every 𝑦 in the codomain, there is at

least one 𝑥 in the domain such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦.

➢ A surjective function is also said to be a onto function.

➢ A surjective function is one whose graph is intercepted by any horizontal line at

least once within the range.

Bijective Functions

➢ A function, 𝑓, is said to be bijective if for every 𝑦 in the codomain, there is exactly

one 𝑥 in the domain such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦.

➢ A bijective function is both injective (one to one) and surjective (onto).

➢ A bijective function is one whose graph will intercept any horizontal line exactly

once.

Composite Functions

➢ A composite function is created when one function is substituted into another

function.

➢ Note that 𝑓𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 𝑔𝑓(𝑥).

52
Objective 2: Determine whether or not a given simple function is onto or one-to-one

Proving Injective Functions

There are two ways to determine whether a function is injective or one-to-one.

Graphical Method:

Using the graphical method, show that any line drawn parallel to the 𝑥-axis cuts the graph

at most once. In other words, for every 𝑦-value, there will be at most one 𝑥-value.

Algebraic Method:

A function, 𝑓, is injective if 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏) implies 𝑎 = 𝑏.

Proving Surjective Functions

There are two ways to determine whether a function is surjective or onto.

Graphical Method:

Using the graphical method, show that any line drawn parallel to the 𝑥-axis cuts the graph

at least once. In other words, for every 𝑦-value, there will be at least one 𝑥-value.

Algebraic Method:

Let 𝑦 be any element in the codomain and let 𝑥 be an element of the domain. We solve the

equation 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) for 𝑥.

53
Objective 3: Determine if an inverse exists for a function

Inverse Functions

➢ The inverse of a function exists if and only if the function is bijective.

➢ A function 𝑓 has an inverse 𝑓 −1 if and only if 𝑓 is bijective.

54
Objective 4: Determine the inverse of the function 𝑓

There are three steps involved in finding the inverse of a function, 𝑓 −1 (𝑥):

1. Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).

2. Interchange the variables.

3. Make 𝑦 the subject of the formula.

STEP 3:
Make 𝒚 the subject
of the formula.

STEP 2:
Interchange
the variables.

STEP 1:
Let 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙).

The relationship between a function and its inverse are as follows:

(i) The domain of 𝒇 is the range of 𝒇−𝟏 .

(ii) The range of 𝒇 is the domain of 𝒇−𝟏 .

(iii) The graph of 𝒇−𝟏 can be derived from the graph of 𝒇 by reflecting 𝒇 in the line 𝒚 = 𝒙.

55
Objective 5: Draw graphs to show the relationship between a function and its inverse

Relationship between a function and its inverse:

Note that 𝒇(𝒙) and 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙) are reflections in the line 𝒚 = 𝒙.

Example:

56
Past Paper Question – June 2014 – Question 2(a)

(a) The functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 are defined as follows:

𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 1

𝑥−1
𝑔(𝑥) = √ 2

where 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ ∞, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.

(i) Determine, in terms of 𝑥,

(a) 𝑓 2 (𝑥) [3]

(b) 𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)] [3]

(ii) Hence, or otherwise, state the relationship between 𝑓 and 𝑔. [1]

57
Past Paper Question – June 2014 – Question 2(a) – Solution

(a) The functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 are defined as follows:

𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 1

𝑥−1
𝑔(𝑥) = √ 2

where 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ ∞, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.

(i) Determine, in terms of 𝑥,

(a) 𝑓 2 (𝑥) [3]

𝑓 2 (𝑥) = 𝑓[𝑓(𝑥)]

𝑓 2 (𝑥) = 𝑓(2𝑥 2 + 1)

𝑓 2 (𝑥) = 2(2𝑥 2 + 1)2 + 1

𝑓 2 (𝑥) = 2(4𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 2 + 1) + 1

𝑓 2 (𝑥) = 8𝑥 4 + 8𝑥 2 + 2 + 1

𝑓 2 (𝑥) = 8𝑥 4 + 8𝑥 2 + 3

(b) 𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)] [3]

𝑥−1
𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓 (√ )
2

2
𝑥−1
𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)] = 2 (√ ) +1
2

𝑥−1
𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)] = 2 ( )+1
2

𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑥 − 1 + 1

𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑥

58
(ii) Hence, or otherwise, state the relationship between 𝑓 and 𝑔. [1]

Since 𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑥, then 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥).

The relationship is that 𝑔 is the inverse function of 𝑓.

59
Past Paper Question – June 2021 – Question 2(a)

(a) The diagram below shows the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2 for 𝑥 ≥ 0.

(i) On the graph,

(a) Sketch the inverse of 𝑓

(b) Show that the inverse of 𝑓 is a function. [4]

(ii) Prove that 𝑓 is one to one. [4]

(iii) Determine whether 𝑓 is onto. [3]

60
Past Paper Question – June 2021 – Question 2(a) – Solution

(a) The diagram below shows the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2 for 𝑥 ≥ 0.

(i) On the graph,

(a) Sketch the inverse of 𝑓

The graph of the inverse of 𝑓 is a reflection of the graph of 𝑓 in the line

𝑦 = 𝑥.

61
(b) Show that the inverse of 𝑓 is a function. [4]

Any line drawn parallel to the 𝑦-axis cuts the graph at most once. In other

words, for every 𝑥-value, there will be at most one 𝑦-value. This proves

bijectivity.

Hence, the inverse of 𝑓 is a function.

62
(ii) Prove that 𝑓 is one to one. [4]

Graphical Proof:

Any line drawn parallel to the 𝑥-axis cuts the graph at most once. In other

words, for every 𝑦-value, there will be at most one 𝑥-value.

Hence, 𝑓 is a one-to-one function.

Proof using the definition:

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2 for 𝑥 ≥ 0.

Now,

𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑎2 + 2

𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑏 2 + 2

Suppose that 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏).

Then, we have

63
 𝑎2 + 2 = 𝑏 2 + 2

𝑎2 = 𝑏 2

𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 = 0

(𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑏) = 0

Either 𝑎−𝑏 =0 or 𝑎+𝑏 =0

𝑎=𝑏 𝑎 = −𝑏 which is invalid

since 𝑥 ≥ 0

Since 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏) implies that 𝑎 = 𝑏, then 𝑓 is one-to-one.

Q.E.D.

(iii) Determine whether 𝑓 is onto. [3]

Graphical Proof:

Any line drawn parallel to the 𝑥-axis cuts the graph at least once. In other

words, for every 𝑦-value, there will be at least one 𝑥-value.

64
Hence, the graph shows that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2 for 𝑥 ≥ 0 is an onto function.

Proof using the definition:

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2 , 𝑥 ≥ 0.

Let 𝑦 be an element of the codomain.

𝑦 = 𝑥2 + 2

Making 𝑥 the subject of the formula gives:

𝑦 − 2 = 𝑥2

𝑥 = √𝑦 − 2

From the graph, the codomain is 𝑦 ≥ 2, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ.

Hence, for every 𝑦 in the codomain, there is a corresponding 𝑥 in the domain.

Therefore, 𝑓(𝑥) is an onto function.

65
Past Paper Question – June 2023 – Question 2(a) and 2(d)

(a) Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 7𝑥 + 2. Prove that 𝑓 is bijective. [5]

2𝑥+3
(d) Given that 𝑔(𝑥) = , prove that 𝑔−1 (2) does not exist. [4]
𝑥+3

66
Past Paper Question – June 2023 – Question 2(a) and 2(d) – Solution

(a) Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 7𝑥 + 2. Prove that 𝑓 is bijective. [5]

𝑓(𝑥) = 7𝑥 + 2 , 𝑥 ∈ ℝ

A function 𝑓 is injective if for every 𝑦 in the codomain, there is at most one 𝑥 in the

domain such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦.

Since 𝑓(𝑥) = 7𝑥 + 2, then 𝑓(𝑎) = 7𝑎 + 2 and 𝑓(𝑏) = 7𝑏 + 2.

If 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏)

Then 7𝑎 + 2 = 7𝑏 + 2

⇒ 7𝑎 = 7𝑏

⇒ 𝑎=𝑏

Since 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏) ⇒ 𝑎 = 𝑏, then 𝑓(𝑥) is injective.

A function, 𝑓, is said to be surjective if for every 𝑦 in the codomain, there is at least

one 𝑥 in the domain such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦.

Let 𝑦 be an element of the codomain.

𝑦 = 7𝑥 + 2

𝑦 − 2 = 7𝑥

𝑦−2
𝑥= 7

67
 Hence, for every 𝑥 in the domain, there is a corresponding 𝑦 in the codomain.

That is, ∀𝑦 ∈ ℝ, ∃𝑥 ∈ ℝ. Therefore, 𝑓 is surjective.

Since 𝑓 is injective and surjective, 𝑓 is bijective.

Q.E.D.

2𝑥+3
(d) Given that 𝑔(𝑥) = , prove that 𝑔−1 (2) does not exist. [4]
𝑥+3

2𝑥+3
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥+3

Let 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥).
2𝑥+3
𝑦= 𝑥+3

Interchanging variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 gives:

2𝑦+3
𝑥= 𝑦+3

Making 𝑦 the subject of the formula:

𝑥(𝑦 + 3) = 2𝑦 + 3

𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑥 = 2𝑦 + 3

𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑦 = 3 − 3𝑥

𝑦(𝑥 − 2) = 3 − 3𝑥
3−3𝑥
𝑦= 𝑥−2

3−3𝑥
So, we get 𝑔−1 (𝑥) = .
𝑥−2

68
A function is discontinuous when the denominator is equal to zero.

𝑥−2=0

𝑥=2

Also, when 𝑥 = 2,

3−3(2)
𝑔−1 (2) = 2−2

3−3(2)
𝑔−1 (2) = which is indeterminate
0

∴ 𝑔−1 (2) does not exist.

Q.E.D.

69
Topic 5 – Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Objective 1: Simplify expressions by using laws of logarithms

Indices

Definition:
An index is the power which is raised to a number or variable.

Notation
𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕

Rules of Indices
The laws of indices are as follows:

𝒂𝟎 = 𝟏

𝟏
𝒂−𝒏 = 𝒂𝒏

𝟏
𝒏
𝒂𝒏 = √𝒂
𝒎
𝒏
𝒂 𝒏 = √𝒂𝒎

𝒂𝒎 × 𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂𝒎+𝒏

𝒂𝒎 ÷ 𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂𝒎−𝒏

(𝒂𝒎 )𝒏 = 𝒂𝒎×𝒏

(𝒂𝒃𝒄)𝒏 = 𝒂𝒏 𝒃𝒏 𝒄𝒏

𝒂 𝒏 𝒂𝒏
(𝒃) = 𝒃𝒏

70
Surds

Definition:

A surd is an expression that includes a root symbol. Surds are used to write irrational
3
numbers precisely. Examples of surds are √2, √5, √12, etc.

Notation
𝒏
The symbol √𝒙 is called a radical.

where 𝑛 is called the index

and 𝑥 is called the radicand.

Rules of surds

√(𝒂𝒃) = √𝒂 × √𝒃
𝒂 √𝒂
√( ) =
𝒃 √𝒃

Note: √𝑎 + 𝑏 ≠ √𝑎 + √𝑏

Conjugate surds

Definition:

The conjugate of (𝑎 + 𝑏) is (𝒂 − 𝒃).

When a surd and its conjugates are multiplied together, the result is a rational number.

In other words, you get rid of the root symbols.

Rationalization of surds

Formula:
𝟏 𝟏 √𝒂 + √𝒃
= ×
√𝒂 − √𝒃 √𝒂 − √𝒃 √𝒂 + √𝒃

71
Properties of logarithms:

𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒂 = 𝟏

𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝟏 = 𝟎

𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒚 → 𝒙 = 𝒚

𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 (𝒙𝒚) = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒙 + 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒚

𝒙
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 (𝒚) = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒙 − 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒚

𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒙𝒏 = 𝒏 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒙

72
Objective 2: Define an exponential function

Exponential Functions

Definition:

An exponential function is a function of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 where 𝑎 is a positive real

number and 𝑎 ≠ 1.

73
Objective 3: Sketch the graph of exponential functions

Graph of 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙 , 𝒂 > 𝟏

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥

Properties:

1. The domain of 𝑎 𝑥 is 𝑥 ∈ ℝ and the range is 𝑦 > 0.

2. The graph does not cut the 𝑥-axis.

3. The line 𝑦 = 0 is a horizontal asymptote.

Note: An asymptote is a line that a curve approaches as it heads towards infinity. It

never meets at any finite distance.

74
Graph of 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙 , 𝟎 < 𝒂 < 𝟏

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥

Properties:

1. The domain of 𝑎 𝑥 is 𝑥 ∈ ℝ and the range is 𝑦 > 0.

2. The graph does not cut the 𝑥-axis.

3. The line 𝑦 = 0 is a horizontal asymptote as 𝑥 → ∞.

4. 𝑎 𝑥 is a decreasing function and is one-to-one.

5. The graph of 𝑦 is smooth and continuous.

Graph of 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙 and 𝒚 = 𝒂−𝒙

𝑦 = 𝑎−𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥

75
Objective 4: Define logarithmic functions

Logarithmic Functions

Definition:

Logarithms are used to “crunch” big numbers.

The concept of logs is to take something big and turn it into a smaller form.

76
Objective 5: Sketch the graph of logarithmic functions

Graph of 𝒚 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒂 𝒙, 𝒂 > 𝟏

𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥

1 𝑥

Graph of 𝒚 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒂 𝒙, 𝟎 < 𝒂 < 𝟏

1 𝑥

𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥

77
Properties of the logarithm function:

1. The domain is 𝑥 ∈ ℝ+ , the range is 𝑦 ∈ ℝ.

2. The 𝑦-axis is a vertical asymptote.

3. The graph is smooth and continuous.

4. A logarithmic function is decreasing if 0 < 𝑎 < 1 and increasing if 𝑎 > 1.

78
Objective 6: Define the exponential function

Exponential Functions

We looked at 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 . Consider when 𝑎 = 𝑒.

Definition:
The exponential constant 𝑒 ≈ 2.72.

Graph of 𝒚 = 𝒆𝒙

79
Objective 7: Use the fact that 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 ↔ 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑦 to convert functions

Naperian Logarithms

Definition:

The term Naperian logarithm is used to mean the natural logarithm.

ln 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑥 where the exponential constant 𝑒 ≈ 2.72.

Graph of 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐧 𝒙

𝑦 = ln 𝑥

1 𝑥

Properties of the natural logarithm:

𝐥𝐧 𝒆 = 𝟏

𝐥𝐧 𝟏 = 𝟎

𝐥𝐧(𝒙𝒚) = 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 + 𝐥𝐧 𝒚

𝒙
𝐥𝐧 (𝒚) = 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 − 𝐥𝐧 𝒚

𝐥𝐧 𝒙𝒏 = 𝒏 𝐥𝐧 𝒙

80
Objective 8: Use logarithms to solve equation of the form 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑏

Notation

If 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡

Then 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

That is,

If 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥

Then 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑦

81
Objective 9: Solve problems involving changing of the base of a logarithm

Change of base Formula:

𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒚 𝒂
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒙 𝒂 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝒚 𝒙

82
Past Paper Question – June 2022 – Question 2(b)
7 3
(b) Solve the equation 6 − 22𝑥 − 42𝑥 = 0. [8]

83
Past Paper Question – June 2022 – Question 2(b) – Solution
7 3
(b) Solve the equation 6 − 22𝑥 − 42𝑥 = 0. [8]

7 3
6 − 22𝑥 − 42𝑥 = 0

7 3
6 − (22𝑥 ) − (22𝑥 )2 = 0

Let 𝑢 = 22𝑥 .

Then, we have,

7 3
6 − 𝑢 − 𝑢2 = 0

(× 𝑢2 )

6𝑢2 − 7𝑢 − 3 = 0

6𝑢2 − 9𝑢 + 2𝑢 − 3 = 0

3𝑢(2𝑢 − 3) + 1(2𝑢 − 3) = 0

(3𝑢 + 1)(2𝑢 − 3) = 0

Either 3𝑢 + 1 = 0 or 2𝑢 − 3 = 0

3𝑢 = −1 2𝑢 = 3

1 3
𝑢 = −3 𝑢=2

84
 1
When 𝑢 = − 3,

1
22𝑥 = − 3

Taking logs on both sides:

1
log 22𝑥 = log (− 3)

⇒ No real solutions exist for 𝑥

3
When 𝑢 = 2,

3
22𝑥 = 2

Taking logs on both sides:

3
log 22𝑥 = log (2)

3
2𝑥 log 2 = log (2)

3
log( )
2
𝑥 = 2 log 2

3
log( )
2
𝑥=
log 22

3
log( )
2
𝑥= log 4

3
log( )
2
∴𝑥= log 4

85
Past Paper Question – June 2023 – Question 1(d)

(d) (i) Solve the logarithmic equation log 3 (𝑥 2 − 9) − log 3 (𝑥 + 3) = 3. [4]

(ii) Show that √320𝑥 3 + √125𝑥 3 simplifies to 13𝑥√5𝑥 . [4]

86
Past Paper Question – June 2023 – Question 1(d) – Solution

(d) (i) Solve the logarithmic equation log 3 (𝑥 2 − 9) − log 3 (𝑥 + 3) = 3. [4]

log 3 (𝑥 2 − 9) − log 3 (𝑥 + 3) = 3

(𝑥 2 −9)
log 3 =3
(𝑥+3)

Converting to exponential form gives:

(𝑥 2 −9)
= 33
(𝑥+3)

(𝑥−3)(𝑥+3)
= 27
(𝑥+3)

𝑥 − 3 = 27

𝑥 = 27 + 3

𝑥 = 30

(ii) Show that √320𝑥 3 + √125𝑥 3 simplifies to 13𝑥√5𝑥 . [4]

√320𝑥 3 + √125𝑥 3 = √320√𝑥 3 + √125√𝑥 3

√320𝑥 3 + √125𝑥 3 = √64 × 5√𝑥 2 × 𝑥 + √25 × 5√𝑥 2 × 𝑥

√320𝑥 3 + √125𝑥 3 = √64√5√𝑥 2 √𝑥 + √25√5√𝑥 2 √𝑥

√320𝑥 3 + √125𝑥 3 = 8 ⋅ √5 ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ √𝑥 + 5 ⋅ √5 ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ √𝑥

√320𝑥 3 + √125𝑥 3 = 8𝑥√5𝑥 + 5𝑥√5𝑥

√320𝑥 3 + √125𝑥 3 = 13𝑥√5𝑥

∴ √320𝑥 3 + √125𝑥 3 = 13𝑥√5𝑥

Q.E.D.

87
Topic 6 – The Modulus Function

Objective 1: Define the modulus function

The Modulus Function

Definition:

The absolute value of 𝑥 or modulus of 𝑥, denoted by |𝑥|, is defined as:

|𝒙| = { 𝒙 𝒙≥𝟎
−𝒙 𝒙<𝟎

The absolute value function is a positive function, meaning that it returns positive

values only.

The Graph of the Modulus Function

To obtain the graph of 𝑦 = |𝑓(𝑥)|, first sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥). The parts of the

graph for which 𝑦 is positive are kept, and the parts for which 𝑦 is negative are reflected

in the 𝑥-axis.

Example:

Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = |𝑥|.

Solution:

The graph of 𝑦 = |𝑥| is shown below.

88
Objective 2: Use the properties of the Modulus function

Algebraic properties of Modulus

1. |𝒙|𝟐 = 𝒙𝟐

2. |𝒂𝒃| = |𝒂||𝒃|

𝒂 |𝒂|
3. |𝒃| = |𝒃|

89
Objective 3: Derive the property of the modulus function

The Triangle Inequality

The triangle inequality states:

|𝒙 + 𝒚| ≤ |𝒙| + |𝒚|

Question:

Prove that |𝑥 − 𝑦| ≤ |𝑥 − 𝑧| + |𝑧 − 𝑦| for all 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℝ.

Solution:

𝑥−𝑦 =𝑥−𝑧+𝑧−𝑦

𝑥 − 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 𝑧) + (𝑧 − 𝑦)

⇒ |𝑥 − 𝑦| = |(𝑥 − 𝑧) + (𝑧 − 𝑦)|

⇒ |𝑥 − 𝑦| ≤ |𝑥 − 𝑧| + |𝑧 − 𝑦|

∴ |𝑥 − 𝑦| ≤ |𝑥 − 𝑧| + |𝑧 − 𝑦| for all 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℝ
Q.E.D.

90
Objective 4: Draw graphs to show the relationship between a function and its modulus

Example:

Sketch the graph of 𝑦 = |𝑥 2 − 9|.

Solution:

First, sketch the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 9.

𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟗

The part of the graph below the 𝑥-axis is reflected above the 𝑥-axis to form 𝑦 = |𝑥 2 − 9|.

91
The graph of 𝑦 = |𝑥 2 − 9| is shown below.

𝒚 = |𝒙𝟐 − 𝟗|

92
Objective 5: Solve equations and inequalities involving simple rational and modulus

functions

Example:

Solve |𝑥 − 1| = 2𝑥 − 5 both graphically and algebraically.

Solution:

Graphical Method:

For 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 1,

𝑥 0 1
𝑦 −1 0

For 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 5,

𝑥 0 5
2

𝑦 −5 0

93
A sketch of the graph is shown below:

𝑦 = |𝑥 − 1|

(4,3)

NOTE:
The lines intersect only
1 once.
𝑥
1 5
2

𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 5

−5

The point of intersection is (4,3).

∴𝑥=4

94
Algebraic Method:

|𝑥 − 1| = 2𝑥 − 5

Squaring both sides:

|𝑥 − 1|2 = (2𝑥 − 5)2

𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 = 4𝑥 2 − 20𝑥 + 25

3𝑥 2 − 18𝑥 + 24 = 0

𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 8 = 0

(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 2) = 0

Either 𝑥 = 4 or 𝑥 = 2.

Checking answers:

When 𝑥 = 4,

|4 − 1| = 3 and 2(4) − 5 = 3

∴ 𝑥 = 4 is valid.

When 𝑥 = 2,

|2 − 1| = 1 and 2(2) − 5 = −1

∴ 𝑥 = 2 is NOT valid.

Hence, 𝑥 = 4.

95
Note:

The Algebraic Method gave 2 solutions whereas the graphical method clearly shows

there is ONLY one solution.

The graphical method is fool proof. This is why it is very important to CHECK your

Algebraic solutions!!

96
Critical Values

➢ The critical values of a function are the values of 𝑥 for which the function

becomes zero or infinity.

➢ Critical values of a function 𝑓(𝑥) can be found by solving 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟎.

𝑃(𝑥)
➢ If the function is of the form 𝑄(𝑥), critical values of 𝑓(𝑥) are found by solving

𝑃(𝑥) = 0 and 𝑄(𝑥) = 0. These values are also called the zeros of the function

Example:

Find the range of values of 𝑥 for which 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 4 > 0.

Solution:

3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 4 = 0

(3𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 2) = 0

2
Either 𝑥 = 3 or 𝑥 = 2.

The sketch of the graph of 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 4 is shown below.

𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 4

2
𝑥
(3 , 0) (2,0)

97
Since we are solving 3𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 4 > 0, we look where the graph is positive.
2
The graph is positive for 𝑥 < 3 and 𝑥 > 2.

2
∴ {𝑥: 𝑥 < 3} ∪ {𝑥: 𝑥 > 2}

98
Sign Tables

A sign table consists of the factors of 𝑓(𝑥), non-overlapping intervals for 𝑥 using the

zeros of 𝑓(𝑥) and the sign of each factor and 𝑓(𝑥).

Example:
𝑥+4
Find the solution set for the inequality 𝑥+5 > 2.

Solution:
𝑥+4
>2
𝑥+5

𝑥+4
−2>0
𝑥+5

𝑥+4−2(𝑥+5)
>0
𝑥+5

𝑥+4−2𝑥−10
>0
𝑥+5

−𝑥−6
>0
𝑥+5

Now,

−𝑥 − 6 = 0 and 𝑥+5=0

𝑥 = −6 𝑥 = −5

The sign table is as follows:

−𝒙 − 𝟔 𝒙+𝟓 −𝒙−𝟔
𝒙+𝟓

𝒙 < −𝟔 + − −

−𝟔 < 𝒙 < −𝟓 − − +

𝒙 > −𝟓 − + −

99
 −𝑥−6
Since we want > 0, we can see that this occurs in the interval −6 < 𝑥 < −5.
𝑥+5

∴ The solution set is {𝑥: −6 < 𝑥 < −5}.

100
Past Paper Question – June 2013 – Question 2(c)

(c) Solve the following:

(i) 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1 ≤ 5 [4]

(ii) |𝑥 + 2| = 3𝑥 + 5 [4]

101
Past Paper Question – June 2013 – Question 2(c) – Solution

(c) Solve the following:

(i) 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1 ≤ 5 [4]

3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1 ≤ 5

3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1 − 5 ≤ 0

3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 4 ≤ 0

(3𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2) ≤ 0

2
The critical values are 𝑥 = 3 and 𝑥 = −2.

The sketch of the graph of 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 4 is shown below.

| |
−2 2
3

Since we are solving (3𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2) ≤ 0, we look where the graph is

negative.
2
The graph is negative for −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3 .

2
∴ The solution set is {𝑥: −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3}.

102
(ii) |𝑥 + 2| = 3𝑥 + 5 [4]

|𝑥 + 2| = 3𝑥 + 5

By definition:

𝑥 + 2 = 3𝑥 + 5 or 𝑥 + 2 = −(3𝑥 + 5)

2 − 5 = 3𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑥 + 2 = −3𝑥 − 5

−3 = 2𝑥 3𝑥 + 𝑥 = −2 − 5

3
𝑥 = −2 4𝑥 = −7

7
𝑥 = −4

Checking solutions:

3
Consider 𝑥 = − 2 .

3
L.H.S. = |(− 2) + 2|

1
L.H.S. = |2|

1
L.H.S. = 2

3
R.H.S. = 3 (− 2) + 5

9
R.H.S. = − 2 + 5

1
R.H.S. = 2

3
So, 𝑥 = − 2 is a solution.

103
 7
Consider 𝑥 = − 4 .

7
L.H.S. = |(− 4) + 2|

1
L.H.S. = |4|

1
L.H.S. = 4

7
R.H.S. = 3 (− 4) + 5

21
R.H.S. = − +5
4

1
R.H.S. = − 4

7
Since L.H.S. ≠ R.H.S., then 𝑥 = − 4 is not a solution.

3
∴ 𝑥 = −2

104
Past Paper Question – June 2023 – Question 2(c)

(c) The diagram below shows the graph of the curve 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 8.

𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟖

(i) On the axes provided above, sketch and label the graph of

𝑔(𝑥) = |𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 8|. [3]

(ii) On the same axes, sketch and label the inverse of 𝑓 for 𝑥 ≥ −3. [5]

105
Past Paper Question – June 2023 – Question 2(c) – Solution

(c) The diagram below shows the graph of the curve 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 8.

𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟖

(i) On the axes provided above, sketch and label the graph of

𝑔(𝑥) = |𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 8|. [3]

The function of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 8.

The function of 𝑔(𝑥) = |𝑓(𝑥)|

The function of 𝑔(𝑥) = |𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 8|

To sketch the graph of 𝑔(𝑥), we take any part of the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) that is

below the 𝑥-axis and reflect it across the 𝑥-axis.

106
 The graph of 𝑔(𝑥) = |𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 8| is shown below:

𝒈(𝒙) = |𝒙𝟐 + 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟖|

(ii) On the same axes, sketch and label the inverse of 𝑓 for 𝑥 ≥ −3. [5]

Points on 𝑓(𝑥) → Points on 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)

(−3, −1) → (−1, −3)

(−2, 0) → (0, −2)

(−1, 3) → (3, −1)

(0, 8) → (8, 0)

107
To sketch the graph of 𝑓 −1 (𝑥), we reflect the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) across the line

𝑦 = 𝑥. We will do so for the part of the graph of 𝑓 where 𝑥 ≥ −3.

The graph of 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) is shown below:

𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟖

𝒚=𝒙

𝒚 = 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙)

108
Topic 7 – Cubic Functions and Equations

Objective 1: Use the relationship among roots of an equation

Review: Roots of a quadratic equation

A quadratic equation is of the form 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 = 𝟎 where 𝜶 and 𝜷 are the roots.

−𝑏
Sum of roots = 𝑎

−𝒃
𝜶+𝜷= 𝒂

𝑐
Product of roots = 𝑎

𝒄
𝜶𝜷 = 𝒂

Note: 𝜶𝟐 + 𝜷𝟐 = (𝜶 + 𝜷)𝟐 − 𝟐𝜶𝜷

Cubic equations

A cubic equation is of the form 𝒂𝒙𝟑 + 𝒃𝒙𝟐 + 𝒄𝒙 + 𝒅 = 𝟎 where 𝜶, 𝜷 and 𝜸 are the roots.

−𝒃
𝜶+𝜷+𝜸= 𝒂
𝒄
𝜶𝜷 + 𝜷𝜸 + 𝜶𝜸 = 𝒂
−𝒅
𝜶𝜷𝜸 = 𝒂

The cubic equation is of the form:

𝑥 3 − (𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠)𝑥 2 + (𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒)𝑥 − (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠) = 0

109
Past Paper Question – June 2023 – Question 2(b)

(b) The roots of the cubic 3𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 = 0 are 𝛼, 𝛽, and 𝛾. Determine the

1 1 1
equation whose roots are 𝛼 , 𝛽 and 𝛾 . [8]

110
Past Paper Question – June 2023 – Question 2(b) – Solution

(b) The roots of the cubic 3𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 = 0 are 𝛼, 𝛽, and 𝛾. Determine the

1 1 1
equation whose roots are 𝛼 , 𝛽 and 𝛾 . [8]

3𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 = 0

where 𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = −1, 𝑐 = −2 and 𝑑 = 1

𝑏
𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾 = −𝑎

−(−1)
𝛼+𝛽+𝛾 = 3

1
𝛼+𝛽+𝛾 =3

𝑐
𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽𝛾 + 𝛼𝛾 = 𝑎

2
𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽𝛾 + 𝛼𝛾 = − 3

𝑑
𝛼𝛽𝛾 = − 𝑎

1
𝛼𝛽𝛾 = − 3

For the new roots:

1 1 1 𝛽𝛾+𝛼𝛾+𝛼𝛽
+𝛽+𝛾=
𝛼 𝛼𝛽𝛾

1 1 1 2 1
+ 𝛽 + 𝛾 = − 3 ÷ (− 3)
𝛼

1 1 1 2 3
+ 𝛽 + 𝛾 = −3 × −1
𝛼

1 1 1
+𝛽+𝛾=2
𝛼

111
 1 1 1 1 1 1 𝛾+𝛼+𝛽
(𝛼) (𝛽) + (𝛽) (𝛾) + (𝛼) (𝛾) = 𝛼𝛽𝛾

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(𝛼) (𝛽) + (𝛽) (𝛾) + (𝛼) (𝛾) = 3 ÷ (− 3)

1 1 1 1 1 1
(𝛼) (𝛽) + (𝛽) (𝛾) + (𝛼) (𝛾) = −1

1 1 1 1
(𝛼) (𝛽) (𝛾) = 𝛼𝛽𝛾

1 1 1 1
(𝛼) (𝛽) (𝛾) = 1 ÷ (− 3)

1 1 1
(𝛼) (𝛽) (𝛾) = 1 × −3

1 1 1
(𝛼) (𝛽) (𝛾) = −3

∴ The new equation is:

𝑥 3 − (𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠)𝑥 2 + (𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒)𝑥 − (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠) = 0

𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − (−3) = 0

𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 3 = 0

112
 Module 2 – Trigonometry, Geometry and Vectors

Topic 1 – Trigonometry

Note: All angles will be assumed to be radians unless otherwise stated.

Objective 1: Use reciprocal functions of cos 𝑥, sin 𝑥 and tan 𝑥

Objective 2: Sketch graphs of reciprocal functions of cos 𝑥, sin 𝑥 and tan 𝑥

Trigonometric Functions

Definition:

Trigonometric functions are the periodic functions which denote the relationship
between an angle and two sides of a right-angled triangle.

Sine
𝑦 = sin 𝑥

1 𝑦 = sin 𝑥
NOTE: −1 ≤ sin 𝑥 ≤ 1

0 𝑥
𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋
2 2

−1

113
Cosine
𝑦 = cos 𝑥

𝑦 = cos 𝑥
1
NOTE: −1 ≤ cos 𝑥 ≤ 1

0 𝑥
𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋
2 2

−1

Tangent
𝑦 = tan 𝑥

1 𝑦 = tan 𝑥

0 𝑥
𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋
2 2

−1

114
 Cartesian Plane

A Cartesian plane is defined by two perpendicular lines, the 𝑥-axis which is horizontal

and the 𝑦-axis which is vertical. It consists of four quadrants as labelled in below.

Quadrant II Quadrant I
𝑥
Quadrant III Quadrant IV

Cartesian Plane for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360° or 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋

𝜋𝑐
90°/ 2

𝒔𝒊𝒏 (+) 𝑨𝒍𝒍

𝟏𝟖𝟎 − 𝜽 𝜽

QUADRANT 2 QUADRANT 1
180°/𝜋 𝑐 0/360°/2𝜋 𝑐
QUADRANT 3 QUADRANT 4

𝟏𝟖𝟎 + 𝜽 𝟑𝟔𝟎 − 𝜽

𝒕𝒂𝒏 (+) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 (+)

3𝜋 𝑐
270°/ 2

115
Important Tips:

- For 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360°, ensure your answers are in degrees. Place answers to 1

decimal place.

- For 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋, ensure your answers are in radians. Place answers to 3

significant figures.

- Vital: Ensure your calculator is in the respective mode.

Trigonometry Table

𝝅 𝝅 𝝅 𝝅
𝟎𝒄 /𝟎° /𝟑𝟎° /𝟒𝟓° /𝟔𝟎° /𝟗𝟎°
𝟔 𝟒 𝟑 𝟐

1
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 0 1
or
√2 √3 1
2 √2 2 2

1
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 1 √3 1
or
√2 0
2 √2 2 2

𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 0 1
or
√3 1 √3 -
√3 3

Fundamental Trigonometric Identities

sin 𝜃
• tan 𝜃 = cos 𝜃

1
• sec 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 (secant)

1
• cosec 𝜃 = sin 𝜃 (cosecant)

1
• cot 𝜃 = tan 𝜃 (cotangent)

cos 𝜃
• cot 𝜃 = sin 𝜃

116
 Solving Equations for −𝟑𝟔𝟎° ≤ 𝜽 ≤ 𝟎° or −𝟐𝝅 ≤ 𝜽 ≤ 𝟎

3𝜋 𝑐
−270°/− 2

𝒔𝒊𝒏 (+) 𝑨𝒍𝒍

−(𝟏𝟖𝟎 + 𝜽) −(𝟑𝟔𝟎 − 𝜽)

3rd -ve quadrant 4th -ve quadrant

−180°/−𝜋 𝑐 0/−360°/−2𝜋 𝑐
2nd -ve quadrant 1st -ve quadrant

−(𝟏𝟖𝟎 − 𝜽) −𝜽

𝒕𝒂𝒏 (+) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 (+)

𝜋𝑐
−90°/−
2

117
 Solving Equations for −𝟏𝟖𝟎° ≤ 𝜽 ≤ 𝟏𝟖𝟎° or −𝝅 ≤ 𝜽 ≤ 𝝅

𝜋𝑐
90°/ 2

𝒔𝒊𝒏 (+) 𝑨𝒍𝒍

𝟏𝟖𝟎 − 𝜽 𝜽

2nd +ve quadrant 1st +ve quadrant

±180°/±𝜋 𝑐 0
2nd -ve quadrant 1st -ve quadrant

−(𝟏𝟖𝟎 − 𝜽) −𝜽

𝒕𝒂𝒏 (+) 𝒄𝒐𝒔 (+)

𝜋𝑐
−90°/−
2

Trigonometric Formulas

Consider the right-angled triangle below.

𝜃
𝐶 𝐴

𝒐𝒑𝒑 𝒂𝒅𝒋 𝒐𝒑𝒑

𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝒉𝒚𝒑 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = 𝒉𝒚𝒑 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 = 𝒂𝒅𝒋

118
To remember these formulas, you can just remember the first letter of each part.

SOH = Sine is Opposite over Hypotenuse.

CAH = Cosine is Adjacent over Hypotenuse.

TOA = Tangent is Opposite over Adjacent.

Pythagoras’ Theorem: 𝒄𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐

119
Objective 3: Derive compound angle formulae

Objective 4: Use compound angle formulae

Addition Formulae

• 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝑨 + 𝑩) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑩 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑨 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑩

• 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝑨 − 𝑩) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑩 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑨 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑩

• 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝑨 + 𝑩) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑩 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑨 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑩

• 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝑨 − 𝑩) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑩 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑨 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑩

𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝑨+𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝑩
• 𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝑨 + 𝑩) = 𝟏−𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝑨 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝑩

𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝑨−𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝑩
• 𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝑨 − 𝑩) = 𝟏+𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝑨 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝑩

120
Objective 5: Derive identities for the multiple angle formulae

Double Angle Formulae

• 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝑨 = 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑨

• 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝑨 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝑨 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝑨

• 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝑨 = 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝑨 − 𝟏

• 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝑨 = 𝟏 − 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝑨

𝟐 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝑨
• 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝟐𝑨 = 𝟏−𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 𝑨

121
Objective 6: Use the factor formulae

Factor Formulae

𝑷+𝑸 𝑷−𝑸
• 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑷 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑸 = 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐜𝐨𝐬
𝟐 𝟐

𝑷+𝑸 𝑷−𝑸
• 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑷 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑸 = 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐬𝐢𝐧
𝟐 𝟐

𝑷+𝑸 𝑷−𝑸
• 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑷 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑸 = 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐜𝐨𝐬
𝟐 𝟐

𝑷+𝑸 𝑷−𝑸
• 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑷 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑸 = −𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐬𝐢𝐧
𝟐 𝟐

Important Result:

𝐜𝐨𝐬(−𝜽) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽

𝐬𝐢𝐧(−𝜽) = − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽

122
Objective 7: Prove trigonometric identities

More Trigonometric Identities

• 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝜽 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝜽 = 𝟏

𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠:

• 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝜽 = 𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝜽

• 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝜽 = 𝟏 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝜽

Dividing by sin2 𝜃:

• 𝟏 + 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝟐 𝜽 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝜽

Dividing by cos2 𝜃:

• 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 𝜽 + 𝟏 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝜽

123
Objective 8: Determine the general solution of trigonometric equations

Principal Values

The first step in solving the general solutions of a trigonometric equation is to find the

principal value (P.V.) of the angle.

Consider 𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽.

𝑦 = sin 𝑥
1

𝜋 0 𝜋
−2 2

−1

𝝅 𝝅
The P.V. occurs in the domain [− 𝟐 , 𝟐 ] since there is only one solution for any equation

in this interval.

124
Consider 𝒚 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽.

1 𝑦 = cos 𝑥

0 𝜋 𝜋
2

−1

The P.V. occurs in the domain [𝟎, 𝝅].

Consider 𝒚 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽.

𝑦 = tan 𝑥

𝜋 0 𝜋
−2
2

𝝅 𝝅
The P.V. occurs in the domain [− 𝟐 , 𝟐 ].

125
General Solutions

The general solution is an expression which represents all angles satisfying a given

equation.

For 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝒌, −1 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 1,

G.S. is 𝜽 = 𝒏𝝅 + (−𝟏)𝒏 𝑷𝑽 , 𝑛∈ℤ

𝜃 = 180𝑛 + (−1)𝑛 𝑃𝑉 , 𝑛∈ℤ

For 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = 𝒌, −1 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 1,

G.S. is 𝜽 = 𝟐𝒏𝝅 ± 𝑷𝑽 , 𝑛∈ℤ

𝜃 = 360𝑛 ± 𝑃𝑉 , 𝑛∈ℤ

For 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 = 𝒌, −∞ ≤ 𝑘 ≤ ∞,

G.S. is 𝜽 = 𝒏𝝅 + 𝑷𝑽 , 𝑛∈ℤ

𝜃 = 180𝑛 + 𝑃𝑉 , 𝑛∈ℤ

126
Objective 9: Express 𝑎 cos 𝜃 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃 in the forms 𝑟 sin(𝜃 ± 𝛼) and 𝑟 cos(𝜃 ± 𝛼)

Objective 10: Determine the general solution for 𝑎 cos 𝜃 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃 = 𝑐, for 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ

The form 𝒂 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 + 𝒃 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽

Note:

𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 + 𝒃 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜽 + 𝜶)

𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 − 𝒃 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝜽 − 𝜶)

𝒂 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 + 𝒃 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝜽 − 𝜶)

𝒂 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝒃 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝜽 + 𝜶)

127
Objective 11: Solve trigonometric equations for a given range

Objective 12: Obtain maximum or minimum values of functions of the form

𝑎 cos 𝜃 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃 for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋

Function Domain Range

𝑦 = sin 𝑥 𝑥∈ℝ −1 ≤ sin 𝑥 ≤ 1
𝑦 = cos 𝑥 𝑥∈ℝ −1 ≤ cos 𝑥 ≤ 1
𝜋
𝑦 = tan 𝑥 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ 2 ± 𝑛𝜋 𝑦∈ℝ

128
How can a question on Trigonometry show up

You can be asked to:

1. Find the general solution

2. Solve a trigonometric equation

3. Prove an identity

4. Express a function in a specific form

5. Use trigonometric ratios for calculations

129
Finding the general solution

Tips:

1. Look at the given interval to determine whether or not the general solution

needs to be in terms of degrees or radians.

𝜋
2. Ensure to check the function whether it is sin 𝜃 , sin 2𝜃 , sin (𝜃 + 3 ), etc.

Question:

Find the G.S. in radians for sin2 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 = 2.

Solution:

sin2 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 = 2

sin2 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 − 2 = 0

(sin 𝜃 + 1)(sin 𝜃 − 2) = 0

Either sin 𝜃 + 1 = 0 or sin 𝜃 − 2 = 0

sin 𝜃 = −1 sin 𝜃 = 2

𝜋
𝑃𝑉 = − 2 𝜃 = no solutions

𝜋
G.S. is 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜋 + (−1)𝑛 (− 2 ) , 𝑛∈ℤ

𝜋
G.S. is 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜋 + (−1)𝑛+1 ( 2 ) , 𝑛∈ℤ

130
Past Paper Question – June 2020 – Question 23
𝜋
23. The general solution for sin 2𝜃 = sin 6 , where 𝑛 ∈ ℤ, is

𝜋
2𝑛𝜋 + 6
(A) 𝜃 = { 5𝜋
(2𝑛 + 1)
16

𝜋
𝑛𝜋 + 12
(B) 𝜃 = { 5𝜋
𝑛𝜋 + 12

𝜋
𝑛𝜋 + 12
(C) 𝜃 = { 5𝜋
(2𝑛𝜋) 12

𝜋
𝑛𝜋 + 6
(D)𝜃 = { 5𝜋
(𝑛 + 1) 6

131
Past Paper Question – June 2020 – Question 23 – Solution
𝜋
23. The general solution for sin 2𝜃 = sin , where 𝑛 ∈ ℤ, is
6

𝜋
2𝑛𝜋 + 6
(A) 𝜃 = { 5𝜋
(2𝑛 + 1)
16

𝜋
𝑛𝜋 + 12
(B) 𝜃 = { 5𝜋
𝑛𝜋 + 12

𝜋
𝑛𝜋 + 12
(C) 𝜃 = { 5𝜋
(2𝑛𝜋) 12

𝜋
𝑛𝜋 + 6
(D)𝜃 = { 5𝜋
(𝑛 + 1) 6

𝜋
sin 2𝜃 = sin 6

𝜋
𝑃𝑉 = 6

𝜋
G.S. is 2𝜃 = 𝑛𝜋 + (−1)𝑛 ( 6 ) ,𝑛∈ℤ

𝑛𝜋 𝜋
𝜃= + (−1)𝑛 (12) ,𝑛∈ℤ
2

Consider when 𝑛 is even.

When 𝑛 = 2𝑛,

2𝑛𝜋 𝜋
𝜃= + (−1)2𝑛 (12)
2

𝜋
𝜃 = 𝑛𝜋 + (12)

132
Consider when 𝑛 is odd.

When 𝑛 = 2𝑛 + 1,

(2𝑛+1)𝜋 𝜋
𝜃= + (−1)2𝑛+1 (12)
2

2𝑛𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝜃= + 2 − 12
2

5𝜋
𝜃 = 𝑛𝜋 + 12

𝜋
𝑛𝜋 + 12
∴ The G.S. is 𝜃 = { 5𝜋 .
𝑛𝜋 + 12

Answer: B

133
Solve a trigonometric equation

Tips:

1. Take a look at your interval to determine whether your answers will be in

degrees or radians.

2. If your answer is in degrees, write it to 1 decimal place.

3. If your answer is in radians, write it in terms of 𝜋 or to 3 significant figures.

4. When writing down your final answers, ensure that they all lie within the given

interval.

134
Past Paper Question – June 2017 – Question 3(b)

(b) Solve the equation sin2 𝜃 − 2 cos2 𝜃 + 3 cos 𝜃 + 5 = 0 for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 4𝜋. [6]

135
Past Paper Question – June 2017 – Question 3(b) – Solution

(b) Solve the equation sin2 𝜃 − 2 cos2 𝜃 + 3 cos 𝜃 + 5 = 0 for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 4𝜋. [6]

sin2 𝜃 − 2 cos2 𝜃 + 3 cos 𝜃 + 5 = 0

(1 − cos 2 𝜃) − 2 cos2 𝜃 + 3 cos 𝜃 + 5 = 0

−3 cos2 𝜃 + 3 cos 𝜃 + 6 = 0

cos2 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 − 2 = 0

(cos 𝜃 + 1)(cos 𝜃 − 2) = 0

Either cos 𝜃 + 1 = 0 or cos 𝜃 − 2 = 0

cos 𝜃 = −1 cos 𝜃 = 2

𝜃 = 𝜋 , 3𝜋 [No solutions ∵ −1 ≤ cos 𝜃 ≤ 1]

∴ 𝜃 = 𝜋 , 3𝜋 for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 4𝜋

136
Past Paper Question – June 2022 – Question 3(b)

(b) Solve the equation tan2 𝜃 − 2 tan 𝜃 = 3 for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋. [6]

137
Past Paper Question – June 2022 – Question 3(b) – Solution

(b) Solve the equation tan2 𝜃 − 2 tan 𝜃 = 3 for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋. [6]

tan2 𝜃 − 2 tan 𝜃 = 3

tan2 𝜃 − 2 tan 𝜃 − 3 = 0

(tan 𝜃 + 1)(tan 𝜃 − 3) = 0

Either tan 𝜃 + 1 = 0 or tan 𝜃 − 3 = 0.

Consider: tan 𝜃 + 1 = 0

tan 𝜃 = −1
𝜋
𝜋 𝜋 − 4
𝜃 = 𝜋 − 4 , 2𝜋 − 4
−
3𝜋 7𝜋
𝜃= ,
4 4

Consider: tan 𝜃 − 3 = 0

tan 𝜃 = 3
𝑐
+ 1.25
𝜃 = 1.25𝑐 , 𝜋 + 1.25𝑐
+

𝜃 = 1.5𝑐 , 4.39𝑐

3𝜋 7𝜋
∴ 𝜃 = 1.25𝑐 , , 4.39𝑐 ,
4 4

138
Prove an identity

Tips:

1. Take one of the sides and make it look like the other side.

2. Most times, you need to use substitution of various identities. It is possible that

you will be required to rationalize your fraction (rare but possible).

139
Past Paper Question – June 2013 – Question 3(a)(i)
2 tan 𝜃
(a) (i) Show that sin 2𝜃 = 1+tan2 𝜃 . [4]

140
Past Paper Question – June 2013 – Question 3(a)(i) – Solution
2 tan 𝜃
(a) (i) Show that sin 2𝜃 = 1+tan2 𝜃 . [4]

2 tan 𝜃
Required to show that sin 2𝜃 = 1+tan2 𝜃 .

Taking R.H.S:

2 tan 𝜃 2 tan 𝜃
=
1+tan2 𝜃 sec2 𝜃

2 tan 𝜃
= 2 tan 𝜃 ÷ sec 2 𝜃
1+tan2 𝜃

2 tan 𝜃 2 sin 𝜃 1
= ÷ cos2 𝜃
1+tan2 𝜃 cos 𝜃

2 tan 𝜃 2 sin 𝜃 cos2 𝜃

= ×
1+tan2 𝜃 cos 𝜃 1

2 tan 𝜃
= 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
1+tan2 𝜃

2 tan 𝜃
= sin 2𝜃
1+tan2 𝜃

2 tan 𝜃
= R.H.S.
1+tan2 𝜃

2 tan 𝜃
∴ sin 2𝜃 = 1+tan2 𝜃

Q.E.D.

141
Past Paper Question – June 2022 – Question 3(a)

(a) Prove that

tan 𝜃 sin 𝜃 1
= 1 + cos 𝜃 . [6]
1−cos 𝜃

142
Past Paper Question – June 2022 – Question 3(a) – Solution

(a) Prove that

tan 𝜃 sin 𝜃 1
= 1 + cos 𝜃 . [6]
1−cos 𝜃

Taking L.H.S:

sin 𝜃
tan 𝜃 sin 𝜃 ( ) sin 𝜃
cos 𝜃
=
1−cos 𝜃 1−cos 𝜃

sin2 𝜃
tan 𝜃 sin 𝜃 ( )
cos 𝜃
= 1−cos 𝜃
1−cos 𝜃

tan 𝜃 sin 𝜃 sin2 𝜃

= ÷ (1 − cos 𝜃)
1−cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃

tan 𝜃 sin 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 1

= × 1−cos 𝜃
1−cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃

tan 𝜃 sin 𝜃 1−cos2 𝜃 1

= × 1−cos 𝜃
1−cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃

tan 𝜃 sin 𝜃 (1−cos 𝜃)(1+cos 𝜃) 1

= × 1−cos 𝜃
1−cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃

tan 𝜃 sin 𝜃 1+cos 𝜃

=
1−cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃

tan 𝜃 sin 𝜃 1 cos 𝜃

= cos 𝜃 + cos 𝜃
1−cos 𝜃

tan 𝜃 sin 𝜃 1
= cos 𝜃 + 1
1−cos 𝜃

tan 𝜃 sin 𝜃 1
= 1 + cos 𝜃
1−cos 𝜃

tan 𝜃 sin 𝜃
= R.H.S.
1−cos 𝜃

tan 𝜃 sin 𝜃 1
∴ = 1 + cos 𝜃
1−cos 𝜃

Q.E.D.

143
Express a function in a specific form

Tips:

1. The question will give you the form in which you must put it in.

2. You will be required to find the value of 𝑟 and 𝛼.

144
Past Paper Question – June 2013 – Question 3(b)

(b) (i) Express 𝑓(𝜃) = 3 cos 𝜃 − 4 sin 𝜃 in the form 𝑟 cos(𝜃 + 𝛼) where

𝜋
𝑟 > 0 and 0° ≤ 𝑎 ≤ 2 . [4]

(ii) Hence, find

(a) the maximum value of 𝑓(𝜃) [2]

1
(b) the minimum value of 8+𝑓(𝜃) [2]

145
Past Paper Question – June 2013 – Question 3(b) – Solution

(b) (i) Express 𝑓(𝜃) = 3 cos 𝜃 − 4 sin 𝜃 in the form 𝑟 cos(𝜃 + 𝛼) where

𝜋
𝑟 > 0 and 0° ≤ 𝑎 ≤ 2 . [4]

𝑓(𝜃) = 3 cos 𝜃 − 4 sin 𝜃

3 cos 𝜃 − 4 sin 𝜃 = 𝑟 cos(𝜃 + 𝛼)

3 cos 𝜃 − 4 sin 𝜃 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 cos 𝛼 − 𝑟 sin 𝜃 sin 𝛼

Equating coefficients of sin 𝜃 and cos 𝜃 gives:

3 = 𝑟 cos 𝛼 → Equation 1

4 = 𝑟 sin 𝛼 → Equation 2

Equation 2 ÷ Equation 1 gives:

𝑟 sin 𝛼 4
=3
𝑟 cos 𝛼

4
tan 𝛼 = 3

4
𝛼 = tan−1 (3)

𝛼 = 0.927𝑐 (to 3 significant figures)

And,

𝑟 = √32 + 42

𝑟 = √9 + 16

𝑟 = √25

𝑟=5

146
 ∴ 3 cos 𝜃 − 4 sin 𝜃 = 5 cos(𝜃 + 0.927𝑐 )

which is of the form 𝑟 cos(𝜃 + 𝛼)

where 𝑟 = 5 and 𝛼 = 0.927𝑐

(ii) Hence, find

(a) the maximum value of 𝑓(𝜃) [2]

𝑓(𝜃) = 3 cos 𝜃 − 4 sin 𝜃

𝑓(𝜃) = 5 cos(𝜃 + 0.927𝑐 )

Now,

−1 ≤ cos 𝜃 ≤ 1

−1 ≤ cos(𝜃 + 0.927𝑐 ) ≤ 1

−5 ≤ 5 cos(𝜃 + 0.927𝑐 ) ≤ 5

∴ The maximum value of 𝑓(𝜃) is 5.

1
(b) the minimum value of 8+𝑓(𝜃) [2]

𝑓(𝜃) = 5 cos(𝜃 + 0.927𝑐 )

Now,

147
 −1 ≤ cos 𝜃 ≤ 1

−1 ≤ cos(𝜃 + 0.927𝑐 ) ≤ 1

−5 ≤ 5 cos(𝜃 + 0.927𝑐 ) ≤ 5

−5 ≤ 𝑓(𝜃) ≤ 5

8 − 5 ≤ 8 + 𝑓(𝜃) ≤ 8 + 5

3 ≤ 8 + 𝑓(𝜃) ≤ 13

1 1 1
≥ 8+𝑓(𝜃) ≥ 13
3

1 1 1
≤ 8+𝑓(𝜃) ≤ 3
13

1 1
∴ The minimum value of 8+𝑓(𝜃) is 13 .

148
Past Paper Question – June 2016 – Question 3(b)

(b) (i) Express the function 𝑓(𝜃) = sin 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 in the form 𝑟 sin(𝜃 + 𝛼), where

𝜋
𝑟 > 0 and 0 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 2 . [5]

(ii) Hence, find the maximum value of 𝑓 and the smallest non-negative value of 𝜃 at

which it occurs. [5]

149
Past Paper Question – June 2016 – Question 3(b) – Solution

(b) (i) Express the function 𝑓(𝜃) = sin 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 in the form 𝑟 sin(𝜃 + 𝛼), where

𝜋
𝑟 > 0 and 0 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 2 . [5]

Let sin 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 = 𝑟 sin(𝜃 + 𝛼)

Let sin 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 cos 𝛼 + 𝑟 cos 𝜃 sin 𝛼

Equating coefficients gives:

𝑟 cos 𝛼 = 1 → Equation 1

𝑟 sin 𝛼 = 1 → Equation 2

Equation 2 ÷ Equation 1 gives:

𝑟 sin 𝛼 1
=1
𝑟 cos 𝛼

tan 𝛼 = 1

𝛼 = tan−1(1)
𝜋
𝛼=
4

Now,

𝑟 = √12 + 12

𝑟 = √2

𝜋
∴ sin 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 = √2 sin (𝜃 + 4 )

150
(ii) Hence, find the maximum value of 𝑓 and the smallest non-negative value of 𝜃 at

which it occurs. [5]

𝑓(𝜃) = sin 𝜃 + cos 𝜃

𝜋
𝑓(𝜃) = √2 sin (𝜃 + 4 )

Now,

−1 ≤ sin 𝜃 ≤ 1

𝜋
−1 ≤ sin (𝜃 + 4 ) ≤ 1

𝜋
−√2 ≤ √2 sin (𝜃 + 4 ) ≤ √2

Hence, the maximum value of 𝑓(𝜃) is √2 .

So,

𝜋
√2 sin (𝜃 + 4 ) = √2

𝜋
sin (𝜃 + 4 ) = 1

𝜋 𝜋
𝜃+4= 2

𝜋 𝜋
𝜃=2−4

𝜋
𝜃= 4

𝜋
∴ The smallest non-negative value of 𝜃 at which it occurs is 𝜃 = 4 .

151
Use trigonometric ratios for calculations

Tips:

1. If your answer involves surds, leave it in surd form.

2. Ensure to place your fraction in lowest terms.

152
Past Paper Question – June 2018 – Question 3(b)
3 3
(b) Given that cos 𝐴 = 5 and sin 𝐵 = 4 , where 𝐴 and 𝐵 are acute angles, calculate

(i) sin 2𝐴 [3]

(ii) cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) [3]

153
Past Paper Question – June 2018 – Question 3(b) – Solution
3 3
(b) Given that cos 𝐴 = 5 and sin 𝐵 = 4 , where 𝐴 and 𝐵 are acute angles, calculate

(i) sin 2𝐴 [3]

3
We are given that cos 𝐴 = 5

𝑎𝑑𝑗
cos 𝐴 = ℎ𝑦𝑝

5 4

𝐴
3

So,
𝑜𝑝𝑝
sin 𝐴 = ℎ𝑦𝑝

4
sin 𝐴 = 5

Now,

sin 2𝐴 = 2 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴

4 3
sin 2𝐴 = 2 (5) (5)

24
sin 2𝐴 = 25

154
(ii) cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) [3]

3
We are given that sin 𝐵 = 4

𝑜𝑝𝑝
= ℎ𝑦𝑝

4
3

𝐵
√7

𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2

32 + 𝑏 2 = 42

9 + 𝑏 2 = 16

𝑏 2 = 16 − 9

𝑏2 = 7

𝑏 = √7

So,

𝑎𝑑𝑗
cos 𝐵 = ℎ𝑦𝑝

√7
cos 𝐵 = 4

Now,

155
cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 − sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵

3 √7 4 3
cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) = (5) ( 4 ) − (5) (4)

3√7 3
cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) = −5
20

3√7 12
cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) = − 20
20

3√7−12
cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 20

156
Past Paper Question – June 2023 – Question 3(d)
3 5
(d) 𝐴 and 𝐵 are acute angles such that sin 𝐴 = 5 and cos 𝐵 = 13 . Calculate, without using

tables or calculators, the EXACT value of cos(𝐴 − 𝐵). [3]

157
Past Paper Question – June 2023 – Question 3(d) – Solution
3 5
(d) 𝐴 and 𝐵 are acute angles such that sin 𝐴 = 5 and cos 𝐵 = 13 . Calculate, without using

tables or calculators, the EXACT value of cos(𝐴 − 𝐵). [3]

3 5
We are given that sin 𝐴 = 5 and cos 𝐵 = 13 .

5 4

4 3
From this triangle, we have cos 𝐴 = 5 and sin 𝐴 = 5 .

And,

13
12

𝐵
5

5 12
From this triangle, we have cos 𝐵 = 13 and sin 𝐵 = 13 .

158
Hence,

cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵

4 5 3 12
cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) = (5) (13) + (5) (13)

20 36
cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) = 65 + 65

56
cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) = 65

159
Topic 2 – Coordinate Geometry

Objective 1: Derive equations of circles

Basic Formulae

Given 𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) :

𝒚 −𝒚
➢ Gradient of 𝐴𝐵 = 𝒙𝟐 −𝒙𝟏
𝟐 𝟏

➢ Length of 𝐴𝐵 = √(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 )𝟐 + (𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 )𝟐

𝒙𝟏 +𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟏 +𝒚𝟐
➢ Midpoint of 𝐴𝐵 = ( , )
𝟐 𝟐

➢ Equation of a circle with centre (0,0) and radius 𝑟 is:

𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑟2

➢ Standard equation of a circle is:

(𝒙 − 𝒂)𝟐 + (𝒚 − 𝒃)𝟐 = 𝒓𝟐

where the centre is (𝑎, 𝑏) and the radius is 𝑟.

➢ General equation of a circle is:

𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟐𝒇𝒙 + 𝟐𝒈𝒚 + 𝒄 = 𝟎

where the centre is (−𝑓, −𝑔) and the radius, 𝑟 = √𝑓 2 + 𝑔2 − 𝑐

160
Objective 2: Derive equations of tangents and normals to circle

Normal and Tangent to a Circle

Visual representation:

tangent

Points to note:

➢ A tangent to a circle touches the circumference of the circle at exactly one point.

➢ A radius meets a tangent to a circle at right angles.

➢ A normal is a straight line that is perpendicular to the tangent of a circle.

➢ Gradient of radius = Gradient of normal

➢ The product of the gradient of the tangent and the gradient of the normal is −1.

161
Objective 3: Determine the points of intersection of a curve with a straight line

Firstly, note that when the equation of a line is substituted into the equation of the

circle, a 𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 is formed.

Given a straight line and a circle, there are 3 possibilities:

(1) The line intersects the circle at 2 distinct points.

𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 > 𝟎

(2) The line just touches the circle. It is tangent so there is only 1 point of intersection.

𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 = 𝟎

This is used to prove

that a line is a tangent.

(3) The line does not interest the circle, so there are no points of intersection.

𝒃𝟐 − 𝟒𝒂𝒄 < 𝟎

162
Objective 4: Determine the points of intersection of two curves

Tips:

1. Solve the pair of equations simultaneously to find the points of intersection.

2. Points are always written of the form (𝑥, 𝑦).

163
Objective 5: Obtain the Cartesian equation of a curve given its parametric representation

Parametric Equations

An equation that connects 𝑥 and 𝑦 is called a Cartesian Equation.

Parametric equations are two equations, one in 𝑥 and one in 𝑦, that introduces a new

variable (often 𝑡 or 𝜃) such that 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡) and 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑡).

Type of Curve Cartesian Equation Parametric Equations

𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
Circle 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑟2
𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃

164
Objective 6: Determine the loci of points satisfying given properties

Locus of Points

The set of possible position of a point, 𝑃, which satisfies given condition is called the

locus of 𝑃.

A locus is often the equation of a straight line or a curve.

Theorem 1:

The locus of points at fixed distance, 𝑑, from a point 𝐶 is a circle, with 𝐶 being the centre

of the circle, and 𝑑, its radius.

𝑑 𝑑

165
Theorem 2:

The locus of points equidistant from 2 points 𝐴 and 𝐵 is the perpendicular bisector of

the line joining 𝐴 and 𝐵.

𝐴 𝐵

𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐵

166
General ways a question can come on Coordinate Geometry.

1. Asking you to find the centre and radius of a circle.

2. Points of intersection between two curves

3. Equation of tangent or normal to a circle

4. Parametric equations

5. Locus of points

167
Past Paper Question – June 2013 – Question 4(a) and 4(b)

(a) A circle 𝐶 is defined by the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 4 = 0.

(i) Show that the centre and the radius of the circle, 𝐶, are (3, 2) and 3,

respectively. [3]

(ii) (a) Find the equation of the normal to the circle 𝐶 at the point (6, 2). [3]

(b) Show that the tangent to the circle at the point (6, 2) is parallel to the

𝑦-axis. [3]

(b) Show that the Cartesian equation of the curve that has the parametric equations

𝑥 = 𝑡2 + 𝑡 , 𝑦 = 2𝑡 − 4

is 4𝑥 = 𝑦 2 + 10𝑦 + 24. [4]

168
Past Paper Question – June 2013 – Question 4(a) and 4(b) – Solution

(a) A circle 𝐶 is defined by the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 4 = 0.

(i) Show that the centre and the radius of the circle, 𝐶, are (3, 2) and 3,

respectively. [3]

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 4 = 0

𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 = −4

𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 + 4 = −4 + 4 + 9

(𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 − 2)2 = 9

which is of the form (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2 ,

where 𝐶(3, 2) and radius, 𝑟 = 3 units.

Q.E.D.

(ii) (a) Find the equation of the normal to the circle 𝐶 at the point (6, 2). [3]

The points are 𝐶(3, 2) and (6, 2).

𝑦 −𝑦
Gradient = 𝑥2−𝑥2
2 1

2−2
Gradient = 6−3

0
Gradient = 3

Gradient = 0

Since the gradient is 0, then the equation of the normal is a horizontal line.

The points (3, 2) and (6, 2) lie on the horizontal.

∴ The equation of the normal is: 𝑦 = 2

169
 (b) Show that the tangent to the circle at the point (6, 2) is parallel to the

𝑦-axis. [3]

Equation of the normal is 𝑦 = 2.

Consider the sketch below:

tangent

normal
(6, 2)
(3, 2)

∴ The equation of the tangent is 𝑥 = 6 which is parallel to the 𝑦-axis.

Q.E.D.

(b) Show that the Cartesian equation of the curve that has the parametric equations

𝑥 = 𝑡2 + 𝑡 , 𝑦 = 2𝑡 − 4

is 4𝑥 = 𝑦 2 + 10𝑦 + 24. [4]

𝑥 = 𝑡2 + 𝑡 → Equation 1

𝑦 = 2𝑡 − 4 → Equation 2

Rearranging Equation 2 gives:

2𝑡 = 𝑦 + 4
𝑦+4
𝑡= → Equation 3
2

170
Substituting Equation 3 into Equation 1 gives:

𝑦+4 2 𝑦+4
𝑥=( ) +( )
2 2

(𝑦+4)2 𝑦+4
𝑥= +
4 2

(× 4)

4𝑥 = (𝑦 + 4)2 + 2(𝑦 + 4)

4𝑥 = 𝑦 2 + 8𝑦 + 16 + 2𝑦 + 8

4𝑥 = 𝑦 2 + 10𝑦 + 24

∴ The Cartesian equation of the curve is: 4𝑥 = 𝑦 2 + 10𝑦 + 24

Q.E.D.

171
Past Paper Question – June 2021 – Question 4(a) and 4(b)

(a) A circle has equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 + 10𝑦 − 8 = 0.

(i) Determine the centre and radius of the circle. [4]

(ii) Determine the equation of the tangent which touches the circle at (3,11). [4]

(b) Show that the curve whose parametric equations are 𝑥 = 3 + 3 sin 𝜃 and 𝑦 = 3 cos 𝜃

represents a circle. [5]

172
Past Paper Question – June 2021 – Question 4(a) and 4(b) – Solution

(a) A circle has equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 + 10𝑦 − 8 = 0.

(i) Determine the centre and radius of the circle. [4]

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 + 10𝑦 − 8 = 0

𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 + 𝑦 2 + 10𝑦 + 25 = 8 + 4 + 25

(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 + 5)2 = 37

which is of the form (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2

where the centre is (2, −5) and the radius, 𝑟 = √37 units.

(ii) Determine the equation of the tangent which touches the circle at (3,11). [4]

Consider the diagram below:

tangent

(3, 11)

(2, −5)

The normal to the circle has points (2, −5) and (3, 11).

𝑦 −𝑦
Gradient of normal = 𝑥2−𝑥1
2 1

11−(−5)
Gradient of normal = 3−2

16
Gradient of normal = 1

Gradient of normal = 16

173
 Since the product of the gradient of the normal and its tangent is −1, then
1
the gradient of the tangent = − 16 .

1
Substituting 𝑚 = − 16 and point (3, 11) into 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ), we get:

1
𝑦 − 11 = − 16 (𝑥 − 3)

1 3
𝑦 − 11 = − 16 𝑥 + 16

1 179
𝑦 = − 16 𝑥 + 16

∴ The equation of the tangent that touches the circle at (3, 11) is:

16𝑦 = −𝑥 + 179

(b) Show that the curve whose parametric equations are 𝑥 = 3 + 3 sin 𝜃 and 𝑦 = 3 cos 𝜃

represents a circle. [5]

Rearranging the parametric equations, we have:

𝑥 = 3 + 3 sin 𝜃 and 𝑦 = 3 cos 𝜃

𝑦
𝑥 − 3 = 3 sin 𝜃 = cos 𝜃
3

𝑥−3 𝑦 2
= sin 𝜃 ( 3 ) = cos 2 𝜃
3

𝑥−3 2
( ) = sin2 𝜃
3

Now,

174
sin2 𝜃 + cos2 𝜃 = 1

𝑥−3 2 𝑦 2
( ) + (3) = 1
3

(𝑥−3)2 𝑦2
+ =1
9 9

(𝑥−3)2 +𝑦 2
=1
9

(𝑥 − 3)2 + 𝑦 2 = 9

which is of the form (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2

where the centre of the circle is (3, 0) and 𝑟 = 3 units.

∴ The curve represents a circle.

175
Past Paper Question – June 2022 – Question 4(a) and 4(d)

(a) A circle has equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 10𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 5 = 0.

(i) Determine the centre and radius of the circle. [4]

(ii) Determine the equation of the tangent to the circle at the point (2, 3). [4]

(d) A point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) moves in the 𝑥𝑦 plane such that it is the same distance from the

point 𝐴(1, 2) as it is from the line 𝑥 = 3. Determine the equation of the locus

of 𝑃. [6]

176
Past Paper Question – June 2022 – Question 4(a) and 4(d) – Solution

(a) A circle has equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 10𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 5 = 0.

(i) Determine the centre and radius of the circle. [4]

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 10𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 5 = 0

𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑦 = 5

𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 25 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑦 + 4 = 5 + 25 + 4

(𝑥 − 5)2 + (𝑦 + 2)2 = 34

which is in the form (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2,

where the centre is (5, −2) and the radius, 𝑟 = √34 .

(ii) Determine the equation of the tangent to the circle at the point (2, 3). [4]

Consider the points (5, −2) and (2, 3).

𝑦 −𝑦
𝑚 = 𝑥2−𝑥1
2 1

3−(−2)
𝑚= 2−5

5
𝑚 = −3

5
Gradient of normal = − 3

3
Gradient of tangent = 5

177
 3
Substituting 𝑚 = 5 and point (2, 3) into 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) gives:

3
𝑦 − 3 = 5 (𝑥 − 2)

3 6
𝑦 − 3 = 5𝑥 − 5

3 6
𝑦 = 5𝑥 − 5 + 3

3 9
𝑦 = 5𝑥 + 5

5𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 9

∴ The equation of the tangent is: 5𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 9

178
(d) A point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) moves in the 𝑥𝑦 plane such that it is the same distance from the

point 𝐴(1, 2) as it is from the line 𝑥 = 3. Determine the equation of the locus

of 𝑃. [6]

Consider the diagram below:

(1, 2)

(3, 𝑦)

𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑥

𝑥=3

Consider points (1, 2) and 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦).

Distance = √(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 2)2

Consider points (3, 𝑦) and 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦).

Distance = √(𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦)2

Distance = √(𝑥 − 3)2

179
Now,

√(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 2)2 = √(𝑥 − 3)2

Squaring both sides gives,

(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 2)2 = (𝑥 − 3)2

𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 + 4 = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9

𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 + 6𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 1 + 4 − 9 = 0

𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 4 = 0

∴ The equation of the locus of 𝑃 is: 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 4 = 0

180
Topic 3 – Vectors
𝑥
̂
Objective 1: Express a vector in the form (𝑦) or 𝑥𝒊̂ + 𝑦𝒋̂ + 𝑧𝒌
𝑧

To locate the point (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐), we can start at the origin 𝑂 and move 𝑥 units along the 𝑥-

axis, then 𝑦 units parallel to the 𝑦-axis and then 𝑧 units parallel to the 𝑧-axis.

𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐)

𝑐
𝑂
𝑎
𝑦
𝑏
𝑥

The 𝑥-axis, 𝑦-axis and 𝑧-axis are called the coordinate axes and are perpendicular or at

right angles to each other.

The Cartesian product ℝ × ℝ × ℝ = {(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)|𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℝ} is the set of all ordered triples

of real numbers and is denoted by ℝ3 .

Note:

In two-dimensional analytical geometry, the graph of an equation involving 𝑥 and 𝑦 is a

curve in ℝ𝟐 .

In three-dimensional analytical geometry, an equation in 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 represents a surface

in ℝ𝟑 .

181
Objective 2: Perform basic operations on vectors

Addition and Subtraction of Vectors

We can add vectors by adding the corresponding components. We can also do so under

subtraction.

𝑢1 𝑣1
𝑢 𝑣
Let 𝒖 = ( 2 ) and 𝒗 = ( 2 ).
𝑢3 𝑣3

Then

𝑢1 𝑣1
𝑢 𝑣
𝒖 + 𝒗 = ( 2) + ( 2)
𝑢3 𝑣3

𝒖 𝟏 + 𝒗𝟏
𝒖 + 𝒗 = (𝒖 𝟐 + 𝒗 𝟐 )
𝒖 𝟑 + 𝒗𝟑

and

𝑢1 𝑣1
𝑢 𝑣
𝒖 − 𝒗 = ( 2) − ( 2)
𝑢3 𝑣3

𝒖 𝟏 − 𝒗𝟏
𝒖 − 𝒗 = (𝒖 𝟐 − 𝒗 𝟐 )
𝒖 𝟑 − 𝒗𝟑

182
Scalar Multiplication of Vectors

When a vector is multiplied by a scalar, 𝜆, each component is multiplied by the scalar.

𝑢1
𝜆𝒖 = 𝜆 (𝑢2 )
𝑢3

𝝀𝒖𝟏
𝝀𝒖 = (𝝀𝒖𝟐 ) where 𝜆 ∈ ℝ
𝝀𝒖𝟑

Equality of Vectors

➢ Two vectors are equal if and only if the magnitude and direction of the vectors

are equal.

𝑢1 𝑣1
𝑢 𝑣
Let 𝒖 = ( 2 ) and 𝒗 = ( 2 ).
𝑢3 𝑣3

Two vectors, 𝑢 and 𝑣, are equal if and only if the corresponding components are equal.

Therefore,

𝒖𝟏 𝒗𝟏
( 𝟐 ) = (𝒗𝟐 ) iff 𝒖𝟏 = 𝒗𝟏 , 𝒖𝟐 = 𝒗𝟐 and 𝒖𝟑 = 𝒗𝟑 .
𝒖
𝒖𝟑 𝒗𝟑

183
Objective 3: Calculate the magnitude and direction of a vector

Magnitude of a Vector

The magnitude of a vector is essentially the length of a vector.

If ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂ Magnitude of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑂𝑃 = 𝑥𝒊̂ + 𝑦𝒋̂ + 𝑧𝒌 𝑂𝑃 is given by the formula:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐
|𝑶𝑷

184
Objective 4: Derive unit vectors, position vectors and displacement vectors

Objective 5: Use unit vectors, position vectors and displacement vectors

Unit Vectors

A unit vector has a magnitude of 1.

̂ are ALL unit vectors.

Note: 𝒊̂, 𝒋̂ and 𝒌

1
|

̂
𝒌
v
𝒋̂
𝒊̂ 𝑂
1 𝑦
1
𝑥

1 0 0
𝒊̂ = (0) , 𝒋̂ = (1) , ̂ = (0 )
𝒌
0 0 1

Important:

𝒗
̂ = |𝒗| .
The unit vector parallel to a vector 𝒗 is 𝒗

185
Position Vectors

Consider the point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) in the three-dimensional space.

𝑂𝑃 = 𝑥𝒊̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑥
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 = (𝑦)
𝑧

Vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 is a 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒗𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓.

A position vector is a vector relative to the origin.

Displacement Vectors

Consider the position vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ below.

𝑂𝐴 and 𝑂𝐵

𝐴
𝑂

The displacement vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐴𝐵 is given by:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑩 𝑨𝑶 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑩

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑂𝐵
𝐴𝐵 = −𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑩 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑩 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑨

186
Objective 6: Calculate the angle between two given vectors

Dot Product

Formula: 𝒂 ⋅ 𝒃 = |𝒂||𝒃| 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽

𝒂⋅𝒃
or 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = |𝒂||𝒃|

This is used to find the angle between 2 vectors. However, the vectors must be both

converging or both diverging.

Visual Representation:

Diverging vectors Converging vectors

𝜽 𝜽

Consider the vectors below:

𝜽 Note: 𝜃 = 180 − 𝑥
𝒙
𝜽

187
Objective 7: Determine the equation of a line with given conditions

Vector Equation of a Line

A line is defined in space by either one of the following:

1. A point on the line and a vector parallel to the line (direction of the line)

2. Two points on the line

Finding the equation of a line given a point on a line and the direction of the line

̂ , then the
If a line passes through a point, 𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ), and is parallel to 𝑎𝒊̂ + 𝑏𝒋̂ + 𝑐𝒌

vector equation of the line is

̂ + 𝝀(𝒂𝒊̂ + 𝒃𝒋̂ + 𝒄𝒌
𝒓 = 𝒙𝟏 𝒊̂ + 𝒚𝟏 𝒋̂ + 𝒛𝟏 𝒌 ̂)

Additionally,

Let 𝒂 be a fixed point on the line and 𝒎 be a vector parallel to the line.

The equation of the line is 𝒓 = 𝒂 + 𝜆𝒎 where 𝜆 ∈ ℝ.

Parametric form:

𝒙 = 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒂𝝀

𝒚 = 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒃𝝀

𝒛 = 𝒛𝟏 + 𝒄𝝀

Cartesian form:
𝒙−𝒙𝟏 𝒚−𝒚𝟏 𝒛−𝒛𝟏
𝝀= = =
𝒂 𝒃 𝒄

188
Finding the equation of a line given two points on the line

Consider a line passing through 2 fixed points 𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ).

The position vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are as follows:

𝑂𝐴 and 𝑂𝐵

𝒂 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂
𝑂𝐴 = 𝑥1 𝒊̂ + 𝑦1 𝒋̂ + 𝑧1 𝒌

̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑥2 𝒊̂ + 𝑦2 𝒋̂ + 𝑧2 𝒌
𝒃 = 𝑂𝐵

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝐵
The displacement vector, 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 𝑂𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 𝒃 − 𝒂

The vector equation of a line given two points is: 𝒓 = 𝒂 + 𝝀(𝒃 − 𝒂)

189
Parallel, Intersecting and Skewed Lines

The location of two lines in space may be such that:

(a) the lines are parallel

(b) the lines are not parallel and intersect

(c) the lines are not parallel and do not intersect. These are called skewed lines.

Parallel lines

➢ Parallel lines have equal direction ratios.

➢ The parallel vectors to the lines are scalar multiples of each other.

190
Intersecting lines

➢ Consider two lines whose vector equations are

𝒓𝟏 = 𝒂𝟏 + 𝜆𝒃𝟏

𝒓𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 + 𝜇𝒃𝟐

In order for these lines to intersect, there must be unique values of 𝜆 and 𝜇 such

that 𝒂𝟏 + 𝜆𝒃𝟏 = 𝒂𝟐 + 𝜇𝒃𝟐 .

If no such values exist, then the lines do not intersect.

point of intersection

Note: To determine if the lines intersect, solve two of the

equations simultaneously to find the values of 𝜇 and 𝜆.

Then, substitute those values into the remaining third equation.

If it satisfies the equation, the lines intersect.

If they do not satisfy the equation, the lines do not intersect.

191
Skew lines

➢ Since skew lines are lines that are not parallel and do not intersect, then these

lines will be on different planes.

➢ Skew lines will not intersect even though they are not parallel.

192
Objective 8: Determine the relationship between two lines

Perpendicular and Parallel Vectors

If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are perpendicular, then 𝒂 ⋅ 𝒃 = 𝟎.

Two vectors are parallel if and only if one is a scalar multiple of the other.

193
Objective 9: Determine the equation of a plane, in the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑥 = 𝑑, or

𝒓⋅𝒏=𝑑

Equation of a plane

The vector equation of a plane is: 𝒓 ⋅ 𝒏 = 𝒂 ⋅ 𝒏

The Cartesian equation of a plane is: 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃𝒚 + 𝒄𝒛 = 𝒅

194
Past Paper Question – June 2016 – Question 4(b)
1 2
(b) Let 𝒖 = (−3) and 𝒗 = (1) be two position vectors in ℝ3 .
2 5

(i) Calculate the lengths of 𝒖 and 𝒗 respectively. [3]

(ii) Find cos 𝜃 where 𝜃 is the angle between 𝒖 and 𝒗 in ℝ3 . [4]

195
Past Paper Question – June 2016 – Question 4(b) – Solution
1 2
(b) Let 𝒖 = (−3) and 𝒗 = (1) be two position vectors in ℝ3 .
2 5

(i) Calculate the lengths of 𝒖 and 𝒗 respectively. [3]

We have,

1
𝒖 = −3)
(
2

|𝒖| = √(1)2 + (−3)2 + (2)2

|𝒖| = √1 + 9 + 4

|𝒖| = √14 units

Now,

2
𝒗 = (1)
5

|𝒗| = √(2)2 + (1)2 + (5)2

|𝒗| = √4 + 1 + 25

|𝒗| = √30 units

∴ The lengths of 𝒖 and 𝒗 are √14 units and √30 units respectively.

196
(ii) Find cos 𝜃 where 𝜃 is the angle between 𝒖 and 𝒗 in ℝ3 . [4]

Required to find cos 𝜃 where 𝜃 is the angle between 𝒖 and 𝒗 in ℝ3 .

𝒖⋅𝒗
cos 𝜃 = |𝒖||𝒗| , where 𝜃 is the angle between 𝒖 and 𝒗 in ℝ3 .

Now,

1 2
𝒖 ⋅ 𝒗 = (−3) ⋅ (1)
2 5

𝒖 ⋅ 𝒗 = (1)(2) + (−3)(1) + (2)(5)

𝒖 ⋅ 𝒗 = 2 − 3 + 10

𝒖⋅𝒗=9

So, we have,
𝒖⋅𝒗
cos 𝜃 = |𝒖||𝒗|

3
cos 𝜃 =
√14√30

9
cos 𝜃 =
√420

9
∴ cos 𝜃 =
√420

197
Past Paper Question – June 2017 – Question 4(b) and 4(c)

(b) Let 𝑷(3, 1, 2) and 𝑸(1, −2, 4).

(i) Express the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂.

𝑷𝑸 in the form 𝑥𝒊̂ + 𝑦𝒋̂ + 𝑧𝒌 [2]

(ii) Determine the Cartesian equation of the plane which passes through the

point 𝑸 and is perpendicular to ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑷𝑸. [6]

(c) The vector equations of two lines, 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 , are:

̂ + 𝛼(−2𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ − 3𝒌
𝐿1 = −𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ − 2𝒌 ̂)

̂ + 𝛽(𝒊̂ − 𝒋̂ + 𝒌
𝐿2 = −2𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ − 4𝒌 ̂)

(i) Show that 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 intersect. [5]

(ii) Hence, determine the coordinates of the point of intersection of the two

lines. [2]

198
Past Paper Question – June 2017 – Question 4(b) and 4(c) – Solution

(b) Let 𝑷(3, 1, 2) and 𝑸(1, −2, 4).

(i) Express the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑷𝑸 in the form 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘. [2]

Let 𝑷(3, 1, 2) and 𝑸(1, −2, 4).

3 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ( ) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
So, 𝑂𝑃 = 1 and 𝑂𝑄 = −2) .
(
2 4

Now,

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝑄
𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 𝑂𝑃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

1 3
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−2) − (1)
𝑃𝑄
4 2

1−3
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−2 − 1)
𝑃𝑄
4−2

−2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−3)
𝑃𝑄
2

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂ which is in the form 𝑥𝒊̂ + 𝑦𝒋̂ + 𝑧𝒌

𝑃𝑄 = −2𝒊̂ − 3𝒋̂ + 2𝒌 ̂.

(ii) Determine the Cartesian equation of the plane which passes through the

point 𝑸 and is perpendicular to ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑷𝑸. [6]

𝑥 −2 1
Let 𝒓 = (𝑦) , 𝒏 = (−3) and 𝒂 = (−2).
𝑧 2 4

199
 The Cartesian equation of the plane is:

𝒓⋅𝒏=𝒂⋅𝒏

𝑥 −2 1 −2
(𝑦) ⋅ (−3) = (−2) ⋅ (−3)
𝑧 2 4 2

−2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = (1)(−2) + (−2)(−3) + (4)(2)

−2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = −2 + 6 + 8

−2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 12

(c) The vector equations of two lines, 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 , are:

𝐿1 = −𝑖 + 𝑗 − 2𝑘 + 𝛼(−2𝑖 + 𝑗 − 3𝑘)

𝐿2 = −2𝑖 + 𝑗 − 4𝑘 + 𝛽(𝑖 − 𝑗 + 𝑘)

(i) Show that 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 intersect. [5]

Required to show that 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 intersect.

̂ + 𝛼(−2𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ − 3𝒌
𝐿1 = −𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ − 2𝒌 ̂)

̂ + 𝛽(𝒊̂ − 𝒋̂ + 𝒌
𝐿2 = −2𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ − 4𝒌 ̂)

Equating coefficients gives:

−1 − 2𝛼 = −2 + 𝛽 → Equation 1

1+𝛼 =1−𝛽 → Equation 2

−2 − 3𝛼 = −4 + 𝛽 → Equation 3

200
 Equation 1 + Equation 2 gives:

−𝛼 = −1

𝛼=1

Substituting 𝛼 = 1 into Equation 2 gives:

1+1= 1−𝛽

2=1−𝛽

𝛽 = 1−2

𝛽 = −1

Substituting 𝛼 = 1 and 𝛽 = −1 into Equation 3 gives:

L.H.S = −2 − 3(1) = −2 − 2 = −5

R.H.S = −4 + (−1) = −4 − 1 = −5

Since L.H.S = R.H.S, then all three equations are satisfied by 𝛼 = 1 and 𝛽 = −1.

∴ 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 intersect.
Q.E.D.

(ii) Hence, determine the coordinates of the point of intersection of the two

lines. [2]

Required to determine the coordinates of the point of intersection of the two

lines.

Substituting 𝛼 = 1 into 𝐿1 gives:

̂ + 1(−2𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ − 3𝒌
−𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ − 2𝒌 ̂ ) = −𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ − 2𝒌
̂ − 2𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ − 3𝒌
̂

̂ + 1(−2𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ − 3𝒌
−𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ − 2𝒌 ̂ ) = −3𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ − 5𝒌
̂

201
Alternatively,

Substituting 𝛽 = −1 into 𝐿2 gives:

̂ + (−1)(𝒊̂ − 𝒋̂ + 𝒌
−2𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ − 4𝒌 ̂ ) = −2𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ − 4𝒌
̂ − 𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ − 𝒌
̂

̂ + (−1)(𝒊̂ − 𝒋̂ + 𝒌
−2𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ − 4𝒌 ̂ ) = −3𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ − 5𝒌
̂

∴ The point of intersection is (−3, 2, −5).

202
Past Paper Question – June 2021 – Question 4(c) and 4(d)
1 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (2) and 𝑂𝐵
(c) Two position vectors are represented by 𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−3).
3 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑂𝐵
Determine the angle between 𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . [8]

(d) Determine the vector equation of a plane which passes through the point (2, 5, 3)

̂.
and is perpendicular to the vector 4𝒊̂ + 4𝒋̂ − 𝒌 [4]

203
Past Paper Question – June 2021 – Question 4(c) and 4(d) – Solution
1 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (2) and 𝑂𝐵
(c) Two position vectors are represented by 𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−3).
3 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑂𝐵
Determine the angle between 𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . [8]

1 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (2) and 𝑂𝐵
We are given that 𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−3).
3 2

Recall:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑂𝐵
𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = |𝑂𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | cos 𝜃 where 𝜃 represents the angle between 𝑂𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .

Well,

1 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑂𝐵
𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (2) ⋅ (−3)
3 2

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (1)(1) + (2)(−3) + (3)(2)

𝑂𝐴 ⋅ 𝑂𝐵

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝑂𝐵
𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 1 − 6 + 6

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 1
𝑂𝐴 ⋅ 𝑂𝐵

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √(1)2 + (2)2 + (3)2

|𝑂𝐴

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √1 + 4 + 9
|𝑂𝐴

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √14
|𝑂𝐴

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √(1)2 + (−3)2 + (2)2

|𝑂𝐵

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √1 + 9 + 4
|𝑂𝐵

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √14
|𝑂𝐵

204
 Now,

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = |𝑂𝐴

𝑂𝐴 ⋅ 𝑂𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ||𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | cos 𝜃

1 = √14√14 cos 𝜃

1
cos 𝜃 =
√14√14

1
𝜃 = cos −1 (14)

𝜃 = 85.9° (to 1 decimal place)

(d) Determine the vector equation of a plane which passes through the point (2, 5, 3)

and is perpendicular to the vector 4𝒊 + 4𝒋 − 𝒌. [4]

The vector equation of the plane is:

𝒓⋅𝒏=𝒂⋅𝒏

4 2 4
𝒓 ⋅ ( 4 ) = (5) ⋅ ( 4 )
−1 3 −1

4
𝒓 ⋅ ( 4 ) = (2)(4) + (5)(4) + (3)(−1)
−1

4
𝒓 ⋅ ( 4 ) = 8 + 20 − 3
−1

4
𝒓 ⋅ ( 4 ) = 25 or ̂ ) = 25
𝒓 ⋅ (4𝒊̂ + 4𝒋̂ − 𝒌
−1

205
 Module 3 – Calculus I

Topic 1 – Limits

Objective 1: Use graphs to determine the limit of a function

Objective 2: Describe the behaviour of a function 𝑓(𝑥)

Objective 3: Use the limit notation

Consider the graph below.

𝑦
𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥
2

From the graph, it can be seen that as 𝑥 approaches 2, 𝑓(𝑥) approaches −∞.

Another way of writing this is 𝒙 → 𝟐 , 𝒇(𝒙) → −∞, which is read as “as 𝑥 tends to 2, 𝑓(𝑥)

tends to −∞”.

Using limit notation, this is written as 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = −∞, which is read as “the limit of 𝑓(𝑥)
𝒙→𝟐

as 𝑥 tends to 2 is −∞”.

206
Limit of a function

Definition:

A limit of a function 𝑓(𝑥) is the value the function approaches at a given 𝑥-value.

Limit Notation: 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳 , 𝒇(𝒙) → 𝑳 as 𝒙 → 𝒂

𝒙→𝒂

Right Hand and Left Hand Limits

Consider lim 𝑓(𝑥).

𝑥→𝑎

The left hand limit is 𝐥𝐢𝐦− 𝒇(𝒙) which is the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 tends to 𝑎 from the left.
𝒙→𝒂

The right hand limit is 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ 𝒇(𝒙) which is the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 tends to 𝑎 from the right.
𝒙→𝒂

NB: The left hand limit is not always equal to the right hand limit.

Existence of a limit:

For a limit to exist for a function 𝑓(𝑥) at some value 𝑥 = 𝑎, then the following must be

true:

(i) The left hand limit must exist at 𝒙 = 𝒂.

(ii) The right hand limit must exist at 𝒙 = 𝒂.

(iii) The left hand limit and the right hand limit at 𝒙 = 𝒂 must be equal.

In other words,

If 𝐥𝐢𝐦− 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ 𝒇(𝒙), then 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) exists.

𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

207
Evaluating limits using Direct Substitution

➢ To find lim 𝑓(𝑥) by direct substitution, we substitute 𝑥 = 𝑎 into 𝑓(𝑥) and arrive
𝑥→𝑎

at the value where lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎).

𝑥→𝑎

Indeterminate form

Definition:

An indeterminate form of a limit is a form in which we do not have enough information

0
to evaluate its limit. 0 is considered indeterminate since it can be 1, ∞ or 0.

The following table gives some indeterminate forms.

Indeterminate form
0
0
∞
∞

∞ × −∞
0×∞
00
∞0
1∞

Evaluating limits using Factorisation

➢ When the method of direct substitution produces an answer in indeterminate

form, we can factorise. After factorising, we cancel and then substitute directly to

evaluate the limit.

208
Evaluating limits as 𝒙 tends to infinity

When working with limits tending to infinity, divide both the numerator and

denominator by the highest power of 𝒙 in the denominator.

209
Objective 4: Use limit theorems in simple problems

Limit Laws

Given lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐹 and lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐺,

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

1. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒄 = 𝒄, where 𝒄 is a constant

𝒙→𝒂

2. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) ± 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) ± 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝑭 ± 𝑮

𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

3. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒌𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒌 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒌𝑭, where 𝒌 is a constant

𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

4. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) ⋅ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝑭𝑮

𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

𝒇(𝒙) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) 𝑭

𝒙→𝒂
5. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) = =𝑮
𝒙→𝒂 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙)
𝒙→𝒂

210
 sin 𝑥
Objective 5: Use the fact that lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥

Integration of Limits with Trigonometrical Functions

𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
• 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝟏
𝜽→𝟎 𝜽

𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽−𝟏
• 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝟎
𝜽→𝟎 𝜽

𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽
• 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝟏
𝜽→𝟎 𝜽

211
Objective 6: Determine points of continuity and discontinuity of functions

Conditions for Continuity

If 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎, then the following conditions must be met:

(1) 𝒇(𝒂) is defined

(2) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) exists

𝒙→𝒂

(3) 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒂)

𝒙→𝒂

ALL 3 conditions must be met for continuity.

Types of Discontinuity

Infinite discontinuity

If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞ or lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞, 𝑓(𝑥) is said to demonstrate infinite discontinuity at
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

𝑥 = 𝑎.

1
𝑦=𝑥

𝑥
0

1
The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 demonstrates infinite discontinuity at 𝑥 = 0.

212
Point discontinuity

If lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists but does not equal to 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑓(𝑥) is said to demonstrate point
𝑥→𝑎

discontinuity at 𝑥 = 𝑎.

𝑓(𝑥)
3 |

2
|

1
|

| | | | 𝑥
−2 −1 1 2
−1
|

−2
|

−3
|

The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) has a hole at 𝑥 = 1.

The function is discontinuous at 𝑥 = 1 since 𝑓(1) is not defined, while lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 2.
𝑥→1

If 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 1, the limit and the function values must be equal.

213
Jump discontinuity

If lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦1 and lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦2 , where 𝑦1 ≠ 𝑦2 , then 𝑓(𝑥) is said to exhibit jump
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

discontinuity at 𝑥 = 𝑎.

𝑦
6 𝑓(𝑥)
|
4
|

jump in the graph

2
|

| | | | | | 𝑥
−6 −4 −2 2 4 6
−2
|

−4
|

−6
|

The graph has a break at 𝑥 = 2.

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 and lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 2

𝑥→2+ 𝑥→2

Since 4 ≠ 2, then 𝑓(𝑥) is said to exhibit a jump discontinuity at 𝑥 = 2.

The function is discontinuous at 𝑥 = 2.

Important Note:

A function is discontinuous when the denominator is equal to zero.

214
Past Paper Question – June 2014 – Question 5(a)

(a) Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a function defined as

𝑎𝑥 + 2, 𝑥 < 3
𝑓(𝑥) = {
𝑎𝑥 2 , 𝑥≥3

(i) Find the value of 𝑎 if 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 3. [4]

𝑥 2 +2
(ii) Let 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑏𝑥 2 +𝑥+4 .

Given that lim 2𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑔(𝑥), find the value of 𝑏. [5]
𝑥→1 𝑥→0

215
Past Paper Question – June 2014 – Question 5(a) – Solution

(a) Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a function defined as

𝑎𝑥 + 2, 𝑥 < 3
𝑓(𝑥) = {
𝑎𝑥 2 , 𝑥≥3

(i) Find the value of 𝑎 if 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 3. [4]

Since 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 3, then

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→3− 𝑥→3

lim (𝑎𝑥 + 2) = lim+ 𝑎𝑥 2

𝑥→3− 𝑥→3

𝑎(3) + 2 = 𝑎(3)2

3𝑎 + 2 = 9𝑎

9𝑎 − 3𝑎 = 2

6𝑎 = 2
1
𝑎=3

𝑥 2 +2
(ii) Let 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑏𝑥 2 +𝑥+4 .

Given that lim 2𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑔(𝑥), find the value of 𝑏. [5]
𝑥→1 𝑥→0

𝑥 2 +2
lim 2𝑔(𝑥) = lim (2 ⋅ )
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑏𝑥 2 +𝑥+4

2𝑥 2 +4
lim 2𝑔(𝑥) = lim (𝑏𝑥 2+𝑥+4)
𝑥→1 𝑥→1

2(1)2 +4
lim 2𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑏(1)2+(1)+4
𝑥→1

2+4
lim 2𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑏+1+4
𝑥→1

6
lim 2𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑏+5
𝑥→1

216
Now,

𝑥 2 +2
lim 𝑔(𝑥) = lim (𝑏𝑥 2 +𝑥+4)
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

(0)2 +2
lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑏(0)2+(0)+4
𝑥→0

2
lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 4
𝑥→0

1
lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 2
𝑥→0

We are given that:

lim 2𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑥→1 𝑥→0

6 1
=2
𝑏+5

𝑏 + 5 = 12

𝑏 = 12 − 5

𝑏=7

∴ The value of 𝑏 = 7.

217
Past Paper Question – June 2021 – Question 6(a)
2𝑥 + 3 ; 𝑥 < 1
(a) A function 𝑓 is defined as 𝑓(𝑥) = { 2 ;𝑥 = 1
𝑥 2 −1
;𝑥 > 1
𝑥−1

(i) Determine whether or not the lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists. [5]

𝑥→1

(ii) Determine whether 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑥 = 1. [2]

218
Past Paper Question – June 2021 – Question 6(a) – Solution
2𝑥 + 3 ; 𝑥 < 1
(a) A function 𝑓 is defined as 𝑓(𝑥) = { 2 ;𝑥 = 1
𝑥 2 −1
;𝑥 > 1
𝑥−1

(i) Determine whether or not the lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists. [5]

𝑥→1

For the lim 𝑓(𝑥) to exist, lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 𝑓(𝑥).

𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→1

Now,

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim−(2𝑥 + 3)

𝑥→1− 𝑥→1

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 2(1) + 3

𝑥→1−

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 + 3
𝑥→1−

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 5
𝑥→1−

And,

𝑥 2 −1
lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥−1

(𝑥−1)(𝑥+1)
lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ (𝑥−1)
𝑥→1 𝑥→1

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+(𝑥 + 1)

𝑥→1+ 𝑥→1

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 + 1
𝑥→1+

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 2
𝑥→1+

219
 Since lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 5 and lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 2, then lim− 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim+ 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥→1

∴ The lim 𝑓(𝑥) does not exist.

𝑥→1

(ii) Determine whether 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑥 = 1. [2]

Since lim 𝑓(𝑥) does not exist, then 𝑓 is not continuous at 𝑥 = 1.

𝑥→1

220
Past Paper Question – June 2022 – Question 5(a)
𝑥 2 +3𝑥−10
(a) Determine lim . [5]
𝑥→2 𝑥 2 +𝑥−6

221
Past Paper Question – June 2022 – Question 5(a) – Solution
𝑥 2 +3𝑥−10
(a) Determine lim . [5]
𝑥→2 𝑥 2 +𝑥−6

𝑥 2 +3𝑥−10 (𝑥−2)(𝑥+5)
lim = lim (𝑥−2)(𝑥+3)
𝑥→2 𝑥 2 +𝑥−6 𝑥→2

𝑥 2 +3𝑥−10 𝑥+5
lim = lim 𝑥+3
𝑥→2 𝑥 2 +𝑥−6 𝑥→2

𝑥 2 +3𝑥−10 (2)+5
lim = (2)+3
𝑥→2 𝑥 2 +𝑥−6

𝑥 2 +3𝑥−10 7
lim =5
𝑥→2 𝑥 2 +𝑥−6

𝑥 2 +3𝑥−10 7
∴ lim =5
𝑥→2 𝑥 2 +𝑥−6

222
Past Paper Question – June 2023 – Question 5(a)
2𝑥 3 −4𝑥+1
(a) Determine lim . [5]
𝑥→∞ 3𝑥 4 +𝑥 2 −2

223
Past Paper Question – June 2023 – Question 5(a) – Solution
2𝑥 3 −4𝑥+1
(a) Determine lim . [5]
𝑥→∞ 3𝑥 4 +𝑥 2 −2

2𝑥3 4𝑥 1
2𝑥 3 −4𝑥+1 − 4+ 4
𝑥4 𝑥 𝑥
lim = lim 4 𝑥2
𝑥→∞ 3𝑥 4 +𝑥 2 −2 3𝑥
𝑥→∞ 4 + 4− 4
2
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

2 4 1
2𝑥 3 −4𝑥+1 − +
𝑥 𝑥3 𝑥4
lim = lim 1 2
𝑥→∞ 3𝑥 4 +𝑥 2 −2 𝑥→∞ 3 + 2 − 4
𝑥 𝑥

2𝑥 3 −4𝑥+1 0−0+0
lim =
𝑥→∞ 3𝑥 4 +𝑥 2 −2 3+0−0

2𝑥 3 −4𝑥+1 0
lim =3
𝑥→∞ 3𝑥 4 +𝑥 2 −2

2𝑥 3 −4𝑥+1
lim =0
𝑥→∞ 3𝑥 4 +𝑥 2 −2

224
Topic 2 – Differentiation

Objective 1: Define the derivative of a function at a point as a limit

Differentiation from first principles

Definition:

By first principles, we mean ‘use the definition of 𝒇′ (𝒙)’.

The definition of the derivative of a function is given as:

𝒇(𝒙+𝒉)−𝒇(𝒙)
𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒉→𝟎 𝒉

225
Objective 2: Use differentiation notations

Objective 3: Differentiate simple functions from first principles

Basic Differentiation Rules

Here are some rules for differentiation you should know.

Function Derivative
𝑦=𝑘 𝑑𝑦
=0
𝑑𝑥

𝑦 = 𝑥𝑛 𝑑𝑦
= 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥

𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑦
= 𝑘𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥

𝑦 = cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑦
= − sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑦 = sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑦
= cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

More Differentiation of Trigonometrical Functions

𝒅
[𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃)] = 𝒂 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃)
𝒅𝒙

𝒅
[𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃)] = −𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃)
𝒅𝒙

𝒅
[𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝒙)] = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒙
𝒅𝒙

𝒅
[𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃)] = 𝒂 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 (𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃)
𝒅𝒙

226
Objective 4: Use the sum, product and quotient rules of differentiation

Objective 5: Differentiate sums, products and quotients of trigonometric functions

Product Rule

If 𝒚 = 𝒖𝒗,

𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒗 𝒅𝒖
then 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒖 𝒅𝒙 + 𝒗 𝒅𝒙

Quotient Rule
𝒖
If 𝒚 = 𝒗,

𝒅𝒖 𝒅𝒗
𝒅𝒚 𝒗 −𝒖
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
Then 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒗𝟐

227
Objective 6: Apply the chain rule in differentiation

Chain Rule
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒖
Formula: = 𝒅𝒖 × 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒙

Shortened form of chain rule:

𝑑𝑦
can be directly obtained by:
𝑑𝑥

Step 1: Bring down the power.

Step 2: Differentiate inside the brackets.

Step 3: Multiply by the original bracket to one less the power.

Parametric Differentiation

Definition:

Parametric equations are two equations, one in 𝑥 and one in 𝑦, that introduces a new

variable such that 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡) and 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑡).

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
Given both 𝑥 and 𝑦 as functions of 𝑡, 𝑑𝑡 and 𝑑𝑡 can be found by:

𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒕
= × 𝒅𝒙 (chain rule)
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒕

228
Objective 7: Solve problems involving rates of change

Rates of change

Definition:

A rate means with respect to time.

𝒅𝒓
= rate of change of radius
𝒅𝒕

Unit: 𝒄𝒎𝒔−𝟏

𝒅𝑨
= rate of change of area
𝒅𝒕

Unit: 𝒄𝒎𝟐 𝒔−𝟏

𝒅𝑽
= rate of change of volume
𝒅𝒕

Unit: 𝒄𝒎𝟑 𝒔−𝟏

Some important information for rate of change questions:

A negative (−) sign means that rate is decreasing.

For example, if air is being blown into a balloon, the rate of change of radius will be

positive. If there is a hole in a balloon such that air is escaping, then the rate of change of

radius will be negative.

Formulae:

𝟒
Volume of sphere, 𝑽 = 𝟑 𝝅𝒓𝟑

Surface Area of sphere, 𝑺 = 𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐

229
Objective 8: Use the sign of the first derivative to investigate when a function is increasing

or decreasing

Increasing and Decreasing Functions

An increasing function is one in which as 𝑥 increases, 𝑦 increases.

𝑦2
|

𝑦1
|

| | 𝑥
𝑥1 𝑥2

Note:

➢ 𝑥2 > 𝑥1 and 𝑦2 > 𝑦1

➢ An increasing function has a positive gradient.

A decreasing function is one in which as 𝑥 increases, 𝑦 decreases.

𝑦1
|

𝑥2
|
| 𝑥
𝑥1

𝑦2
|

230
Note:

➢ 𝑥2 > 𝑥1 but 𝑦2 < 𝑦1

➢ A decreasing function has a negative gradient.

231
Objective 9: Apply the concept of stationary points

Practical Maximum and Minimum Problems

𝒅𝒚
Recall: Given 𝑦 in terms of 𝑥, putting 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟎 gives the 𝒙 coordinates of turning point, and

𝒅𝟐 𝒚
gives nature of turning point.
𝒅𝒙𝟐

Note: Even if the first part is not found, the rest of the question can be done.

232
Objective 10: Calculate second derivatives

Objective 11: Interpret the significance of the sign of the second derivative

Objective 12: Use the sign of the second derivative to determine the nature of stationary

points

The Second Derivative

Definition:

The second derivative of a function is a function that has been differentiated twice.

𝒅𝟐 𝒚
It is represented by 𝒅𝒙𝟐 or 𝒇′′ (𝒙).

Classification of turning points using the Second Derivative

We can classify turning points by using the second derivative test. Let the point at 𝑥 = 𝑎

be a stationary point of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).

𝒅𝟐 𝒚
(i) If 𝒅𝒙𝟐 > 𝟎 when 𝑥 = 𝑎, then there is a minimum point at 𝑥 = 𝑎.

𝒅𝟐 𝒚
(ii) If 𝒅𝒙𝟐 < 𝟎 when 𝑥 = 𝑎, then there is a maximum point at 𝑥 = 𝑎.

𝒅𝟐 𝒚
(iii) If 𝒅𝒙𝟐 = 𝟎, you must test further. (In this case you can go back to the first

derivative test.)

233
Determining the nature of turning points
𝒅𝒚
To determine the nature of turning points, we look at the sign of .
𝒅𝒙

There are 4 types of turning points.

1. Maximum turning point

𝑦
maximum
turning point

2. Minimum turning point

minimum
turning point

234
3. Point of inflection with positive gradient

positive
gradient

zero gradient
𝑥
Point of inflection
with positive gradient

positive
gradient

4. Point of inflection with negative gradient

negative
gradient

zero gradient
𝑥

Point of inflection
with negative gradient

negative
gradient
235
Objective 13: Sketch graphs of given functions

Curve Sketching

To sketch a curve:

1. Put 𝑥 = 0 to determine where the curve cuts the 𝑦-axis.

2. Put 𝑦 = 0 to determine where the curve cuts the 𝑥-axis.

𝑑𝑦
3. Find and equate to 0 to find the 𝑥 coordinate(s) of the turning point(s). Then,
𝑑𝑥

substitute into the equation of the curve to find the corresponding 𝑦-coordinate.

Finally, determine the nature of the turning point.

Sketching Rational Curves

Definition:
A rational function is a function that is made up of a ratio of two polynomials.

𝑷(𝒙)
It is of the form 𝑸(𝒙) where 𝑃(𝑥) and 𝑄(𝑥) are both polynomials and 𝑄(𝑥) cannot equal 0.

When sketching graphs of rational functions, we first identify

1. Intercepts on the 𝑥-axis and 𝑦-axis.

2. Possible minimum and maximum points

3. Vertical and horizontal asymptotes

Vertical Asymptotes

𝑃(𝑥)
For a rational function, 𝑓(𝑥) = , the vertical asymptotes of the function occur when
𝑄(𝑥)

the denominator is 0, that is, when 𝑄(𝑥) = 0.

236
Horizontal Asymptotes

Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥). If 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒚 = 𝒂, then 𝒚 = 𝒂 is a horizontal asymptote to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).

𝒙→∞

237
Objective 14: Describe the behaviour of graphs for large values of the independent

variable

Note:

A quadratic can have a minimum or maximum point.

A cubic or polynomial graph can have a minimum and a maximum point. It can also have

a point of inflection.

238
Objective 15: Use differentiation to determine equations of tangents and normals

to curves

Equations of tangents and normals

Definition:

A tangent is a straight line which has the same gradient as the point on the centre which

it touches.

𝑑𝑦
Gradient of tangent = 𝑑𝑥

normal

Points to Note:

1. A tangent is of the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐.

2. A normal is a straight line perpendicular to a tangent.

tangent Note: The product of the

normal
gradient of the tangent
and the gradient of the
normal is −1.

239
Past Paper Question – June 2014 – Question 6(a)

(a) The gradient of a curve which passes through the point (−1, −4) is given by

𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1
𝑑𝑥

(i) Find

(a) the equation of the curve [4]

(b) the coordinates of the stationary points and determine their nature. [8]

(ii) Sketch the curve in (a)(i)(a) above, clearly marking ALL stationary points

and intercepts. [4]

240
Past Paper Question – June 2014 – Question 6(a) – Solution c

(a) The gradient of a curve which passes through the point (−1, −4) is given by

𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1
𝑑𝑥

(i) Find

(a) the equation of the curve [4]

𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑦 = ∫(3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥

3𝑥 3 4𝑥 2
𝑦= − +𝑥+𝑐
3 2

𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 𝑐 (G.S.)

Substituting (−1, −4) into the G.S. gives:

−4 = (−1)3 − 2(−1)2 + (−1) + 𝑐

−4 = −1 − 2 − 1 + 𝑐

−4 = −4 + 𝑐

𝑐 = −4 + 4

𝑐=0

∴ The equation of the curve is: 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥.

241
(b) the coordinates of the stationary points and determine their nature. [8]

𝑑𝑦
= 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
At stationary points, 𝑑𝑥 = 0.

𝑑𝑦
When 𝑑𝑥 = 0,

3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1 = 0

(3𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 1) = 0

Either 3𝑥 − 1 = 0 or 𝑥−1=0
1
𝑥=3 𝑥=1

1
When 𝑥 = 3 ,

1 3 1 2 1
𝑦 = (3) − 2 (3) + (3)

1 1 1
𝑦 = 27 − 2 (9) + 3

1 2 1
𝑦 = 27 − 9 + 3

4
𝑦 = 27

When 𝑥 = 1 ,

𝑦 = (1)3 − 2(1)2 + (1)

𝑦 = 1−2+1

𝑦=0

242
Now,

𝑑2 𝑦
= 6𝑥 − 4
𝑑𝑥 2

1
When 𝑥 = 3 ,

𝑑2 𝑦 1
= 6 (3) − 4
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑2 𝑦
=2−4
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑2 𝑦
= −2 (< 0)
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑2 𝑦 1 4
Since < 0, then (3 , 27) is a maximum point.
𝑑𝑥 2

When 𝑥 = 1 ,

𝑑2 𝑦
= 6(1) − 4
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑2 𝑦
=6−4
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑2 𝑦
=2 (> 0)
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑2 𝑦
Since > 0, then (1 ,0) is a minimum point.
𝑑𝑥 2

243
(ii) Sketch the curve in (a)(i)(a) above, clearly marking ALL stationary points

and intercepts. [4]

𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥

When 𝑦 = 0,

𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 = 0

𝑥(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1) = 0

𝑥(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 1) = 0

Either 𝑥=0 or 𝑥−1=0

𝑥=1

∴ The curve cuts the 𝑥-axis at (0, 0) and (1, 0).

1 4
(3 , 27) is a maximum point and (1 ,0) is a minimum point.

The sketch is as follows:

1 4
(3 , 27)
×

× × 𝑥
(0, 0) (1, 0)

244
Past Paper Question – June 2021 – Question 5(c)

(c) The equation of a curve is given as 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 + 1.

(i) Show that 𝑓(𝑥) has stationary points at 𝑥 = −1, 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 2. [6]

(ii) Determine the nature of these stationary points. [4]

245
Past Paper Question – June 2021 – Question 5(c) – Solution

(c) The equation of a curve is given as 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 + 1.

(i) Show that 𝑓(𝑥) has stationary points at 𝑥 = −1, 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 2. [6]

𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 + 1

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 12𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 − 24𝑥

At stationary points, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0.

When 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0,

12𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 − 24𝑥 = 0

𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 = 0

𝑥(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2) = 0

𝑥(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2) = 0

Either 𝑥=0 or 𝑥+1=0 or 𝑥−2=0

𝑥 = −1 𝑥=2

∴ 𝑓(𝑥) has stationary points at 𝑥 = −1, 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 2.

Q.E.D.

(ii) Determine the nature of these stationary points. [4]

𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 + 1

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 12𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 − 24𝑥

𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 36𝑥 2 − 24𝑥 − 24

246
When 𝑥 = −1,

𝑓 ′′ (−1) = 36(−1)2 − 24(−1) − 24

𝑓 ′′ (−1) = 36 + 24 − 24

𝑓 ′′ (−1) = 36 (> 0)

Since 𝑓 ′′ (−1) > 0, then there is a minimum point at 𝑥 = −1.

When 𝑥 = 0,

𝑓 ′′ (0) = 36(0)2 − 24(0) − 24

𝑓 ′′ (0) = 0 − 0 − 24

𝑓 ′′ (0) = −24 (< 0)

Since 𝑓 ′′ (0) < 0, then there is a maximum point at 𝑥 = 0.

When 𝑥 = 2,

𝑓 ′′ (2) = 36(2)2 − 24(2) − 24

𝑓 ′′ (2) = 144 − 48 − 24

𝑓 ′′ (2) = 72 (> 0)

Since 𝑓 ′′ (2) > 0, then there is a minimum point at 𝑥 = 2.

247
Past Paper Question – June 2021 – Question 6(b)

(b) The parametric equation of a curve is given by 𝑥 = 5 cos 𝜃 and 𝑦 = 2 sin 𝜃.

𝑑𝑦
Determine 𝑑𝑥 in terms of 𝜃. [4]

248
Past Paper Question – June 2021 – Question 6(b) – Solution

(b) The parametric equation of a curve is given by 𝑥 = 5 cos 𝜃 and 𝑦 = 2 sin 𝜃.

𝑑𝑦
Determine 𝑑𝑥 in terms of 𝜃. [4]

𝑥 = 5 cos 𝜃 𝑦 = 2 sin 𝜃

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
= −5 sin 𝜃 = 2 cos 𝜃
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃

Using the chain rule,

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝜃
= 𝑑𝜃 × 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1
= 2 cos 𝜃 × −5 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 2 cos 𝜃
= − 5 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 2
= − 5 cot 𝜃
𝑑𝑥

249
Past Paper Question – June 2023 – Question 5(c)

(c) A manufacturer of containers wants to make a container in the shape of a cuboid

with an open top. The container is made from a flat sheet of metal of length 16

metres and width 13 metres. Squares of length 𝑥 metres are cut from each corner of

the sheet to create the sides of the container.

(i) Show that the volume of the container is 4𝑥 3 − 58𝑥 2 + 208𝑥. [2]

(ii) Using the method of the second derivative, determine the height, 𝑥, that will

maximize the volume of the container. [9]

(iii) Determine the maximum volume of the container. [1]

250
Past Paper Question – June 2023 – Question 5(c) – Solution

(c) A manufacturer of containers wants to make a container in the shape of a cuboid

with an open top. The container is made from a flat sheet of metal of length 16

metres and width 13 metres. Squares of length 𝑥 metres are cut from each corner of

the sheet to create the sides of the container.

(i) Show that the volume of the container is 4𝑥 3 − 58𝑥 2 + 208𝑥. [2]

Consider the diagram below:

𝑥
𝑥
13 𝑐𝑚
ℎ

𝑤
𝑙
16 𝑐𝑚

Length = 16 − 2𝑥

Width = 13 − 2𝑥

Height = 𝑥

The volume of the container is

𝑉 =𝑙×𝑤×ℎ

𝑉 = (16 − 2𝑥) × (13 − 2𝑥) × (𝑥)

𝑉 = (208 − 26𝑥 − 32𝑥 + 4𝑥 2 )𝑥

𝑉 = (208 − 58𝑥 + 4𝑥 2 )𝑥

𝑉 = 208𝑥 − 58𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 3

𝑉 = 4𝑥 3 − 58𝑥 2 + 208𝑥

∴ 𝑉 = 4𝑥 3 − 58𝑥 2 + 208𝑥
Q.E.D.

251
(ii) Using the method of the second derivative, determine the height, 𝑥, that will

maximize the volume of the container. [9]

𝑉 = 4𝑥 3 − 58𝑥 2 + 208𝑥

𝑑𝑉
= 12𝑥 2 − 116𝑥 + 208
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑉
At stationary points, 𝑑𝑥 = 0.

𝑑𝑉
When 𝑑𝑥 = 0.

12𝑥 2 − 116𝑥 + 208 = 0

(÷ 4)

3𝑥 2 − 29𝑥 + 52 = 0

which is in the form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0,

where 𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = −29 and 𝑐 = 52.

Using the quadratic formula,

−𝑏±√𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑥= 2𝑎

−(−29)±√(−29)2 −4(3)(52)
𝑥= 2(3)

29±√841−624
𝑥= 6

29±√217
𝑥= 6

29−√217 29+√217
Either 𝑥= or 𝑥=
6 6

𝑥 = 2.38 𝑚 (to 3 s.f.) 𝑥 = 7.29 𝑚 (to 3 s.f.)

252
Using the second derivative test,

𝑑𝑉
= 12𝑥 2 − 116𝑥 + 208
𝑑𝑥

𝑑2 𝑉
= 24𝑥 − 116
𝑑𝑥 2

We now substitute the values of 𝑥 in the second derivative to determine the

nature at that point.

When 𝑥 = 2.38,

𝑑2 𝑉
= 24(2.38) − 116
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑2 𝑉
= −58.88 (< 0)
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑2 𝑉
Since 𝑑𝑥 2 < 0, 𝑥 = 2.38 𝑚 gives maximum volume.

When 𝑥 = 7.29,

𝑑2 𝑉
= 24(7.29) − 116
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑2 𝑉
= 58.96 (> 0)
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑2 𝑉
Since 𝑑𝑥 2 > 0, 𝑥 = 7.29 𝑚 gives minimum volume.

∴ The height that will maximize the volume of the container is 𝑥 = 2.38 𝑚.

253
(iii) Determine the maximum volume of the container. [1]

𝑉 = 4𝑥 3 − 58𝑥 2 + 208𝑥

When 𝑥 = 2.38 𝑚,

𝑉 = 4(2.38)3 − 58(2.38)2 + 208(2.38)

𝑉 = 220.43 𝑚3 (to 2 decimal places)

∴ The maximum volume of the container is 220.43 𝑚3 .

254
Topic 3 – Integration

Objective 1: Show integration as the reverse process of differentiation

Objective 2: Use the integration notation ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Objective 3: Determine the indefinite integral

Objective 4: Calculate the constant of integration given certain conditions

Integration Rules
𝒙𝒏+𝟏
• ∫ 𝒙𝒏 𝒅𝒙 = +𝒄
𝒏+𝟏

• ∫ 𝒌𝒙𝒏 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒌 ∫ 𝒙𝒏 𝒅𝒙

𝒌𝒙𝒏+𝟏
∫ 𝒌𝒙𝒏 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒏+𝟏
+𝒄

𝟏
• ∫(𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃)𝒏 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒂(𝒏+𝟏) (𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃)𝒏+𝟏 + 𝒄

• ∫ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 + 𝒄

• ∫ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 + 𝒄

• ∫ 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 + 𝒄

𝟏
• ∫ 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃) 𝒅𝒙 = − 𝒂 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃) + 𝒄

𝟏
• ∫ 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃) 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃) + 𝒄

𝟏
• ∫ 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 (𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃) 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒂 𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃) + 𝒄

255
Objective 5: Demonstrate the use of integration theorems

Objective 6: Determine indefinite integrals using integration theorems

Integration Laws
𝒄 𝒃 𝒄
1. ∫𝒂 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙 = ∫𝒂 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙 + ∫𝒃 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙

𝒂 𝒃
2. ∫𝒃 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙 = − ∫𝒂 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙

𝒃 𝒃
3. ∫𝒂 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙 = ∫𝒂 𝒇(𝒕) 𝒅𝒕

𝒂 𝒂
4. ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒂 − 𝒙) 𝒅𝒙 = ∫𝟎 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙

256
Objective 7: Integrate using given substitution

Objective 8: Use the results of definite integrals

Definite Integrals

Definition:

A definite integral is the difference between the values of the integral of a given function

𝑓(𝑥) for an upper value 𝑏 and a lower value 𝑎 of the independent variable 𝑥.

Finding the Equation of the Curve

𝑑𝑦
Given the gradient function of a curve , we can find the equation of the curve, 𝑦, by
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
integrating the expression 𝑑𝑥 .

𝒅𝒚
Formula: 𝒚 = ∫ 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙

Special Integrals

Some special integrals you should know are:

𝟏 𝟏
∫ 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟐 𝒙 − 𝟒 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒙 + 𝒄

𝟏 𝟏
∫ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟐 𝒙 + 𝟒 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒙 + 𝒄

𝟏
∫ 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 + 𝒄

257
Objective 9: Apply integration to areas under the curve

Area under a Curve

The area of the region bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), the lines 𝑥 = 𝑎, 𝑥 = 𝑏 and the 𝑥-

axis is given by,

𝒃
Formula: 𝑨 = ∫𝒂 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙

Area between two curves

Let 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) be two continuous functions over the interval (𝑎, 𝑏) where 𝑓(𝑥) is

greater than 𝑔(𝑥). The area between 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) from 𝑥 = 𝑎 to 𝑥 = 𝑏 is given by,

𝒃 𝒃
Formula: ∫𝒂 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙 − ∫𝒂 𝒈(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙

258
Objective 10: Calculate volumes of revolutions

Volume of Revolution about the 𝑥-axis

The volume, 𝑉, of the solid formed when the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is rotated one revolution

about the 𝒙-axis is given by,

Note: 𝑎 and 𝑏 are 𝑥 limits

Formula:
𝒃
𝑽 = 𝝅 ∫𝒂 𝒚𝟐 𝒅𝒙 and 𝑦 2 is an expression
in terms of 𝑥.

Volume of Revolution about the 𝑦-axis

The volume, 𝑉, of the solid formed when the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is rotated one revolution

about the 𝒚-axis is given by,

𝒃
Formula: 𝑽 = 𝝅 ∫𝒂 𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒚

Note: 𝒅𝒚 infers that the integral should be in 𝒚 terms.

Hence, the limits should also be 𝒚 limits.

Volume generated by the region bounded by two curves

The volume, 𝑉, generated by rotating a region bounded by the curves 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑦 =

𝑔(𝑥) through 360° about the 𝒙-axis is given by,

𝒃 𝟐 𝒃 𝟐
Formula: 𝑽 = 𝝅 ∫𝒂 (𝒇(𝒙)) 𝒅𝒙 − 𝝅 ∫𝒂 (𝒈(𝒙)) 𝒅𝒙

The volume, 𝑉, generated by rotating a region bounded by the curves 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑦) and 𝑥 =

𝑔(𝑦) through 360° about the 𝒚-axis is given by,

𝒃 𝟐 𝒃 𝟐
Formula: 𝑽 = 𝝅 ∫𝒂 (𝒇(𝒚)) 𝒅𝒚 − 𝝅 ∫𝒂 (𝒈(𝒚)) 𝒅𝒚

259
Objective 11: Formulate a differential equation of the form 𝑦 ′ = 𝑓(𝑥)

Objective 12: Solve differential equations of the form 𝑦 ′ = 𝑓(𝑥)

Objective 13: Interpret solutions from differential equations of the form 𝑦 ′ = 𝑓(𝑥)

First Order Differential Equations (FODE)

Definition:

𝒅𝒚
A first order differential equation contains a term in .
𝒅𝒙

Solving a first order differential equation gives a general solution (G.S.). A general

solution often has an unknown constant, 𝒄.The simplest FODE is solved by direct

integration.

This has been done already by finding the equation of the curve by integration.

If information is given to find the constant, then a particular solution (P.S.) is found.

Separating variables

We can solve first order differential equations by separating the variables.

Note: You will not be told when to separate the variables.

You must be able to recognise when to do this.

260
Past Paper Question – June 2013 – Question 5(d)

(d) The diagram below (not drawn to scale) shows the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 3 and the line

𝑦 = 4𝑥.
𝒚

𝟎 𝒙

(i) Determine the coordinates of the points 𝑷 and 𝑸 at which the curve and the

line intersect. [4]

(ii) Calculate the area of the shaded region. [5]

261
Past Paper Question – June 2013 – Question 5(d) – Solution

(d) The diagram below (not drawn to scale) shows the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 3 and the line

𝑦 = 4𝑥.
𝒚

𝟎 𝒙

(i) Determine the coordinates of the points 𝑷 and 𝑸 at which the curve and the

line intersect. [4]

𝑦 = 𝑥2 + 3 → Equation 1

𝑦 = 4𝑥 → Equation 2

Substituting Equation 2 into Equation 1 gives:

4𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 3

𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 3 = 0

(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3) = 0

Either 𝑥−1=0 or 𝑥−3=0

𝑥=1 𝑥=3

When 𝑥 = 1,

𝑦 = 4(1)

𝑦=4

262
 When 𝑥 = 3,

𝑦 = 4(3)

𝑦 = 12

∴ The coordinates are 𝑃(1, 4) and 𝑄(3, 12).

(ii) Calculate the area of the shaded region. [5]

The equation of the line is:

𝑦 = 4𝑥

So, we have,

𝑏
Area under line = ∫𝑎 𝑦 𝑑𝑥

3
Area under line = ∫1 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥

3
4𝑥 2
Area under line = [ ]
2 1

Area under line = [2𝑥 2 ]13

Area under line = 2(3)2 − 2(1)2

Area under line = 2(9) − 2

Area under line = 18 − 2

Area under line = 16 units2

263
The equation of the curve is:

𝑦 = 𝑥2 + 3

𝑏
Area under curve = ∫𝑎 𝑦 𝑑𝑥

3
Area under curve = ∫1 (𝑥 2 + 3) 𝑑𝑥

3
𝑥3
Area under curve = [ 3 + 3𝑥]
1

(3)3 (1)3
Area under curve = [ + 3(3)] − [ + 3(1)]
3 3

1
Area under curve = 9 + 9 − (3 + 3)

10
Area under curve = 18 − 3

44
Area under curve = units2
3

Therefore,

Area of the shaded region = Area under the line – Area under the curve

44
Area of the shaded region = 16 − 3

4
Area of the shaded region = 3 units 2

264
Past Paper Question – June 2014 – Question 6(b)

(b) The equation of a curve is given by 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥√1 + 𝑥 2 .

3
(i) Evaluate ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥. [5]

(ii) Find the volume generated by rotating the area bounded by the curve in

(b)(i) above, the 𝑥-axis, and the lines 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 2 about the 𝑥-axis. [4]

265
Past Paper Question – June 2014 – Question 6(b) – Solution

(b) The equation of a curve is given by 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥√1 + 𝑥 2 .

3
(i) Evaluate ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥. [5]

𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥√1 + 𝑥 2

Let 𝑡 = 1 + 𝑥2

𝑑𝑡
= 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥

When 𝑥 = 0, When 𝑥 = 3,

𝑡 = 1 + (0)2 𝑡 = 1 + (3)2

𝑡 =1+0 𝑡 =1+9

𝑡=1 𝑡 = 10

Now,
3 3
∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 2𝑥√1 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

3 10 𝑑𝑡
∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫1 2𝑥 ⋅ √𝑡 2𝑥

3 10 1
∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫1 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

3 10
3 𝑡2
∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = [ 3 ]
2 1

3 10
3 2
∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 3 [𝑡 2 ]
1

3 3
3 2
∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 3 [(10)2 − (1)2 ]

3 2
∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 3 (√1000 − 1)

266
(ii) Find the volume generated by rotating the area bounded by the curve in

(b)(i) above, the 𝑥-axis, and the lines 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 2 about the 𝑥-axis. [4]

𝑦 = 2𝑥√1 + 𝑥 2
1
𝑦 = 2𝑥(1 + 𝑥 2 )2

𝑦 2 = 4𝑥 2 (1 + 𝑥 2 )

𝑦 2 = 4𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 4

Now,

𝑏
Volume = 𝜋 ∫𝑎 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥

2
Volume = 𝜋 ∫0 (4𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 4 ) 𝑑𝑥

2
4𝑥 3 4𝑥 5
Volume = 𝜋 [ + ]
3 5 1

4(2)3 4(2)5 4(1)3 4(1)5

Volume = 𝜋 [( + )−( + )]
3 5 3 5

32 128 4 4
Volume = 𝜋 [( 3 + ) − (3 + 5)]
5

32 128
Volume = 𝜋 ( 3 + − 0)
5

544
Volume = 𝜋 units 3
15

267
Past Paper Question – June 2018 – Question 5(a)

(a) Use the substitution 𝑢 = 𝑥 4 + 2 to determine ∫(𝑥 4 + 2)3 (4𝑥 7 ) 𝑑𝑥. [6]

268
Past Paper Question – June 2018 – Question 5(a) – Solution

(a) Use the substitution 𝑢 = 𝑥 4 + 2 to determine ∫(𝑥 4 + 2)3 (4𝑥 7 ) 𝑑𝑥. [6]

Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 4 + 2

𝑑𝑢
= 4𝑥 3
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥 = 4𝑥 3

Also, 𝑥 4 = 𝑢 − 2

Now,

𝑑𝑢
∫(𝑥 4 + 2)3 (4𝑥 7 ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢3 ⋅ 𝑥 4 ⋅ 4𝑥 3 4𝑥 3

∫(𝑥 4 + 2)3 (4𝑥 7 ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢3 (𝑢 − 2) 𝑑𝑢

∫(𝑥 4 + 2)3 (4𝑥 7 ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑢4 − 2𝑢3 ) 𝑑𝑢

𝑢5 2𝑢4
∫(𝑥 4 + 2)3 (4𝑥 7 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 5
− 4
+𝑐

𝑢5 𝑢4
∫(𝑥 4 + 2)3 (4𝑥 7 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 5
−
2
+𝑐

5 4
(𝑥 4 +2) (𝑥 4 +2)
∫(𝑥 4 + 2)3 (4𝑥 7 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 5
− 2
+𝑐

269
Past Paper Question – June 2021 – Question 6(d)
𝑑𝑦 sin 𝑥 𝜋
(d) (i) Solve the differential equation 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑦 given that when 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 2 . [6]

(ii) Determine the equation of the curve that passes through (1, 5) and for which

𝑦 = ∫ 6𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 . [4]

270
Past Paper Question – June 2021 – Question 6(d) – Solution
𝑑𝑦 sin 𝑥 𝜋
(d) (i) Solve the differential equation 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑦 given that when 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 2 . [6]

𝑑𝑦 sin 𝑥
= sin 𝑦
𝑑𝑥

sin 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

∫ sin 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

− cos 𝑦 = − cos 𝑥 + 𝑐

𝜋
When 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑦 = 2 ,

𝜋
− cos (2 ) = − cos(0) + 𝑐

0 = −1 + 𝑐

𝑐=1

Hence,

− cos 𝑦 = − cos 𝑥 + 1

cos 𝑦 = cos 𝑥 − 1

∴ The differential equation is: cos 𝑦 = cos 𝑥 − 1

271
(ii) Determine the equation of the curve that passes through (1, 5) and for which

𝑦 = ∫ 6𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 . [4]

𝑦 = ∫ 6𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

6𝑥 3
𝑦= +𝑐
3

𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 + 𝑐

When 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑦 = 5,

5 = 2(1)3 + 𝑐

5=2+𝑐

𝑐 = 5−2

𝑐=3

∴ The equation of the curve is: 𝑦 = 2𝑥 3 + 3

272
Past Paper Question – June 2022 – Question 6(d)
𝑑𝑦 𝑥+4𝑥 2
(d) Solve the differential equation 𝑑𝑥 = , given that 𝑦 = 6 when 𝑥 = 0. [8]
𝑦2

273
Past Paper Question – June 2022 – Question 6(d) – Solution
𝑑𝑦 𝑥+4𝑥 2
(d) Solve the differential equation 𝑑𝑥 = , given that 𝑦 = 6 when 𝑥 = 0. [8]
𝑦2

𝑑𝑦 𝑥+4𝑥 2
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑦2

(𝑦 2 ) 𝑑𝑦 = (𝑥 + 4𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥

∫(𝑦 2 ) 𝑑𝑦 = ∫(𝑥 + 4𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥

𝑦3 𝑥2 4𝑥 3
= + +𝑐
3 2 3

When 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 6.

So, we have,

(6)3 (0)2 4(0)3

= + +𝑐
3 2 3

72 = 0 + 0 + 𝑐

𝑐 = 72

𝑦3 𝑥2 4𝑥 3
∴ = + + 72
3 2 3

274
Past Paper Question – June 2023 – Question 6(d)

(d) Determine ∫ cos3 2𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥. [4]

275
Past Paper Question – June 2023 – Question 6(d) – Solution

(d) Determine ∫ cos3 2𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥. [4]

∫ cos 3 2𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(cos 2𝑥)3 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Let 𝑢 = cos 2𝑥

𝑑𝑢
= −2 sin 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥 = −2 sin 2𝑥

Now,

𝑑𝑢
∫ cos 3 2𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢3 sin 2𝑥 ⋅ −2 sin 2𝑥

1
∫ cos 3 2𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 2 ∫ 𝑢3 𝑑𝑢

1 𝑢4
∫ cos 3 2𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 2 [ 4 ] + 𝑐

1
∫ cos 3 2𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 8 𝑢4 + 𝑐

1
∫ cos 3 2𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − 8 cos4 2𝑥 + 𝑐

276