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School Psychology Ethics in the Workplace

School Psychology Ethics in the Workplace introduces a pragmatic and user-friendly model
that helps readers become proficient ethical decision-makers using the 2020 National
Association of School Psychologists (NASP) ethical code and to critically engage the
ethical standards and work through ethical dilemmas that often occur in school and
clinical settings.
This book provides an overview of NASP’s latest Principles for Professional Ethics. It
introduces readers to various ethical codes related to psychology, the importance of
having ethical codes, the limitations of ethical codes, and an ethical decision-making
model that accounts for multicultural and social justice issues. Over 100 ethical
case studies are presented in the text that specifically relate to NASP’s Principles for
Professional Ethics. Readers are provided step-by-step directions on how to use the ethical
decision-making model when problem-solving each case scenario.
School psychology graduate students and their instructors will find this guide
invaluable for learning NASP’s new ethical code and for being prepared for situations
school psychologists are likely to experience in practice.

Dr. Daniel F. McCleary is an associate professor at Stephen F. Austin State University. He

is the training director of the M.A. school psychology program within the Department
of Human Services and Educational Leadership, where he has been teaching ethics
since 2014. Dr. McCleary has been published in peer-reviewed international and national
journals. Prior to working in academia, he served as a school psychologist in public
schools and as a psychologist in private practice.

Dr. Jillian Dawes is an assistant professor at The Citadel, where she teaches students in
psychology graduate and undergraduate programs. Dr. Dawes includes instruction on
ethics and decision-making activities across psychology courses, notably focusing on
informed consent and assent, research ethics, and direct service provision. Dr. Dawes’
research, training, and practice interests focus on efficient learning and behavior change
using a problem-solving model.
School Psychology Ethics
in the Workplace

Daniel F. McCleary and Jillian Dawes

Cover image: Getty Image
First published 2023
by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
and by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2023 Daniel F. McCleary and Jillian Dawes
The right of Daniel F. McCleary and Jillian Dawes to be identified as authors of this
work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. The purchase of this copyright material confers the right on
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or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other
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Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to
infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: McCleary, Daniel F., author. | Dawes, Jillian, author.
Title: School psychology ethics in the workplace / Daniel F. McCleary, Jillian Dawes.
Description: New York, NY : Routledge, 2023. | Includes bibliographical references
and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022021323 (print) | LCCN 2022021324 (ebook) | ISBN 9781032227399
(hardback) | ISBN 9781032227382 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003273950 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: School psychologists—Professional ethics—United States. | School
psychology—Moral and ethical aspects—United States. | National Association of
School Psychologists. Principles for professional ethics.
Classification: LCC LB3013.6 .M368 2023 (print) | LCC LB3013.6 (ebook) |
DDC 371.7/13—dc23/eng/20220719
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022021323
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022021324
ISBN: 978-1-032-22739-9 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-22738-2 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-27395-0 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003273950
Typeset in NewBaskerville
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
Access the [Support Material]: www.routledge.com/9781032227382
Contents

1 Introduction to Professional Ethics in School Psychology 1

2 Consultation and Collaboration in Ethical Problem-Solving 10

3 Ethical Decision-Making Models 17

4 Scenarios for Consent and Assent 26

5 Scenarios for Confidentiality and Equity 44

6 Scenarios for Competence and Accountability 62

7 Scenarios for Direct Service Provision 80

8 Scenarios for Records and Materials 97

9 Scenarios for Presenting Credentials and Roles 115

10 Scenarios for Collaborative Work 133

11 Scenarios for Self-Interest and Disclosure 150

12 Scenarios for Professionalism 168

13 Scenarios for Scholarly Activity 186

14 Complex Case Scenarios 204

Appendix A Reproducible Ethical Decision-Making Model Form220

Appendix B National Association of School Psychologists Principles
for Professional Ethics 2020221
Index248
1 Introduction to Professional Ethics
in School Psychology

A Brief History of Ethics

Definition and Origin of Ethics

The study of ethics was first proposed by ancient philosophers considering what were the
“right” behaviors of people. Originally, discussion of ethics was tied up with morality and
personal character, with those behaving unethically said to have a character flaw or to
be immoral (Freeman, 1999). Interpretations of behaviors were “good” and “bad,” and
one’s actions defined their morality. From this ancient discourse on ethics, we now have
laws, human and animal rights, and other policies for how we are expected to behave in
society, as well as professional codes of ethics. While differences in ethical behavior may
be observed across various cultures, religions, and even individuals, modern ethical codes
and laws are designed to apply equally to those with different beliefs and values in order
to uphold the common good (Tyson, 2019).
Over time, the study of ethics has focused less on developing theories of ethics and
more on developing principles, codes, and laws that can be applied to govern and guide
individuals. The modern definition of ethics includes terms like “a set of moral princi-
ples,” “the principles of conduct governing an individual or a group,” and “a set of moral
issues or aspects” (Merriam-Webster, n.d.), which define ethics as collections of principles
primarily designed to govern the behavior of individuals. As can be seen in these defini-
tions, ethics remain tightly connected to morality; although we begin to see a separation
between two types of ethics: moral, or personal, ethics and professional ethics.

Moral Ethics and Professional Ethics

According to the Center for the Study of Ethics in the Professions at Illinois Institute
of Technology (1994), an occupation becomes a profession when two criteria are met:
members of the profession share the same occupation with a moral purpose, and mem-
bers create and follow a set of standards for the work in their profession. Given these
criteria, many occupations in the social services, including school psychology, may be
considered professions. The standards for professional work include, but may not be
limited to, codes for professional ethics. For example, the National Association of School
Psychologists (NASP) has developed both standards for practice (Practice Model) and
ethical standards (Principles for Professional Ethics; NASP, 2020).
As discussed in the previous section, the study of ethics is entwined with morality and
character, and one’s own moral compass can be described as personal ethics. Moral
ethics apply to many areas, such as laws, religion, and individual, cultural, and societal
values. Moral ethics applied across all areas of human behavior, with the expectation that

DOI: 10.4324/9781003273950-1
2 Introduction to Professional Ethics in School Psychology
professionals would utilize their morals, or personal ethics, in the decisions they made
in their work. Many events over time, where individuals evidenced personal ethics were
not consistent with professional expectations, or not sufficient to govern professional
behavior, led to the development and continued modification of codes for professional
ethics (Freeman, 1999). Although professional ethics are frequently grounded in the
morality of the culture and society in which they are developed, there is not always an
explicit link between professional ethics and morality (Pettifor, 2004). There are times
when personal ethics and professional ethics may be at odds, necessitating profession-
als to consider the best course of action to satisfy all requirements. Additionally, while
there are similarities across professional codes of ethics, professional ethics deal with
the behaviors of individuals working in specific professions, and no professional code
applies to all working professionals. Rather, each profession develops and enforces its
own code(s) of ethics, leading those working under multiple credentials or roles to be
knowledgeable of and practice within the boundaries of more than one code of profes-
sional ethics.

Ethics in Psychology and Education

One significant similarity across codes of professional ethics, particularly those whose pro-
fessions provide a social service, is the protection of human rights. This protection applies
to all humans across the lifespan and other individual characteristics, including race,
ethnicity, sexuality, gender, disability, and more. Within education and psychology, child
rights are of particular concern, as the purpose of education and related services is to
promote the welfare of children (Nastasi & Naser, 2014). Related to the rights of humans
is the inclusion of protective standards for individuals receiving psychological and educa-
tional services. Nearly universally, professional codes of ethics across psychology include
standards for doing good, doing no harm, respecting the autonomy of individuals served,
and promoting justice and equity, as a result of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human
Rights (Pettifor, 2004; United Nations, 1948). Given the similarities across the standards in
many of the psychological sciences, some, including the European Federation of Psychol-
ogists Association and the Canadian Psychological Association, have proposed a universal
code of ethics in the practice of psychology, which individual nations or organizations
could adopt and modify to fit within the societal expectations of their regions. Criticisms
of this attempt include that the foundations of many existing ethical codes in psychology
are rooted in Western culture and may not apply universally (Pettifor, 2004).
We begin to see contrasts across codes for professional psychology ethics in the spe-
cific ethical concerns within areas of practice. Although many activities are similar across
psychology training and practice, there are some differences. For example, school psy-
chologists may be more likely to engage in interprofessional collaboration, often work-
ing in teams of other educational professionals to provide services to children and their
families. Therefore, specific ethical standards related to the collaboration and consulta-
tion with other professionals are more detailed in school psychology ethical codes than
in other areas of psychology. Additionally, school psychologists primarily work in public
school settings (85%; NASP, 2021b). Education professionals have additional professional
ethics for school psychologists to consider, often being provided by each state’s depart-
ment of education.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Professional Codes of Ethics

The existence of a professional code of ethics is advantageous for the field in that it pro-
tects the public, upholds the public’s trust in the profession by providing a mechanism to
 Introduction to Professional Ethics in School Psychology 3
understand what one can expect from the profession and by providing an avenue to hold
a provider accountable, demonstrates the field is interested in the health of the public
by holding its members accountable, and signifies the maturity of the field (Behnke &
Jones, 2012; Bersoff & Koeppl, 1993; Williams et al., 2008). Ethical codes also possess
several inherent disadvantages. First, they are limited in that they must be sufficiently
broad (a.k.a. vague) to address a variety of situations without being overly restrictive,
thus preventing advancements within the field (Bersoff, 1994). Second, codes must be
specific enough to provide guidance to individual situations. This can result in several
standards applying to the same ethical dilemma and standards that appear to conflict
with each other and with the law (Bersoff & Koeppl, 1993; Haas & Malouf, 2005; Jacob
et al., 2022; Koocher & Keith-Spiegel, 2016). Third, ethical codes are reactive in nature.
Ethical codes are routinely revised, and the wording of each standard is carefully con-
sidered to address advances in the field without being overly prohibitive. However, this
reactive stance, responding to issues that have arisen in practice and in the courts that go
beyond the specificity of the current ethical code, means that the code is likely outdated
by the time it is published (Bersoff & Koeppl, 1993; Jacob et al., 2022; Welfel, 2012). Fifth,
given the aforementioned limitations of ethical codes, the school psychologist is respon-
sible for being well versed in the meaning and interpretation of the ethical codes that
apply to the profession and making the determination of how the various standards direct
the practitioner’s response to their specific dilemma (NASP, 2020). Ethical dilemmas are
considered dilemmas because there are often multiple ways to ethically respond to the
situation and multiple unethical ways of addressing the dilemma (Williams & Monahon,
2018). When confronted with several choices for resolving an ethical dilemma, the school
psychologist should employ an ethical decision-making model, consult with other profes-
sionals, and/or seek supervision (NASP, 2020).

NASP Principles for Professional Ethics

In 1974, NASP adopted its first ethical code, Principles for Professional Ethics. The code was
revised and adopted again in 1984, 1992, 1997, 2000, 2010, and most recently in 2020
(NASP, 2020). The creation of a professional ethical code is a significant milestone for a
profession, indicating the maturation of the field (Chalk et al., 1980; Jacob et al., 2022).
It is advantageous for a field to create enforceable standards so the field can police itself
rather than rely on people outside the profession, such as lawyers and judges, who are not
familiar enough with the intricacies and nuances of a field, particularly one as complex as
school psychology, to identify potential unintended consequences a regulation may have
on other aspects of professional functioning (Jacob et al., 2022).
The NASP Principles for Professional Ethics includes a description of its purpose, informa-
tion on how to use the ethical principles, and a list of definitions used in the code. The
code itself is categorized by four broad themes that are aspirational: Respecting the Dig-
nity and Rights of All Persons; Professional Competence and Responsibility; Honesty and
Integrity in Professional Relationships; and Responsibility to Schools, Families, Commu-
nities, The Profession, and Society. Each theme is then organized by Guiding Principles
and their enforceable standards. The Code concludes with a topic index for the ethical
principles.

Key Changes to the 2020 Principles for Professional Ethics

The 2020 Principles for Professional Ethics was revised in a multitude of ways. Our purpose
here is merely to highlight some of those changes, not to provide an exhaustive list of the
changes. The most visually recognizable change pertains to the addition of a topic index
4 Introduction to Professional Ethics in School Psychology
for the ethical principles. This section, located at the end of the code, lists all standards
related to a specific concept (e.g., confidentiality, supervision, social justice) and pro-
vides a hyperlink for each standard listed that will automatically redirect the reader to
that specific standard, making it much easier for the user to search and find relevant
standards. This topical guide also makes more explicit how seemingly general statements
can apply to specific circumstances. For example, Standard III.5.I Private Versus Profes-
sional Conduct contains no mention of social media posts but is listed under the topical
heading of Social Media, suggesting that the content of one’s social media posts on their
personal account may cross into the realm of their professional life. An example would be
if a practitioner were to post about events that happened at the workplace with clients or
students and the person included identifying information, even if names were not used.
Another visually recognizable change was the inclusion of narrative titles that accompany
each standard. Previously standards were recognized simply by their standard number
(e.g., Standard I.1.3); whereas they are now accompanied by a title for ease of reference
(e.g., Standard I.1.3 Seeking Informed Consent). Much like the topical index, the inclu-
sion of standard titles makes it easier for practitioners to skim through the code to find
the information they are looking for. However, we caution graduate students and prac-
titioners to not solely rely on this method for identifying relevant standards. The code
should be read in its entirety each year to know what titles to look for when skimming
through in the middle of a potentially ethically compromised situation.
Standard II.2.2. Progress Monitoring was revised to clarify that school psychologists
are responsible for ensuring the effectiveness of interventions, whether they are the ones
implementing the intervention or not. Related to providing reactive guidance but with
anticipation for future advancements, NASP revised Guiding Principle II.3 Responsible
Assessment and Intervention Practices to broaden its scope to encompass a variety of tech-
nological advancements related to assessment and intervention. For example, the guid-
ing principle is now written to include computer-assisted digital formats, virtual reality,
distance assessment and telehealth intervention, and “any other assessment or interven-
tion modality” (NASP, 2020, p. 46). Standard II.4.5 Test Protocols was also substantially
changed to provide more explicit guidance on the rights of parents to view their child’s
responses on protocols and other assessments regardless of the test publisher’s interests.
Standard III.1.4 Graduate Programs was added to regulate descriptions graduate pro-
grams provide to the public that are factual and not misleading. For example, graduate
programs that are not NASP approved should not advertise that the program is aligned
with NASP standards. Standard III.5.2 Separation of Personal Beliefs was also added to
clarify that all “decisions, recommendations, and activities are guided by the evidence
base and by best practices” (NASP, 2020, p. 52). This revision highlights the need for the
provision of services founded on evidence-based practices and not religious, spiritual, or
personal belief systems (i.e., professional ethics v. moral ethics).

Related Codes of Professional Ethics

As previously discussed, school psychologists may work in various settings and under
more than one credential. For this reason, it is necessary for school psychologists to have
a strong working knowledge of each of these codes for professional ethics, so that they
can synthesize and address each in their professional practice. There are standards where
each code overlaps and no modifications are needed; however, there are also discrepan-
cies between some of the codes, which school psychologists will need to consider when
making decisions. The following sections, although not an exhaustive list, summarize a
few of the relevant codes for professional ethics in psychology.
 Introduction to Professional Ethics in School Psychology 5
American Psychological Association
The American Psychological Association (APA) has provided the Ethical Principles of Psy-
chologists and Code of Conduct (the Ethics Code) to guide psychologists in their practice.
The Ethics Code includes an Introduction, Preamble, and five General Principles. Addi-
tionally, specific Ethical Standards are included, with the intent to address specific issues
that may arise in the practice of psychology (APA, 2017). Like many codes of ethics, APA’s
Ethics Code is not exhaustive and allows room for interpretation and professional judg-
ment. The Ethics Code applies to all members of the APA in their professional practice of
psychology, regardless of credentialing, specialty area, or practice setting.
The five General Principles of the Ethics Code have been adopted by other professional
organizations’ codes of ethics, and include Beneficence and Nonmaleficence, Fidelity
and Responsibility, Integrity, Justice, and Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity (APA,
2017). Specific Ethical Standards address issues that arise in resolving ethical issues, com-
petence, human relations, privacy and confidentiality, advertising and public statements,
record keeping and fees, education and training, research and publication, assessment,
and therapy. Within each of these areas are specific guidelines for behaving ethically in
the professional practice of psychology.

Canadian Psychological Association

The Canadian Psychological Association (CPA) has published the Canadian Code of Ethics
for Psychologists, which is currently in its fourth edition (CPA, 2017). This code includes a
preamble that includes guidance for using the code in ethical decision-making. In con-
trast to the APA Ethics Code discussed before, the CPA code has incorporated all ethical
standards under four primary standards. These standards include Respect for the Dig-
nity of Persons and Peoples, Responsible Caring, Integrity in Relationships, and Respon-
sibility to Society. Under each standard are a values statement and the specific ethical
standards related to the overarching principle. The values statement is a narrative of
the values and morals that contribute to the specific standards that follow, whereas the
specific standards are action-oriented descriptions of ethical behavior in the practice of
psychology.

International School Psychology Association

The International School Psychology Association’s (ISPA) Code of Ethics provides an
introduction to the general purpose of the Code of Ethics, particularly noting that it does
not replace the national codes that have been adopted in the locations of psychologists’
practice (International School Psychology Association, 2021). There is additional overlap
between APA and ISPA in the general principles, named Prevailing Ethical Principles in
the ISPA Code of Ethics, with principles in the following areas being adopted: Beneficence
and Nonmaleficence, Competence, Fidelity and Responsibility, Integrity, Respect for Peo-
ple’s Rights and Dignity, and Social Justice.
Following the introduction and general principles, ISPA’s Code of Ethics introduces
professional standards in the following areas: professional responsibilities, confidenti-
ality, professional growth, and professional limitations. Each of these areas addresses
potential issues in the practice of school psychology. The following section, Professional
Practices, covers specific standards in the practice of school psychology, including pro-
fessional relationships with children, colleagues and other professionals, assessment,
and research.
6 Introduction to Professional Ethics in School Psychology
Universal Declaration of Ethical Principles for Psychologists
As noted previously, there is significant overlap between ethical codes within the field
of psychology and the Universal Declaration of Ethical Principles for Psychologists (UDEPP;
International Union of Psychological Science, 2008) is no exception. The UDEPP was
adopted by the Assembly of the International Union of Psychological Science and the
Board of Directors of the International Association of Applied Psychology in July 2008.
The UDEPP includes a preamble describing the moral framework and purpose of the
code, followed by four principles. These principles, again, will be familiar to readers.
The first Principle is Respect for the Dignity of Persons and Peoples, which addresses
the rights of individuals served, including dignity, respect for diversity, informed consent,
privacy, fairness and justice, and others. The second Principle is Competent Caring for
the Well-Being of Persons and Peoples, which includes maximizing benefits, minimizing
harm, developing and maintaining competence, and self-awareness. Principle III is Integ-
rity, and refers to honest, truthful, open, and accurate communication about psychologi-
cal practices, as well as avoiding exploitation and conflicts of interest. The final Principle,
Professional and Scientific Responsibilities to Society, includes psychology’s responsibility
to increase scientific knowledge through research, training, and commentary, as well as
the responsibility to uphold ethical standards.

Behavior Analysis Certification Board

The Behavior Analyst Certification Board (BACB®) has provided the Professional and Ethi-
cal Compliance Code for Behavior Analysts (the Code; BACB, 2020). This set of standards
has recently been updated, and the Ethics Code for Behavior Analysts went into effect in
January 2022 (BACB, 2020). Like the previously discussed codes of ethics, the BACB code
includes an introduction, which discusses the scope, application, and enforcement of the
code, as well as core principles. The core principles should sound familiar, as they are
similar to those discussed in previous codes, stating that behavior analysts should: Benefit
Others; Treat Others with Compassion, Dignity, and Respect; Behave with Integrity; and
Ensure their Competence.
Following these sections, the Code provides Ethics Standards in sections, which are
specific to issues that may arise in practice. The sections of the Ethics Standards include
guidance for behavior analysts’ responsibilities as a professional, in practice, to clients
and stakeholders, to supervisees and trainees, in public statements, and in research, with
specific standards addressed under each section. Of note, the BACB Code is written in a
way that is prescriptive, clear, and leaves little up to professional judgment. Much of the
code is written in behavioral terms, with expectations clearly defined and ethical actions
listed in each section.

School Psychologists and Multiple Responsibilities

Over time, school psychologists’ roles have expanded to include more than the original
“evaluator” role in schools. School psychologists are now trained to provide assessment,
prevention, intervention, consultation, and other mental health supports and services
to individuals and systems in public schools and other settings (NASP, 2021a). Due to
this expanded training and service provision, school psychologists may, at times, operate
under multiple roles and credentials. For example, a doctoral-level school psychologist
may be a certified or licensed school psychologist in public schools while also maintaining
a private practice under a psychology license. As another example, a school psychologist
 Introduction to Professional Ethics in School Psychology 7
may also have completed behavior-analytic coursework and supervised experiences dur-
ing their school psychology training, resulting in dual certification as a school psycholo-
gist and behavior analyst. In each of these examples, the school psychologist would be
operating under multiple credentials and codes of ethics. For this reason, school psy-
chologists need to understand the overlap, as well as the dissimilarities between all ethical
codes under which they are bound. While similarities between the codes of ethics have
been noted multiple times in this chapter, there may be times when codes you must fol-
low differ from each other. There may also be times when you are not sure which ethical
code applies to your practice.
In general, the NASP Standards apply to members of NASP and those working as
credentialed school psychologists in school settings. The APA Ethics Code applies to
all members of the APA. Additionally, many states’ psychology licensure boards have
adopted this code, so that all psychologists with a state license are bound by APA’s Ethics
Code. Furthermore, many school psychology state organizations require their members
to adhere to their respective national organization’s ethical code. School districts, as
per terms of employment may also require school psychologists to adhere to the NASP
Principles for Professional Ethics. The BACB Code applies to those who are credentialed
as a Board Certified Behavior Analyst (BCBA®) or a Board Certified Assistant Behavior
Analyst (BCaBA®). A separate code applies to behavioral service providers who operate
under consistent supervision, Registered Behavior Technicians (RBT®). However, the
UDEPP and ISPA Code of Ethics are aspirational. Nonetheless, a practitioner choosing to
forego paying dues to be a member of professional organizations and carefully selecting
both a state and an employer that does not require adherence to an ethical code will
likely still be held accountable in a court of law when their actions are weighed against
the standard of care set forth by the field of school psychology as evidenced by expert
testimony from those within the field and by the relevant professional ethical codes
( Jacobs et al., 2022).
When compared to the NASP Principles for Professional Ethics (NASP, 2020), there can
be seen significant overlap in general standards and areas covered across each of the
discussed ethical codes; however, there are times when the codes will differ and may be
in direct opposition to each other or legal statutes. In these events, school psychologists
must be familiar with each of the codes that apply to the current issue. General guidance
is to follow the code that is the most stringent. For example, if one code says records
should be maintained for five years and another says seven years, the best decision would
be to maintain records for seven years, as this meets the requirements for both codes.
When an ethical code is at odds with a law, school psychologists should follow the law if
it does not violate basic human rights but should document and report how this decision
is at odds with the code of ethics under which the school psychologists’ practice is cov-
ered (APA, 2017; NASP, 2020). These instances may present opportunities to advocate for
changes in either the law or the ethical code.
An additional consideration: school psychologists often work with individuals who are
not governed by the same ethical codes as they are. These individuals may have a differ-
ent, or even no, ethical code under which they must operate and may have little-to-no
knowledge of or experience with ethical codes related to the practice of school psychol-
ogy. To this end, it is possible, and research shows, school psychologists may be advised or
encouraged to act outside of their ethical code (Helton & Ray, 2009). School psycholo-
gists ultimately serve in the difficult multiple positions of advocate, service provider, and
school employee, while needing to navigate their ethical responsibilities in each role and
educating others about their ethical responsibilities.
8 Introduction to Professional Ethics in School Psychology
Summary
Of the ethical codes covered in this chapter, some are specific to role and setting, while
others are more general. Each ethical code directly applies to those who are either mem-
bers of the organization or are credentialed by an organization that has adopted the code
of that organization. Sometimes, part of your practice may be covered only by one ethical
code, and sometimes it will be covered by multiple codes, which may not always overlap
perfectly. School psychologists must know the ethical code(s) under which their practice
is covered, follow the code(s), and help others to follow the code(s). School psychologists
must also consider their personal ethics and how these might affect their ability to hold
themselves and others to codes for professional ethics, while not applying their personal
ethics to those who have not adopted those same values.
As described in this chapter, many ethical codes include vague language and guidance
to address multiple aspects of practice in general themes. Given the scope of the practice
of psychology, a specific list of standards for all aspects of practice and potential ethical
issues would require a lengthy document that would need to be updated constantly to
keep up with new areas of practice. This is an unlikely undertaking, which means school
psychologists will need to be able to read, interpret, and apply the code(s) to their spe-
cific areas of practice. The purpose of this book is to provide school psychologists practic-
ing in a variety of settings with a guide for, and practice with, making ethical decisions
using the NASP Principles for Professional Ethics and any overlapping ethical codes. In the
next chapter, we will discuss the use of consultation and collaboration within an ethical
problem-solving model to improve ethical decision-making.

Reference List
American Psychological Association. (2017, January 1). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of
conduct. www.apa.org/ethics/code/ethics-code-2017.pdf
Behavior Analyst Certification Board. (2020). Ethics code for behavior analysts. www.bacb.com/
ethics-information/ethics-codes/
Behnke, S. H., & Jones, S. E. (2012). Ethics and ethics codes for psychologists. In S. J. Knapp, M. C.
Gottlieb, M. M. Handelsman, & L. D. VandeCreek (Eds.), APA handbook of ethics in psychology
(Vol. 1, pp. 43–74). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/13271-002
Bersoff, D. N. (1994). Explicit ambiguity: The 1992 ethics code as an oxymoron. Professional Psychol-
ogy: Research and Practice, 25(4), 382–387. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.25.4.382
Bersoff, D. N., & Koeppl, P. M. (1993). The relation between ethical codes and moral principles.
Ethics and Behavior, 3(3–4), 345–357. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508422.1993.9652112
Canadian Psychological Association. (2017, January 1). Canadian code of ethics for psychologists (4th
ed.). https://cpa.ca/docs/File/Ethics/CPA_Code_2017_4thEd.pdf
Chalk, R., Frankel, M. S., & Chafer, S. B. (1980). AAAS professional ethics project. American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science.
Freeman, N. K. (1999). Morals and character: The foundations of ethics and professionalism. The
Educational Forum, 63(1), 30–36. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131729808984384
Haas, L., & Malouf, J. L. (2005). Keeping up the good work: A practitioner’s guide to mental health ethics
(4th ed.). Professional Resources Press.
Helton, G. B., & Ray, B. A. (2009). Administrative pressures to practice unethically: Research
and suggested strategies. Ethical Human Psychology and Psychiatry, 11(2), 112–119. https://doi.
org/10.1891/1559-4343.11.2.112
Illinois Institute of Technology Center for the Study of Ethics in the Professions. (1994). Professional
ethics. https://ethics.iit.edu/teaching/professional-ethics
International School Psychology Association. (2021). Code of ethics. https://www.ispaweb.org/wp-
content/uploads/2021/07/ISPA-Code-of-Ethics-2021.pdf
 Introduction to Professional Ethics in School Psychology 9
International Union of Psychological Science. (2008, July). Universal declaration of ethical principles
for psychologists. www.iupsys.net/about/governance/universal-declaration-of-ethical-principles-
for-psychologists.html
Jacob, S. (2014). Best practices in ethical school psychological practice. In P. L. Harrison &
A. Thomas (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology: Foundations (pp. 437–448). NASP.
Jacob, S., Decker, D. M., Lugg, E. T., & Diamond, E. (2022). Ethics and law for school psychologists (8th
ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Koocher, G. P., & Keith-Spiegel, P. (2016). Ethics in psychology and the mental health professions Stand-
ards and cases (4th ed.). Oxford University Press.
Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Ethic. www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ethics
Nastasi, B. K., & Naser, S. (2014). Child rights as a framework for advancing professional standards
for practice, ethics, and professional development in school psychology. School Psychology Interna-
tional, 35(1), 36–49. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034313512409
National Association of School Psychologists. (2020). The professional standards of the National Associa-
tion of School Psychologists. Retrieved May 1, 2021, from www.nasponline.org/x55315.xml
National Association of School Psychologists. (2021a). Who are school psychologists. www.nasponline.
org/about-school-psychology/who-are-school-psychologists
National Association of School Psychologists. (2021b). Workforce & salary information. www.­
nasponline.org/about-school-psychology/workforce-and-salary-information
Pettifor, J. L. (2004). Professional ethics across national boundaries. European Psychologist, 9(4),
264–272. https:doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040.9.4.264
Tyson, J. M. (2019). Morals, ethics, and laws: What commonalities remain? Liberty University Law
Review, 14(1).
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­Gottlieb, M. M. Handelsman, & L. D. VandeCreek (Eds.), APA handbook of ethics in psychology
(Vol. 2, pp. 277–305). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/13272-014
Williams, B. B., Armistead, L., & Jacob, S. (2008). Professional ethics for school psychologists: A problem-
solving model casebook. National Association of School Psychologists.
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Kranzler (Eds.), School psychology: Professional issues and practices (pp. 77–93). Springer.
2 Consultation and Collaboration
in Ethical Problem-Solving

Introduction
We have previously discussed the sometimes-ambiguous nature of ethical dilemmas.
While professional organizations are continually revising their ethical codes to address
changes in expectations over time and to address any shortcomings, it would be unbe-
lievably difficult to capture all possible ethical dilemmas in black-and-white in an ethical
code. To help with generalizability, the codes tend to use loose language that applies to
a variety of situations. However, with this lack of explicit guidance, school psychologists
may find themselves questioning whether an ethical dilemma has occurred and how best
to respond to the situation, particularly in those situations where there is more room for
interpretation. This may be especially true for early career school psychologists and those
who have not engaged in ethical problem-solving before.
The authors of this book recommend collaborative ethical problem-solving for all dilem-
mas, but especially in those situations where you might question the most appropriate
response. In this chapter, we will discuss the use of and evidence for collaborative ethi-
cal problem-solving in school psychology and other fields. As you will see next, there is
little research literature examining the role of consultation and collaboration in ethical
problem-solving, especially in school psychology. Despite this lack of evidence, the authors
believe other areas of research supporting collaborative efforts in problem-solving (such as
with school-based data review teams and peer mentorship during graduate training) can
be generalized to improve interpretation of ethical codes, consideration of ethical dilem-
mas and potentially-contributing factors, and the creation of a response to the dilemma.
For example, the authors have experienced first-hand, while creating the very scenarios
available to you in this book, the utility of having another person’s perspective in interpret-
ing ethical codes and considering the best responses for problem-solving. Consultation can
also be a way to engage in ethical problem-solving with someone with more, or less, experi-
ence than you to build competence and provide/receive supervision. We will also include a
description of peer and collegial support used across graduate training and how you might
engage in continued use of peer support across your career as a school psychologist.

Collaborative Ethical Problem-Solving

Collaborative ethical problem-solving is part of the standard of care in many helping pro-
fessions. For example, medical professionals often engage in rounds, where multiple pro-
fessionals contribute to problem-solving difficult cases, including ethical dilemmas. Despite
school psychology’s common use of cohort models and peer mentors in graduate training
and encouragement of participation in school-based problem-solving teams with other pro-
fessionals, we were able to find very little (i.e., no) research on the use of consultation and
DOI: 10.4324/9781003273950-2
 Consultation and Collaboration in Ethical Problem-Solving 11
collaboration in ethical problem-solving by school psychologists. That being said, many
of the current ethical decision-making models advocated in school psychology do recom-
mend, at some level, consultation with peers and colleagues (Lasser & Klose, 2007). We
will first discuss how collaborative ethical problem-solving looks in other fields, followed by
what we know and next directions for ethical problem-solving in school psychology.

Other Fields

Medical Care
There are several examples of ethical problem-solving collaboration in medical and
healthcare settings. For example, Norway has implemented a country-wide model for
systematic consultation and supports in both medical and residential nursing home set-
tings. A fairly recent survey of nursing home staff, including both nursing staff and sup-
port employees, indicated there is both a need and desire for systematic processes for
ethical problem-solving, particularly for common and frequent ethical challenges (Bol-
lig et al., 2015). Survey respondents reported some resources that would support their
ethical decision-making, including scheduled time for discussion of ethical challenges
and dilemmas, meeting spaces for these discussions, as well as consultation with others—
other employees, others more knowledgeable than they are, and those with professional
knowledge (e.g., ethicist, lawyer). Further, survey respondents reported several areas that
frequently come up as ethical challenges and dilemmas, which carry substantial overlap
with the challenges faced by school psychologists, including patient autonomy and capac-
ity for decision-making, availability of resources needed to provide adequate care, collab-
oration with patients and patients’ families, and privacy of patients (Bollig et al., 2015).
Hospitals and other healthcare settings also typically have set meetings where ethical
challenges and dilemmas may be discussed. One unique example of this is ethical rounds.
Svantesson and colleagues (2008) examined a model for ethical rounds in a medical
setting. In this study, a philosopher-ethicist guided doctors and nurses through ethical
challenges by first ensuring understanding of the challenge, then by facilitating problem-
solving discussions without providing recommendations. Doctors and nurses reported
both positive and negative outcomes of the guided ethical rounds. Doctors and nurses
reported that they thought deeper about the challenge and solutions because of the ethi-
cal rounds, that they liked the connection with other colleagues that derived from the
group discussion process, that they were more confident in the resulting action, that they
had a better understanding of their ethical and moral responsibilities, and that they felt
relief after the problem-solving discussion. Doctors and nurses in this study also reported
feeling alienated, being frustrated when a lack of solutions was available, and feeling
resigned when it seemed as if change was not possible. Based on these findings, Svantes-
son and colleagues (2008) recommended that ethical rounds include a balance between
three components when engaging in interdisciplinary ethical discussions: analysis of the
ethical challenge or dilemma, problem-solving, and conflict resolution.
Colvin and colleagues (2012) also discussed the utility of multidisciplinary ethi-
cal ­problem-solving. Specifically, they discussed the contributions of social workers to
­medical-legal partnerships (MLPs). MLPs are a resource available to patients to intercept
and prevent potential medical and legal issues in patient care. While ethical rounds focus
on specific medical care issues, MLPs typically address whole-client care. For this reason,
Colvin and colleagues (2012) recommend the inclusion of social workers to these teams to
support the systems approach to problem-solving and service provision. One relevant rec-
ommendation they make, when considering generalizing this work to school psychology,
12 Consultation and Collaboration in Ethical Problem-Solving
is to consider the ethical and legal obligations of all the professionals involved. For exam-
ple, if a school psychologist were to collaborate with other education professionals on an
ethical dilemma, it must be noted and considered that each professional has their own
ethical code and guidelines to uphold.
Further research has examined ethics consultation in psychiatric care (Haltaufderheide
et al., 2021). Specifically, this work examines the experiences of clinical ethics support
services (CESS). CESS are systems of support for ethical practice and decision-making,
including ethics consultation services, and are used in many medical care settings. Ethics
consultation within CESS may be pictured similarly to the previously discussed ethical
rounds, where a philosopher-ethicist guides discussions to support understanding and
problem analyses; however, within CESS, the ethicist provides more direct and consulta-
tive supports, rather than only facilitation. Interviews by Haltaufderheide and colleagues
(2021) supported that CESS may be particularly helpful in acknowledging the subjectivity
of ethical challenges and dilemmas and aiding in determining when ethical dilemmas
have occurred. Further, CESS interviewees reported both feeling competent in ethical
matters, based on their own training and experiences, and also wanting to consult with
others for ethical guidance, indicating even those with ethical expertise may desire con-
sultative problem-solving.

Supervisory Relationships
As a school psychology trainee or practitioner, you have almost certainly been part of
a supervisory relationship. If you have not at this point in your studies, you will shortly.
Löfström and Pyhältö (2012) discuss several ethical considerations within supervisory
relationships. First, supervisory relationships are meant to provide supervisees with addi-
tional experiences to build knowledge and skills, where the supervisory relationship
itself is foundational but is also embedded within the larger community (e.g., university,
school, clinic). In this regard, supervisory relationships may be ideal for the process of
collaborative or consultative ethical problem-solving. However, one must be aware of the
power imbalance between supervisor and supervisee, particularly as it may relate to the
social psychological phenomena discussed next. Relatedly, while supervisors are expected
to have expert knowledge and skills and to avoid many ethical dilemmas, some data indi-
cate identifying ethical challenges and dilemmas may be difficult for the actors/offenders
in a supervisory ethical dilemma, such as that seen in the exploitation of supervisee work
or providing inadequate supervision (Löfström & Pyhältö, 2012).

General Ethical Problem-Solving

In addition to setting-specific considerations in consultative and collaborative ethi-
cal problem-solving, some recommendations can be made about the process in terms
of predictors of adequate ethical problem-solving and decision-making. Stenmark and
colleagues (2010) studied factors predicting undergraduate students’ ethical decision-­
making. Notably, a significant predictor of high-quality decisions was whether or not
students identified the cause of the ethical problem. These findings align with the find-
ings and recommendations of the previously discussed research in this chapter. While
a single person may successfully identify the cause of an ethical problem, related fields
have found that when that person is involved in the ethical problem, they may not recog-
nize an ethical problem (Löfström & Pyhältö, 2012). Additionally, medical professionals
reported better understanding of ethical challenges and dilemmas and an appreciation
for the sense of connection found in collaborative ethical problem-solving discussions
(­Svantesson et al., 2008). Further, this finding aligns with this book’s use of the selected
 Consultation and Collaboration in Ethical Problem-Solving 13
ethical decision-making model (discussed in Chapter 3), which requires readers to first
identify the ethical problem, followed by identifying contributing variables (e.g., the
cause(s) of the problem).

School Psychology
While we were unable to find specific research in the school psychology literature on the
use of consultation and collaboration in ethical problem-solving, many of the proposed
ethical decision-making models encourage consultation with peers (Lasser & Klose,
2007). Lasser and Klose (2007) also discuss several social psychological phenomena that
may contribute to interactions, events, or behaviors that ultimately result in ethical dilem-
mas. Many of these phenomena, such as risky shift and conformity, may also be useful for
school psychologists to consider when engaging in collaborative problem-solving. Risky
shift occurs when a group selects a riskier option in decision-making. For example, if a
multidisciplinary team is presented with data that may not quite meet eligibility criteria,
they can either opt to qualify or not qualify the student for services. Risky shift would be
a tendency for the group to qualify the student for services, as this is the less conservative
option. Risky shift could also occur in the ethical problem-solving process if collabora-
tors lean away from a cautious, or conservative, approach to ethical decision-making.
Conformity occurs when one or more group members pressure other group members
to conform to their idea or decision. In the previous risky shift example, imagine if one
or two of the team members held seniority over the other members and pressured them
to agree with their eligibility decision. If the others did side with the senior team mem-
bers, conformity would have occurred. When engaging in ethical problem-solving with
collaborators, it may be important to consider any social power, real or perceived, that a
collaborator holds and put measures in place to prevent pressure to conform.
Based on the practices and research from other fields, in combination with resources
and standards in school psychology, we recommend that when engaging in consultation
and collaboration, you a) maintain privacy and confidentiality according to all ethical
codes you must follow, b) engage in problem-solving rather than focusing on things that
cannot be changed (e.g., “admiring the problem”), c) use the collaborative relationship
to consider multiple perspectives and outcomes, and d) use the process as a learning
experience to improve your skills and your collaborators’ skills in ethical problem-­solving.
Throughout this process, it is important to recognize the group or pair dynamic in order
to identify and prevent any instances of risky shift, conformity, or other relevant social
psychological phenomena.

Peer Support in School Psychology Training

The development of a professional network is embedded in many school psychology train-
ing programs and can be seen through the career-span. For example, the development
of social media groups for professionals within a given field is a means of developing a
professional network, as is the holding of conferences or conventions. In this section, we
discuss ways to build professional networks, and how these networks might contribute to
our competence, and use of consultation and collaboration, in ethical problem-solving.

Cohort Model
Many school psychology training programs utilize a cohort model. These models are
intended to provide several benefits to students to support their success while completing
their training. In a cohort model, students entering the program at the same time will
14 Consultation and Collaboration in Ethical Problem-Solving
take all their coursework together across their training, including completion of any field
experiences. While some programs may have developed guidance for cohorts in order
to maximize the benefits, each cohort will have its own strengths and areas for growth,
resulting in a slightly different community across cohorts. In general, a cohort model
provides social supports and opportunities for identity development to students. Within
a cohort model, students will spend significant amounts of time together in classrooms,
which often translates to studying, shared course resources, and collaborative problem-
solving when issues arise, whether between cohort members or in other areas.
Because of these opportunities, there are several specific benefits a cohort model is
thought to provide to trainees (Jackson, 2021). While spending time together in both
professional training activities, cohort peers are able to observe each other engaging with
course content. This can provide a model for expectations, which may lead to improved
engagement across the cohort. Observing others develop professionally may also inspire
cohort members to develop professional identity. Collaboration within cohorts can also
lead to innovation inside and outside the classroom as a result of the different perspec-
tives and experiences each member brings to the cohort. Finally, the benefit of a peer
support system cannot be discounted. If you are reading this book, you likely are either a
school psychology student or have gone through school psychology training. As a result,
you are aware that school psychology is a little-known field, and you may experience close
friends and family not understanding what you are learning or what you do profession-
ally. Having a training cohort provides the opportunity to have a social support group
who knows exactly what your chosen career is, experiences the demands and milestones
of training with you, and understands the struggles and joys of selecting to become, train-
ing for, and ultimately working as a school psychologist.
This kind of social support is incredibly beneficial during training but can also result
in an ongoing community of colleagues long after you complete your training. In fact, we
encourage our graduate students to begin forming these exact types of relationships in
graduate school, so they have an immediate social support system and consultation net-
work upon graduation. One of the added benefits of annually attending school psychol-
ogy conventions is meeting up with these friends within the profession and establishing
new relationships with others. State association conventions are particularly helpful in
this regard, given that most attendees are operating under the same state laws and, thus,
can better understand the circumstances of a given situation.

Peer Mentorship
Peer mentorship is used both formally and informally in school psychology training
programs. While a cohort model provides trainees with peer support from those going
through the program at the same time as they are, peer mentorship typically involves a
person in a more senior cohort mentoring a person in a junior cohort, often beginning
during the first year of study. The mentor is able to experience a pseudo-supervisory role,
where they can informally provide information, resources, and other supports to newer
students, and the mentee gets the benefit of a go-to person who has already been in their
shoes. Mentorship in school psychology has also extended to post-graduate practices,
with organizations and workplaces offering mentorship opportunities to new hires and
early career professionals.
The research literature notes several advantages of mentorship, including improved
self-efficacy, productivity, and belongingness (Grapin et al., 2021). Further, mentorship
has also shown a relationship between recruitment and retention of school psychology
trainees, which has significant implications for the ongoing national workforce shortages
of school psychologists (Grapin et al., 2021). Peer mentorship has also been established as
 Consultation and Collaboration in Ethical Problem-Solving 15
a protective factor for recruiting and retaining diverse student populations. Peer mentor-
ship, when provided effectively, may grant a more supportive means for diverse students
to ask questions, learn hidden expectations in colleges and school psychology programs,
access networking opportunities, and more (Rasheem et al., 2018).
A review by Grapin and colleagues (2021) examined the current state of the literature
on mentorship in school psychology. In addition to the information presented earlier,
their review indicated that many participants who had experienced mentoring continued
the mentoring relationship past graduate training. This is the experience of the authors
of this text, as well, who regularly speak with graduate school peers in both professional
and personal contexts. As a “former” mentor, one author still receives requests for advice,
feedback, and consultation from “former” mentees frequently, even after official mentor-
ing relationships ended many years ago. Further, that author continues to reach out to
those who mentored them during graduate training. Particularly in a field where many
do not understand your training, competencies, and roles, having a network of peer sup-
port may have several additional benefits. For example, in addition to helping prevent
isolation and burnout, the authors have also benefited from a robust peer support net-
work fostered during graduate school by being able to call a knowledgeable colleague to
discuss an important matter when time was of the essence, collaborate on a professional
development presentation to enhance the scope and quality of the presentation, and col-
laborate on research projects, co-author publications, and even as co-workers (knowing
who you will be working with can be great for recruiting).

Continued Use of Colleague Support

We previously mentioned the expansion of mentorship practices in school psychology to
include early career professionals and new hires, with many workplaces and organizations
providing structured mentorship opportunities. These opportunities are fantastic and
can provide many benefits. However, sometimes colleague support may be as beneficial
as mentorship. While mentorship provides opportunities to build on skills and learn new
things, colleague support may provide more opportunities for consultation and social
support. While there is limited-to-no research in this area in school psychology, anecdo-
tal observations indicate school psychology teams and networks can provide a friendly
group of people who have similar training and experiences. As this chapter is being writ-
ten, the authors of this book are preparing to attend the NASP annual convention, and
both are looking forward to meeting up with long-distance colleagues after a few years of
only online communication. In addition to school psychology colleagues, you might also
find support from those in related fields, such as special educators, school counselors,
speech-language pathologists, and clinical psychologists. These individuals, while having
different roles than school psychologists, work within many of the same systems and may
be able to provide social support and advice just as well as a fellow school psychologist.

Summary
There are many opportunities for both formal and informal consultation and collabora-
tion across school psychology training and careers. School psychology trainees may bene-
fit from a cohort model, where they move through the plan of study and field experiences
with the same peers, and peer mentorship, received by those in more senior cohorts.
Early career school psychologists may take advantage of mentorship opportunities within
the workplace or in professional organizations. Finally, ongoing mentor relationships and
colleague support may provide additional benefits, particularly as related to consultation
and social supports.
16 Consultation and Collaboration in Ethical Problem-Solving
Throughout this book, you will be asked to work through ethical case scenarios, using
the problem-solving model presented in the next chapter. Given the often-subjective
nature of ethical dilemmas and concerns, and the observed benefits of consultation and
collaboration in other areas, we recommend the use of collaborative ethical problem-
solving. When completing the case scenarios, we suggest you work out a case scenario
on your own, then collaborate with others and observe how the process, and outcome,
changes. Additionally, completing the case scenarios in this manner requires you to recall
the information and provides you with more opportunities to respond, which increases
the likelihood you will retain the information from the ethical code (Peverly et al., 2014;
Skinner et al., 2005).

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rounds. Journal of Medical Ethics, 34(5), 399–406. https://doi.org/10.1136/jme.2006.019810
3 Ethical Decision-Making Models

Purpose and Use of Ethical Decision-Making Models

The purpose of using an ethical decision-making model is to carefully consider relevant
ethical codes that may apply to the situation, weigh the different options of action and
inaction and the resultant consequences of each, and to document your decision-making
process (Jacob et al., 2022; Koocher & Keith-Spiegel, 1998). Particularly in contentious
situations, which may not always be foreseen at the outset of the dilemma, it may be
helpful to have documentation of the factors that were considered and how a decision
was made in the moment. Many ethical texts within psychology and related fields, like
applied behavior analysis, (e.g., Bailey & Burch, 2022; Drogin, 2019; Fisher, 2017; Jacob
et al., 2022; Koocher & Keith-Spiegel, 2016; Sush & Najdowski, 2022), advocate for the
use of an ethical decision-making model. In fact, the introduction of the NASP Principles
for Professional Ethics (2020) states that a problem-solving process should be used when the
practitioner is faced with difficult situations. Indeed, over a decade ago, Cottone (2012)
expressed that psychologists who do not use an ethical decision-making model may pre-
sent themselves as “naïve, uneducated, or potentially incompetent” (p. 117). This may be
especially true for school psychologists, as the use of a decision-making model is repre-
sented in the NASP’s Best Practice in School Psychology series (Klose & Lasser, 2014) and may
be considered to be part of a school psychologist’s standard of care.

Mitigating Decision-Making Factors

Despite the overwhelming support for the use of an ethical decision-making model by
professional organizations and pillars within the psychological community, only 16% of
school psychologists reported using a formal a decision-making model (Dailor & Jacob,
2011). Furthermore, there is a paucity of research supporting the notion that the use
of a decision-making model improves the decision made by the practitioner (Boccio,
2021). In part, this may be because school psychologists often encounter ethical dilem-
mas where the decision-making process is influenced by factors beyond the facts of the
situation. For example, Lasser et al. (2013) and Boccio et al. (2016) have expounded on
situation specific factors that influence one’s decision-making process, such as adminis-
trative pressures to make decisions that are not in the best interest of the most vulner-
able individual (e.g., the student) and how Western ideology, or one’s belief system,
informs how we perceive dilemmas and their potential outcomes. A side-effect of these
contextual pressures encountered by school psychologists are higher levels of burnout,
lower levels of job satisfaction, and increased likelihood to leave the profession (Boccio
et al., 2016).

DOI: 10.4324/9781003273950-3
18 Ethical Decision-Making Models
Ethical Decision-Making Models
Several ethical decision-making models have been proposed in recent decades (Bai-
ley & Burch, 2022; Boccio, 2021; Diamond et al., 2021; Drogin, 2019; Fischer, 2017; Wil-
liams et al., 2008). Possibly the most widely known model in school psychology is that of
Koocher and Keith-Spiegel (1998), which delineated an eight-step model and was later
adapted by Jacob et al. (2016). Given the amount of overlap among these models, the lack
of empirical support demonstrating the enhancement of the ultimate decision made, and
the lack of reported utilization among school psychologists, we will present and focus on
the model created by Sush and Najdowski (2019). In particular, we gravitate toward the
pragmatism and conciseness of this model. It is our assumption that some of the primary
reasons practitioners do not employ a decision-making model more frequently are 1)
they are unfamiliar with the models, 2) the models are too long to be easily remembered,
and 3) the questions posed within the models are often perceived to be redundant. Our
gravitation to the model promulgated by Sush and Najdowski is its brevity and visual
simplicity that make it easy to recall, which may increase the likelihood it will be used
in practice. Anecdotally, we have found in our own classrooms that graduate students
completing Sush and Najdowski’s workbook gained greater familiarity with the Behavior
Analyst Certification Board’s ethical code and an understanding of how to use an ethical
decision-making model. By adopting this model for the NASP Principles for Professional
Ethics (2020), we believe school psychologists and school psychology graduate students
will receive the same benefits.

Sush and Najdowski’s Model

As we mentioned before, a key benefit of the model created by Sush and Najdowski
(2019) is its parsimony. Unlike many of the complex problem-solving models found
in the psychology literature, this model utilizes only four steps, eliminating any repeat
considerations across steps. In addition, we have infused aspects of an ethical decision-­
making model from a social justice perspective proposed by Diamond et al. (2021). We
will describe these four steps as:

1. List all applicable ethics codes and standards.

2. Describe why those codes and standards apply to the current situation and whether a
violation has occurred based on those codes and standards.
3. Identify contributing factors, including one’s own belief system, and actions that
could have been taken to avoid the scenario.
4. Select the ethical course of action moving forward, as well as risk factors and contin-
ued monitoring needs.

This model may be particularly useful for those following more than one ethical code,
like many school psychologists do, as the first step deals with identifying which code(s)
apply to the current situation. During this step, you will review each applicable ethical
code and identify which standards in them apply to the scenario. While many students
and practitioners may feel relatively confident in their memory of the ethical codes, we
advise you to go directly to the documents so that the exact language of the code can be
considered. Once you have a list of each code and standard that applies to the scenario,
you are ready to move on to step two.
In step two, you will need to provide a rationale for why each code/standard applies
to the scenario. Sometimes there will be an exact match between the scenario and stand-
ards, while other times the situation may be more complex and ambiguous. Carefully
 Ethical Decision-Making Models 19
consider the factors within the scenario and how these factors are related to the ethical
standards selected. We recommend the following questions when describing the ration-
ale for considering the standards:

• Does the standard apply directly to the scenario? If so, how?

• Do multiple standards apply? Do these standards agree, or are they contradictory?

Once you have answered these questions, you will need to determine if an ethical viola-
tion has occurred. If a violation has not occurred, you can end the decision-making pro-
cess here. If a violation has occurred, you would move to step three.
Step three asks you to identify antecedent conditions related to the scenario. Specifi-
cally, you should determine what factors may have led to the current scenario and how
those factors could have been altered to prevent the scenario. Step three is a great time
to use the assessment and problem-solving skills of a school psychologist to identify con-
tributing variables. What had to happen for the current ethical scenario to take place?
This is also an important time to attend to one’s own belief system (e.g., learning history,
bias, prejudice, culture, age, gender, ability, economic situation, etc.) and the impact it
may be having on how the circumstances of the dilemma are perceived. Consider both
directly related variables, as well as mitigating factors like the ones discussed previously
in this chapter. Then, identify ways in which those variables could have been changed to
prevent the current situation.
Once the relevant codes and standards have been determined and contributing factors
have been identified, it is time to decide on a course of action. In the particular situa-
tion of the dilemma, ask yourself what needs to happen to rectify the ethical violation.
Depending on the magnitude and severity of the violation, the course of action can take
several paths. If you become aware of someone else’s ethical violation, general recommen-
dations are to first discuss the violation with the person involved so that they can rectify
the situation themselves. In cases where they do not rectify the situation, or when the vio-
lation is severe, you may need to report the violation to the appropriate organizations and
licensing boards, supervisors, and potentially law enforcement (APA, 2017). When you
are directly involved in the ethical dilemma, make a plan for responding to the current
situation, and make a plan to avoid future instances of this situation. When making this
plan, consider risk factors. What contributing factors led to the current situation, and do
these factors remain relevant or of concern? Are you able to change these factors, or will
you need to work with others to try to prevent them from occurring in the future? How
will you monitor these factors and others to ensure ethical violations can be prevented
prior to their occurrence? In the next section, we will walk you through some example
case scenarios using the decision-making model and materials provided in this book.

Using this Book

Each subsequent chapter of this book will provide a description of ethical standards in
the NASP Principles for Professional Ethics (NASP, 2020), as well as practice case scenarios
related to these standards. The scenarios will range from simple to complex. While this
text will focus on the NASP Principles for Professional Ethics, some scenarios may indicate
multiple licensing boards or organizations involved in the situation. These additional fac-
tors were included for doctoral, or dual-program, graduate students who are likely to be
learning about other ethical codes and for practitioners who possess multiple credentials
and organizational memberships that require them to adhere to additional ethical codes.
In these cases, it may be necessary to consult multiple ethical codes. The scenarios will
be presented in workbook pages, where you will move through the steps of the ethical
20 Ethical Decision-Making Models
decision-making model described previously. In this section, we will show you a com-
pleted example, while the worksheets in the chapters will be blank for your use.
In addition to completing the scenarios using the ethical decision-making model, we
also encourage you to practice consulting with others regarding these cases. If you are
completing these scenarios as part of a graduate class, consult with your classmates, peer
mentor, and field-based supervisor. If you are a practitioner, we encourage you to con-
sult with your colleagues. Practitioners may even consider creating a book club to build
community, further professional development, and as a way to mentor less experienced
practitioners. Consultation and collaboration with others are skills related to all aspects
of school psychology practice and comprise Domain 2 within the NASP Practice Model
(NASP, 2020).
It is important to begin practicing consultation early in one’s career (i.e., as a gradu-
ate student). Although it may seem like you will never see or interact with the people in
your graduate program again, it is likely that your relationships will extend well beyond
graduate school. Graduates often gain employment from school districts within the same
state as the program they attended and subsequently will see each other at professional
development opportunities over the years and at their state’s school psychology profes-
sional conference. In our experience, over time, conferences and conventions become
just as much about gaining professional development as they do about catching up with
long-time friends. It has also been our experience, and observation, that graduates are
sometimes even employed by the same district and work alongside each other, again,
highlighting the benefit of establishing strong working, collaborative, relationships early
during graduate school. School psychology is a relatively small field, and even if we do not
work within the same school district, we are likely to see each other’s reports as students
transfer between districts. Therefore, we highly encourage you to use this time and these
opportunities to practice your consultation skills. Everyone has a unique background,
culture, learning history, and belief system that influences their frame of reference. By
sharing your perspectives, you enhance your own professional growth as your viewpoint
can be challenged and honed and the perspectives of those you consult with benefit from
the exposure to a different way of analyzing the case.

Diversity
Previously in this chapter, we introduced an ethical decision-making model and the
importance of collaboration in ethical problem-solving process. Our recommendations
to use both a decision-making model and collaboration are meant to remove some level
of subjectivity from the decision-making process, or at least for that subjectivity to have
been considered and agreed on by multiple parties. Within the area of subjectivity, we
must also discuss the impact of diversity on ethical decision-making. The field of school
psychology is dominated by White, middle-aged, monolingual females (Walcott & Hyson,
2018). In fact, 88% of NASP members reported being White and 83% reported being
female. Similarly, most teachers are middle-age White females. According to a recent
report based on a representative sample of teachers and principals in 2017–2018, 79% of
public school teachers reported being non-Hispanic White, 77% reported being female,
and the mean age was 43 years (Institute of Educational Sciences, 2020). The sex and
racial composition of school psychologists and teachers working in schools is in contrast
to those they serve. The Institute of Educational Sciences (2021) reported that in the Fall
of 2018 only 47% of public school students reported being White. This is a decrease from
a reported 54% of White students in the Fall of 2009. Furthermore, during the 2017–2018
school year, 51.4% of public school students were reported to be male (Civil Rights Data
Collection, 2021).
 Ethical Decision-Making Models 21
Recognizing the stark contrast between the field of school psychology and the students
we serve, the NASP African American subcommittee of the Multicultural Affairs Commit-
tee created the NASP Exposure Project (NASP, 2022). The purpose of the NASP Expo-
sure Project is to inform high school students and undergraduate students of the field
of school psychology. In part, it is hoped that bringing increased awareness to the field
will reduce the critical shortage in school psychology and create a more culturally and
linguistically diverse workforce that is more representative of those we serve. Interested
readers are encouraged to learn more by visiting the NASP website at www.­nasponline.
org/resources-and-publications/resources-and-podcasts/diversity-and-social-justice/
cultural-competence/multicultural-affairs-committee/nasp-exposure-project-(nasp-ep)
and by listening to Dr. Charles Barrett discuss the initiative on the Texas Association of
School Psychologists (TASP) Talks Podcast at https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/
ep-19-fall-convention-preview-with-dr-charles-barrett/id1570910285?i=1000538422014.
By becoming more representative, the field is more likely to provide more culturally
responsive and competent services that, in turn, result in greater treatment fidelity and
efficacy. However, it should be made clear that it is not the responsibility of marginalized
individuals to enhance the service provision of the field. That responsibility lies with each
of us in the profession. For that reason, you will notice some intentional decisions in this
text to help you consider diverse perspectives, or expose you to issues that are not likely
representative of your experiences.

Case Scenarios
The names used in the case scenarios were purposefully made diverse. This is not to cov-
ertly or overtly imply that marginalized individuals disproportionately engage in unethi-
cal practices. Instead, the diversity of names was selected to present our hope for a near
future in which school psychology is represented by a diverse workforce.
Case scenarios were created from our imaginations based on our collective ­experiences
working in public schools, charter schools, private practice, and clinics; experiences of
personal friends that are school psychologists; supervising practicum and intern stu-
dents; mentoring students and early career professionals; experiences of other school
­psychologists that share their stories in online forums; and news reports. Although case
scenarios are based in reality, no scenario represents an actual event, school or clinic,
or individual. While some cases may appear more unbelievable than others, they are all
inspired by true events.
The creation of the case scenarios was shaped by our own experiences and belief sys-
tems. It is probable our own biases have manifested themselves in the scenarios, as well as
in the sample problem-solving steps we have provided. This is yet another reason why we
encourage readers to engage in collaborative consultation with others, even if you initially
complete the scenarios privately. Everyone has a unique background and learning history
that shapes their belief system and approach to resolving ethical dilemmas. By having an
open and critical discussion about one’s perspective on the events depicted and how one
arrived at the conclusions they did, others are likely to learn from them. In addition, it
allows others to respectfully challenge one’s thought processes and reasoning for mak-
ing the decision, or more likely assumptions that led to the proposed decision. By being
open to engaging in these types of discussions, the more likely biases and blind spots will
be identified, which will allow for personal and professional growth to occur. Blind spots
are so called because we are, in fact, blind to them. One way to identify blind spots is for
other people to help us recognize their presence and for us to be in a position to accept
the feedback, recognize it, and take action to address it. Another potential way to identify
blind spots is to seek professional development in areas we may not be naturally inclined
22 Ethical Decision-Making Models
to attend, either because we do not have interest in the topic or because we believe the
topic is something that is not an issue for us personally (e.g., microaggressions).
Case scenarios were also written based on the Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association’s guidelines for bias-free language (American Psychological
Association, 2020). At times, purposeful deviation from bias-free language was used to
represent an ethical dilemma within the case scenario. Users of this book are encouraged
to explore within their ethical decision-making model responses and discussions with col-
leagues, the language that is used within the case studies, and the biases or assumptions it
may provoke within themselves. For example, a person’s name alone may invoke certain
assumptions about the individual if it is the same as a person famous for certain actions
commonly looked down upon by large segments of society or if the name is closely linked
to a historical figure and/or individual represented in religious texts.

Application
The following sample case scenario is provided to give you a framework for complet-
ing the rest of the case scenarios contained in the book. After reading the scenario, we
recommend you complete the provided ethical problem-solving model on your own
before comparing your responses with your peers and ours. Given everyone’s unique
background, experiences, and belief system, it is likely that there will be some variation in
responses based on individuals’ backgrounds, experiences, and belief systems. Presenting
an ethical dilemma within a brief paragraph presents challenges as much of the context
or nuance of the situation cannot be included. However, this highlights the importance
of collaborative consultation with others all the more. Engage in respectful discussion
with your peers about these variations and why they occurred. Carefully examine what it
was about the scenario that led you to differing assumptions. Readers may also consider
reading Crucial Conversations: Tools for Talking When Stakes Are High (Grenny et al., 2022)
and Race Talk and the Conspiracy of Silence: Understanding and Facilitating Difficult Dialogues
on Race (Sue, 2015) to help facilitate productive conversations.

Sample Scenario
Ms. Castillo, a school psychologist, has recently lost her husband to a terminal illness. She is experi-
encing extreme grief and is having difficulty with perspective taking. While she feels a longer absence
from her job may be warranted, Ms. Castillo goes back to work because of the lack of other service
providers and encouragement from others to “get back to normal” as soon as possible. During a
counseling session with a student who has a history of depression, Ms. Castillo tells the student that
their problems are small, and they should be grateful they do not have any real problems. Ms. Castillo
is a Nationally Certified School Psychologist and a member of APA.

Table 3.1

Step 1: List all applicable ethics NASP: II.1.2 Personal Problems

codes and standards. APA: 2.06. Personal Problems and Conflicts
Step 2: Describe why those codes The above standards in the NASP and APA codes apply to
and standards apply to the current this scenario directly. Ms. Castillo is experiencing extreme
situation and whether a violation grief and difficulty with perspective taking, which has
has occurred based on those codes influenced her ability to perform her duties with compe-
and standards. tence and care for her clients. The standards identified
are in alignment with this scenario.
Based on the scenario and the related codes, an ethical
violation has occurred.
 Ethical Decision-Making Models 23

Step 3: Identify contributing factors, The primary contributing factors are Ms. Castillo’s
including one’s own belief system, personal experiences. Her husband’s death, the direct
and actions that could have been contributing factor, could not have been prevented in this
taken to avoid the scenario. scenario.
Mitigating factors may include the lack other qualified
service providers and encouragement from others to “get
back to normal” too quickly, and a personal belief that
helping others is more important than attending to her
own needs.
Mitigating factors could have been avoided if she were
not the sole service provider in her schools and if others
had allowed her the time she needed to mourn prior to
engaging in-service provision. Additionally, Ms. Castillo’s
difficulty with perspective taking and her life experiences
may have prevented her from being firm in her need for
additional time prior to beginning service provision, or in
her response to the client.
Step 4: Select the ethical course of Attempting an informal resolution may be appropriate as
action moving forward, as well as a first step. The chosen course of action in this situation
risk factors and continued moni- is to:
toring needs. • Discuss the situation with Ms. Castillo. Encourage her
to meet with the client to repair the relationship, and
then to consider steps to take to prevent future viola-
tions, such as taking additional time off work, or asking
a trusted colleague to monitor/supervise her until she is
feeling better able to provide services independently.
• If Ms. Castillo does not choose to follow-through with
rectifying the situation, the supervisor will be con-
sulted. It is also possible, depending on Ms. Castillo’s
response and risk of repeat violations, that the violation
is reported to NASP, APA, and the state credentialing
board.
Risk factors in this situation include Ms. Castillo’s
ongoing grief, lack of other qualified service providers,
and personal beliefs about others being more important
than she is. Recommendations will be made for additional
time off and/or temporary consultation or supervision
for Ms. Castillo. Additional recommendations will include
recruiting additional service providers, either full-time,
or contracting as needed, for times when the primary
service provider is unable to maintain duties. Ms. Castillo
may also consider working with a counselor regarding
work-life balance and setting boundaries so that her
needs are met.
Monitoring will need to take place if Ms. Castillo will
continue providing psychological services following resolu-
tion of this ethical violation. In this event, a consultant
or supervisor may be temporarily assigned to monitor Ms.
Castillo’s ethical and competent completion of services.

Summary
Ultimately, the ethical decision-making model used in this book will guide you through
identifying the relevant ethical codes and standards for a scenario, describing how and
why those codes and standards apply and whether, based on them, an ethical violation
has occurred. It will also help you identify factors that contributed to the scenario, as well
as to make a plan to remedy the violation and put steps in place to monitor and prevent
similar scenarios in the future. Similar to a behavioral problem-solving model, these steps
24 Ethical Decision-Making Models
first require you to identify and validate the problem, then identify the function, or cause,
of the problem, and finally develop an intervention or behavior change plan.

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4 Scenarios for Consent and Assent

Introduction
Issues of autonomy and self-determination are foundational to ethical standards across
caregiving professions. When it comes to providing psychological services, it is important
to recognize individuals’ right to contribute to and consent to services. While the issue
of consent may seem straightforward, in the section that follows we will describe several
situations in which consent is and is not required, many of which may not be intuitive.
When in doubt about whether consent or assent is required, we encourage you to check
with your relevant ethical codes.

Guiding Principle I.1 Autonomy and Self-Determination

Guiding Principle I.1 Autonomy and Self-Determination (NASP, 2020) pertains to con-
sent, assent, and the right to refuse or revoke consent. Issues of when consent is and
is not needed to provide service or to disclose information are interwoven throughout
every aspect of school psychologists’ work. The standards within this Guiding Principle
provide practitioners with the information needed to make informed decisions regarding
their practice. In particular, practicum students, interns, and trainees will want to attend
to Standard I.1.3 Seeking Informed Consent (NASP, 2020), as they are specifically men-
tioned within this standard.
The issue of when consent is or is not required may not always be readily identified.
In general, consent for consultation is not required if the implementation of the inter-
vention does not require the oversight or skill set of the school psychologist. In other
words, the intervention must be under the purview of someone else (e.g., teacher, sup-
port team) and be part of the normal classroom routine. School psychologists may also
provide input that is focused on class-wide issues and review individual school records
for purposes related to their assigned duties without first obtaining informed consent.
If school psychologists are part of district or campus-wide screenings, such as when
gathering benchmark data or conducting universal screeners, they also do not need to
obtain informed parental consent. However, in general, consent is required when the
intervention is directed by the school psychologist, pertains to an individual student,
or encroaches on the privacy of the family to an undue degree. When universal screen-
ers gather data about mental health problems, parents must be given notice and be
allowed to withdraw their consent for their child to participate. Graduate students and
practitioners are also encouraged to consult with their local and state laws and policies
regarding the issue of when to obtain consent. For example, in 2012, the Texas State
Board of Examiners of Psychologists (TSBEP), who credential school psychologists as
Licensed Specialists in School Psychology (LSSP), published additional guidance to its
DOI: 10.4324/9781003273950-4
 Scenarios for Consent and Assent 27
licensees regarding this issue given the confusion many LSSPs were experiencing at the
time (TSBEP, 2012).
If a student presents as a risk to oneself or others, or is in danger from others, school
psychologists may also provide services without notice or consent. Assistance may be
provided to those students who self-refer on a one-time basis, or if more information is
needed to determine the severity of the situation, school psychologists may provide ser-
vices until the severity is determined. If permissible by your specific state and by district
policy, then services may also be provided to mature minors without consent. If this is not
the case in your state or district, then consent is both ethically and legally required.
When informed consent is needed, school psychologists must work to make sure the
individual providing consent is truly informed as to what they are consenting to. Standard
I.1.3 Seeking Informed Consent (NASP, 2020) provides a list of items that must be dis-
cussed when seeking informed consent. While we will not re-present that list here, we do
want to highlight a few aspects of informed consent. For example, when seeking informed
consent, practitioners must attend to linguistic and cultural factors and provide the infor-
mation in language that is developmentally appropriate to the audience. Further, consent
must be received in writing. As the old adage goes, if it is not in writing, it did not happen.
One of the unheralded duties of school psychologists is making sure documentation exists
for services rendered. In addition, informed consent should be obtained before practicum
students or interns begin providing services. When services are provided by practicum
students and interns, the supervisory relationship must be explained, and their supervi-
sor identified, so parents or guardians know who to contact if they have any questions
or concerns. When parent(s) or guardian(s) refuse or revoke informed consent, school
psychologists must honor this and not engage in retribution. Instead, school psychologists
should offer alternate recommendations that may be more palatable. When approval for
services is sought from a minor, the term assent is used instead of consent. Seeking assent
respects the dignity and welfare of the minor by ensuring they understand what they are
being asked to agree to, using developmentally appropriate communication, and honor-
ing their refusal to, or withdrawal of, assent. However, seeking assent may not always be
appropriate. When this is the case, carefully explain to the minor instances when you
cannot honor the minor’s refusal to assent. One way this may come up in practice is when
you have received informed consent to complete a psychoeducational evaluation. In this
case, you would not be able to honor the student’s refusal for assent. Instead, you should
explain the process and rational for the activities you will be doing together and how the
information will be used. Aside from the ethical implications, refusing to respect one’s
lack of assent after seeking it may damage your ability to establish rapport with the stu-
dent. So, while true assent may not always be able to be obtained or honored, the process
of informing the student of their role in the process, and the process itself, should occur.

Let’s Practice
Below are a set of case scenarios to help you familiarize yourself with potential ethical
dilemmas in the areas of consent and assent as a school psychologist. We recommend
completing the scenario worksheets individually and then collaboratively in pairs or
groups in order to hear multiple perspectives. As you might notice when reviewing the
scenarios, it is possible to come to a different conclusion or consider alternative factors
than others. This is why these situations are called ethical dilemmas. When working col-
laboratively, there is opportunity for sharing different perspectives, which may ultimately
lead to better problem-solving. Chapter 3 provides an overview of the ethical decision-
making model and a guide to using the worksheets that follow.
28 Scenarios for Consent and Assent
Reference List
National Association of School Psychologists. (2020). The professional standards of the National Associa-
tion of School Psychologists. Retrieved May 1, 2021, from www.nasponline.org/x55315.xml
Texas State Board of Examiners of Psychologists. (2012). Analysis of impact of federal education law
on board rules governing informed consent. TSBEP Newsletter. https://tasp.memberclicks.net/
assets/conference-materials/2016/ethics%20for%20lssps%20-%20informed%20consent%20
tsbep%20-%20donna%20black%20-%20tasp%202013.pdf
 Scenarios for Consent and Assent 29
Practice Scenarios

Scenario 1
During the afternoon, Ms. Adams, a fourth-grade teacher at Sunset Elementary, calls your office
telephone. She has a student who will not leave the bathroom and is crying following recess. You
walk to the bathroom, where the identified student is washing their hands but is still crying and
refusing to return to class. You identify this as an emergency situation, given the intensity of crying
behavior and class refusal and decide to engage the student in psychological services. You introduce
yourself as the school psychologist and ask if they want to talk to you about why they are upset. The
student agrees, and you go to your office, where you engage in rapport-building and motivational
interviewing techniques. Through this information gathering, you learn the student’s friends are
mad at them, and that they feel they did not do anything wrong and do not understand why the
friends are upset. While this does not seem like an emergency anymore, you complete your session
with the student, and send them to class when they are feeling better. Given that it seems the problem
is solved, the student’s parents are not notified of the incident or of their child’s meeting with you.
30 Scenarios for Consent and Assent
Scenario 2
At the beginning of the school year Mr. Roark met with the parents of Dawid to obtain informed con-
sent for a psychoeducational evaluation to assist in determining if Dawid meets criteria for special
education services. At the meeting, Mr. Roark carefully explained the nature and scope of services
he would be providing, went over the foreseeable benefits, risks, and costs with the parents; discussed
limits of confidentiality; who will be able to access information from the evaluation; and the possible
consequences of consenting to the evaluation. The explanations were given in the parents’ native
language and in a manner that was consistent with their culture and understandable to the par-
ents. Unfortunately, Mr. Roark contracted COVID-19 shortly after obtaining consent and is now
very concerned about completing the evaluation within the designated timeline. In order to meet the
deadline, Mr. Roark instructs the intern he supervises to complete the cognitive and achievement
evaluations. Mr. Roark will still write the report and attend the meeting to provide a comprehensible
explanation to the parents.

Step 1: List all applicable ethics codes

and standards.

Step 2: Describe why those codes and

standards apply to the current situ-
ation and whether a violation has
occurred based on those codes and
standards.

Step 3: Identify contributing factors,

including one’s own belief system,
and actions that could have been
taken to avoid the scenario.

Step 4: Select the ethical course of

action moving forward, as well as
risk factors and continued monitor-
ing needs.
 Scenarios for Consent and Assent 31
Scenario 3
Mrs. Conlon, school psychologist of Milton Middle School, has had a long and tumultuous rela-
tionship with the Huffman family. Most recently, Mr. and Mrs. Huffman called to revoke special
education services for their youngest son, Brian, who is currently receiving services for Other Health
Impairment. Mrs. Conlon was quite disturbed and upset at this news because Brian’s behavior has
become increasingly erratic and violent. Before hanging up with the parents Mrs. Conlon informed
the parents she would give them two weeks to reconsider their decision and if they did not allow ser-
vices to continue she would have to expel Brian from the school.

Step 1: List all applicable ethics codes

and standards.

Step 2: Describe why those codes and

standards apply to the current situ-
ation and whether a violation has
occurred based on those codes and
standards.

Step 3: Identify contributing factors,

including one’s own belief system,
and actions that could have been
taken to avoid the scenario.

Step 4: Select the ethical course of

action moving forward, as well as
risk factors and continued monitor-
ing needs.
32 Scenarios for Consent and Assent
Scenario 4
A school psychology intern, Jia Yi, recently attended a didactic training on informed consent and
assent. During the training she realizes she had not been seeking assent from the students she works
with and vows to never make this mistake again. The following day when she goes to retrieve a
student to administer a cognitive assessment, as part of an evaluation to determine emotional dis-
turbance, she seeks assent from Crystal, the student. Crystal quickly becomes agitated and begins
yelling at Jia Yi that she does not assent. Saddened at this result, but not wanting her supervisor’s
credential to be jeopardized or her future ability to become a school psychologist, she honors the stu-
dent’s refusal to assent and discontinues attempts to complete the evaluation. At the Individualized
Education Program (IEP) meeting she informs the team she was not able to complete the evaluation
because assent was not obtained.

Step 1: List all applicable ethics codes

and standards.

Step 2: Describe why those codes and

standards apply to the current situ-
ation and whether a violation has
occurred based on those codes and
standards.

Step 3: Identify contributing factors,

including one’s own belief system,
and actions that could have been
taken to avoid the scenario.

Step 4: Select the ethical course of

action moving forward, as well as
risk factors and continued monitor-
ing needs.
 Scenarios for Consent and Assent 33
Scenario 5
Jorge has been directed to consult with a fifth-grade teacher, Mrs. Hellenschmidt, who is having
difficulties with one of her students, Michael. Mrs. Hellenschmidt describes Michael as being off
task all the time every day and very disruptive to the classroom. When asked to define “disruptive”
she explains that Michael often makes jokes, causing the other students to laugh. Michael also
frequently blurts out answers and roams the classroom. After understanding the topography of the
behavior, Jorge recommends Mrs. Hellenschmidt use a token economy to address Michael’s behavior.
Jorge has to explain how token economies work, write up a plan, and prepare the materials for Mrs.
Hellenschmidt to implement because she has never used a token economy before. He then returns on
Monday to explain the behavioral expectations to Michael and ensure Mrs. Hellenschmidt imple-
ments the plan with fidelity.

Step 1: List all applicable ethics codes

and standards.

Step 2: Describe why those codes and

standards apply to the current situ-
ation and whether a violation has
occurred based on those codes and
standards.

Step 3: Identify contributing factors,

including one’s own belief system,
and actions that could have been
taken to avoid the scenario.

Step 4: Select the ethical course of

action moving forward, as well as
risk factors and continued monitor-
ing needs.
34 Scenarios for Consent and Assent
Scenario 6
Clark Esar recently moved to a new state and started a job as a school psychologist after practicing
in another state for the past ten years. Quintin, a tenth-grade student, requests counseling services
from Mr. Esar. They report feelings of intense anxiety throughout the day and have a diagnosis of
Generalized Anxiety Disorder, given by their primary care physician, and take a daily medication
to treat anxiety. The student does not receive any special education services or accommodations at
school. In your previous state, mature minors could request and receive school psychological services
without parental consent. Given Quintin is 16 years old, you determine they are mature enough
to seek services without parental consent and agree to provide counseling services. After six weeks
of providing counseling services to Quintin, you receive an angry call from Quintin’s father. He is
upset that he was not notified of the services and did not consent to them. You learn through this
phone call that your current state law does not allow you to provide psychological services to mature
minors without parental consent.

Step 1: List all applicable ethics codes

and standards.

Step 2: Describe why those codes and

standards apply to the current situ-
ation and whether a violation has
occurred based on those codes and
standards.

Step 3: Identify contributing factors,

including one’s own belief system,
and actions that could have been
taken to avoid the scenario.

Step 4: Select the ethical course of

action moving forward, as well as
risk factors and continued monitor-
ing needs.
 Scenarios for Consent and Assent 35
Scenario 7
A kindergarten student is referred by the student referral team for an evaluation to determine eligi-
bility for special education services, with several concerns about developmental delays expressed. The
parents agree and provide consent for the evaluation, and the school psychologist, Dr. Davy Loft-
ing, begins the evaluation process. After completing testing and writing his evaluation report the
parents contact Dr. Lofting. They wish to stop the evaluation, as they do not want their student to be
labeled and receive special education services at school. They would prefer to speak to their pediatri-
cian about possibilities for diagnoses and services outside of the school setting. Dr. Lofting steers the
parents away from seeking external help, telling them that the professionals at school know best what
services would be right for their child. The parents ultimately concede and agree for Dr. Lofting to
complete the report and for the team to determine special education eligibility.

Step 1: List all applicable ethics codes

and standards.

Step 2: Describe why those codes and

standards apply to the current situ-
ation and whether a violation has
occurred based on those codes and
standards.

Step 3: Identify contributing factors,

including one’s own belief system,
and actions that could have been
taken to avoid the scenario.

Step 4: Select the ethical course of

action moving forward, as well
as risk factors and continued
­monitoring needs.
36 Scenarios for Consent and Assent
Scenario 8
Mr. Hines, a second-grade teacher at Sunrise Elementary, requests to consult with you about his
classroom management. Mr. Hines has noticed that several of his students talk out and leave their
assigned seats during instruction and would like to modify his class-wide behavior management
strategies to address these behaviors. While you are observing Mr. Hines’ class, you notice one stu-
dent appears to be the instigator of these behaviors. During instruction, this student is usually the
first to talk out or leave their seat, then other students follow their lead. When you develop the class-
wide behavior management plan with Mr. Hines, you suggest a group contingency, where rewards
for the class are contingent on the identified student’s behavior. No consent is collected from any
student’s parents or guardians. The identified student tells their parents about the new classroom
intervention, and their mother calls the school. She is upset that her student has been singled out,
and that she was never notified of the intervention or of her student’s difficulties in the classroom.

Step 1: List all applicable ethics codes

and standards.

Step 2: Describe why those codes and

standards apply to the current situ-
ation and whether a violation has
occurred based on those codes and
standards.

Step 3: Identify contributing factors,

including one’s own belief system,
and actions that could have been
taken to avoid the scenario.

Step 4: Select the ethical course of

action moving forward, as well
as risk factors and continued
­monitoring needs.
 Scenarios for Consent and Assent 37
Scenario 9
The principal of Lincoln High calls the school psychologist, Ms. Shiff, to ask for assistance with one
of their students, Julia, who was found cutting her arms in the gym locker room. Ms. Shiff politely
informs the principal he will need to get informed consent from Julia’s parents before she can inter-
vene and provide psychological assistance or assess the situation.

Step 1: List all applicable ethics codes

and standards.

Step 2: Describe why those codes

and standards apply to the current
­situation and whether a violation
has occurred based on those codes
and standards.

Step 3: Identify contributing factors,

including one’s own belief system,
and actions that could have been
taken to avoid the scenario.

Step 4: Select the ethical course of

action moving forward, as well
as risk factors and continued
­monitoring needs.
38 Scenarios for Consent and Assent
Scenario 10
You are in your sixth year as a school psychologist and have agreed to supervise a practicum student.
The practicum student has a set of course requirements they have to complete, such as a complete
psychoeducational evaluation and behavioral consultation cases, and you have them complete other
items, as well. As part of your supervision of the practicum student, you have them administer tests
of cognitive abilities as part of a student’s psychoeducational evaluation while you observe. You plan
to provide feedback to the practicum student and determine if they are ready to complete an evalu-
ation independently based on your observation. Since you were in the room during all parts of the
assessment, and the practicum student falls under your certification, you did not notify the child’s
parents that the practicum student may administer some or all of the tests. The parents learn that
the practicum student administered some tests and are upset they were not notified. They deem these
results to be invalid and request the school fund an independent educational evaluation.

Step 1: List all applicable ethics codes

and standards.

Step 2: Describe why those codes

and standards apply to the current
­situation and whether a violation
has occurred based on those codes
and standards.

Step 3: Identify contributing factors,

including one’s own belief system,
and actions that could have been
taken to avoid the scenario.

Step 4: Select the ethical course of

action moving forward, as well
as risk factors and continued
­monitoring needs.
 Scenarios for Consent and Assent 39
Scenario 11
Two weeks ago, Winston, a 14-year-old male, told the school psychologist, Dr. Agger, that he is gay,
but is scared that his friends and his family will not accept him if they find out. In particular, he is
afraid his mother will disown him and kick him out of the house. Dr. Agger has been meeting with
Winston to discuss the situation and help him find support within the community. At their last
meeting, Winston requested an evaluation for special education services because he thinks he might
have a learning disability and Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. However, Winston does not
want Dr. Agger to get consent from his parents because he is afraid they will find out he has been
seeing the school psychologist and request the notes Dr. Agger has been taking during their meetings
together and find out that he is gay.

Step 1: List all applicable ethics codes

and standards.

Step 2: Describe why those codes

and standards apply to the current
­situation and whether a violation
has occurred based on those codes
and standards.

Step 3: Identify contributing factors,

including one’s own belief system,
and actions that could have been
taken to avoid the scenario.

Step 4: Select the ethical course of

action moving forward, as well
as risk factors and continued
­monitoring needs.
40 Scenarios for Consent and Assent
Scenario 12
Ms. Morris, NCSP received consent from both parents of a fifth-grade student for a psychoeduca-
tional evaluation. Two weeks later, after already completing the ADOS-2, UNIT-2, CARS-2, and
direct observations, the parents revoke consent for evaluation. Ms. Morris informs the parents that it
is too late to revoke consent because she has already nearly completed the evaluation and offers them
a few dates and times to meet with the IEP team to determine eligibility for services.

Step 1: List all applicable ethics codes

and standards.

Step 2: Describe why those codes

and standards apply to the current
­situation and whether a violation
has occurred based on those codes
and standards.

Step 3: Identify contributing factors,

including one’s own belief system,
and actions that could have been
taken to avoid the scenario.

Step 4: Select the ethical course of

action moving forward, as well
as risk factors and continued
­monitoring needs.
 Scenarios for Consent and Assent 41
Scenario 13
Dr. Barbara Johnson has been providing psychoeducational assessment through a private practice
after school hours and sometimes on the weekends. Last Friday around 5:30 pm a client of one of
the other providers in the practice walked in with blood running down his wrists and looking pale.
When Dr. Johnson inquired what had happened the client said that his dads had just told him
they were getting a divorce so he had cut his own wrists in the parking lot. Dr. Johnson informs the
individual that his therapist is not in and that he will need to sign an informed consent with her in
order to talk about what is going on.

Step 1: List all applicable ethics codes

and standards.

Step 2: Describe why those codes and

standards apply to the current situ-
ation and whether a violation has
occurred based on those codes and
standards.

Step 3: Identify contributing factors,

including one’s own belief system,
and actions that could have been
taken to avoid the scenario.

Step 4: Select the ethical course of

action moving forward, as well
as risk factors and continued
­monitoring needs.
42 Scenarios for Consent and Assent
Scenario 14
Dr. Sue is a licensed psychologist, board certified behavior analyst, and nationally certified school
psychologist. He has been seeing Lightner, a 12-year-old boy, in his private practice for reading issues
for the past seven months. Lightner’s mother, Mrs. McKay, informed Dr. Sue that she and Lightner’s
teachers have seen no improvement in his reading abilities and as such, she will not be bringing
her son for any more sessions. Instead, she will be seeking services from other providers. Dr. Sue
tells Mrs. McKay she should not do this, that Lightner is on the verge of a major breakthrough in
reading and that she needs to be patient. He also warns her that if she refuses to continue receiving
services from him prematurely that he will warn the other practitioners in the area not to work with
her or her son.

Step 1: List all applicable ethics codes

and standards.

Step 2: Describe why those codes

and standards apply to the current
­situation and whether a violation
has occurred based on those codes
and standards.

Step 3: Identify contributing factors,

including one’s own belief system,
and actions that could have been
taken to avoid the scenario.

Step 4: Select the ethical course of

action moving forward, as well
as risk factors and continued
­monitoring needs.
 Scenarios for Consent and Assent 43
Scenario 15
Joanna Hamm has been working as a school psychologist at the Unified School District of the Palms
and has been a member of the crisis response team for the past two months. She has never been
allowed to work with teachers or students only receiving general education services because she was
told her salary is paid with special education funds. As such, she politely explains to one of her
middle school principals that she legally cannot respond to the crisis call to help a student who was
found trying to commit suicide because the student is not one of hers (a student receiving special
education services).

Step 1: List all applicable ethics codes

and standards.

Step 2: Describe why those codes

and standards apply to the current
­situation and whether a violation
has occurred based on those codes
and standards.

Step 3: Identify contributing factors,

including one’s own belief system,
and actions that could have been
taken to avoid the scenario.

Step 4: Select the ethical course of

action moving forward, as well
as risk factors and continued
­monitoring needs.
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with the attacks made on her throughout the past campaign. One
thing which may be accepted as certain is that in some way she
caught cold. Wise quotes a young Dr. Heiskell, of Winchester, Virginia,
who was just starting as a physician in the neighborhood, and was
the first doctor to reach her, as saying: “We learned that she had
caught cold and pleuritic symptoms supervened upon her
constitutional nervous affections. She was sitting smoking her
corncob pipe when she caught her last malady....”

Wise further explains that “a pipe was prescribed by her physician for
her phthisis, and she often rose in the night to smoke for relief.”
Whatever the explanation of the pipe may be, its only importance
was its use in the caricatures used by her husband’s opponents in the
presidential campaign. She had long been subject to the bronchial
trouble which was, undoubtedly, the chief cause of her death.

No words can describe the tragedy which stalked at the Hermitage

during her illness. The General would not leave her side. The
servants stood about in stricken silence, with the exception of old
Hannah, who nursed her, and the few who were allowed to perform
little duties to assist her. Friends and relatives gathered—and 79
on the late afternoon of the twenty-second her condition
seemed greatly improved. She had persuaded General Jackson to lie
down on a sofa in the next room in order that he might be rested for
the coming celebration—which, she insisted, he must attend. He
obeyed and Mrs. Jackson was removed from her bed that it might be
prepared for the night. As she sat in a chair, supported by the arms
of the faithful Hannah, she suddenly uttered a cry and her head fell
forward.... The General rushed to her and for a time, neither he nor
his stricken household would believe that she was dead. At his
command they placed her upon a table, the physician made an effort
to bleed her, and they worked with her for hours before the
desperate old man could understand that there was no hope. All
night he remained by her side.
Early on the morning of the twenty-third the citizens of Nashville
were informed of her death. It was ordered that on the following day,
from one until two o’clock, the hour set for her funeral, that the
church bells be tolled. The scene was rapidly changed from one of
festivity to deep mourning, and on the next day the road was
crowded with people on their way to the Hermitage to pay their last
respects to a sainted woman. The Reverend William Hume preached
her funeral sermon.

A gentleman from Philadelphia who was present wrote to a relative:

“Such a scene I never wish to witness again. The poor old 80

gentleman was supported to the grave by General Coffee
and Major Rutledge. I never pitied any person more in my life. The
road to the Hermitage was almost impassable, and an immense
number of persons attended the funeral. The remains were
interred in the lower part of the garden. I never before saw so
much affliction among the servants in the death of a mistress.
Some seemed completely stupified by the event; others wrung
their hands and shrieked aloud. The woman who had waited on
Mrs. Jackson had to be carried from the ground....”

The funeral service was, in fact, delayed because she had thrown
herself upon her mistress’ grave and refused to move. General
Jackson would not allow her to be torn away by force, but waited
patiently until her associates could persuade her to allow them to
remove her.

So ended all thoughts of victory for Andrew Jackson. All that had
made victory sweet, all that had made life worth while, had passed
away. The only thing to which the broken old man looked forward
was his return to their beloved Hermitage. His body, his mind, and his
indomitable will he carried to Washington—but his heart he left
buried with Rachel in their garden.

Although for a time after her death Rachel Jackson’s Hermitage—the

building as it appeared from 1819 to 1831—remained unchanged, the
period was, to all intents and purposes, ended. The household 81
and its followers centered about the White House, and the
lonely resting place of its mistress was left to the tender care of
relatives and the slaves whose grief was still inconsolable. General
Coffee, R. E. W. Earl, Andrew Jackson Donelson and his wife, Emily,
who was for a time mistress of the White House; Andrew Jackson, Jr.,
and later his bride, Sarah York Jackson; Major Lewis, and others
formed a part of the household. Some of the time three Marys—Mary
Coffee, Mary McLemore, and Mary Eastin—daughters of Rachel’s
nieces, added gayety to the Washington household. Mary Eastin was
married in the White House to Lucius Polk, and Mary Coffee married
General Jackson’s ward, Andrew Jackson Hutchings.

A new phase in the history of the Hermitage began in 1831. Andrew

Jackson, Jr., married the beautiful and cultured Miss Sarah York, of
Philadelphia, on November 24, 1831. Some interest in the future
began to live in the heart of Andrew Jackson. Since his wife’s death
he had contemplated his son’s marriage with more than ordinary
concern.

“It is,” he wrote to a friend in May, 1829, “the only hope by which I
look to a continuation of my name....”

It proved to be more than that for it was the beginning of a beautiful

relationship destined to last from the time he welcomed Sarah York
Jackson, as a bride, to the White House, until she stood at his 82
deathbed at the Hermitage in 1845. The President, because of
pressing duties and ill health, had not been able to make the journey
to Philadelphia to attend the wedding, but he sent Col. Earl with a
cluster of pearls for the bride. It was in the form of a ring, and there
was a lock of his hair on the under side of the setting. With it he sent
the message that from his son’s description of her he thought “pearls
the most fitting gift, as emblematic of the purity of her character and
the beauty of her face.” (From the notebook of Mrs. Rachel Jackson
Lawrence—State Library.)
The wedding took place at the home of Mrs. Samuel Wetherill, Sarah
York’s sister, who lived on Chestnut Street, in Philadelphia. Mrs.
Jackson, Mrs. Wetherill, and another sister, Mrs. Adams, were left
orphans in early childhood, and, at the request of their dying father,
were cared for and educated at Mrs. Malland’s boarding school. They
were well-bred, charming, and well connected. Andrew Jackson
himself—and he was a noted matchmaker—could not have made a
better choice for the future mistress of the Hermitage.

Before Andrew Jackson, Jr., brought his bride to the red brick
mansion in Tennessee, extensive remodeling was done. This period in
the history of the Hermitage had been completely overlooked until a
letter in the Hermitage collection was recently brought to light. This
letter (Published for the first time in the 1933 edition of the present
work) which is quoted in full, gives complete data on the remodeling
of the Hermitage in 1831, as well as the building of the tomb in 83
the garden. It reads:

“Nashville, December 6, 1831.

“Dear sir: I have the satisfaction to inform you that the additions
and improvements to the Hermitage are compleated. I have in
addition to the improvements, as exhibited on the plan furnished
you a neat and appropriate Portico on the back side of the center
building, which adds very much to the comfort & convenience of
your dwelling.

“The Hermitage as improved presents a front of 104 feet, the

wings project 9 feet in front the center building and are connected
by a colonnade of the same breadth. The colonnade consists of 10
lofty columns of the Doric order the entablature is carried through
the whole line of the front, and has wreaths of laurel leaves in the
frieze, on the cornice is a blocking corse that support an
appropriate balustrade. The upper story consists of a Portico
surmounted by a pediment which breaks the monotony of the
composition in a very satisfactory manner.
“The material employed in the emprovements are all of the best
quality the neighborhood affords, the colonnade is covered with
the best copper the sheets weighing from 12 to 14 lbs. each sheet,
and the gutters that convey the water from front to back are also
of copper. The wing buildings and Porticos are roofed with good
ceader shingles. The old Kitchen is removed and the matereals
employed in the erection of a large and comodeus smoke 84
house which is placed on a line with the new kitchen. The
internal arrangements are almost to my mind. The dining room is
large and will dine 100 persons at one time comfortable. The wing
at the East end contains the library a large and comodeous room
and overseer room, and a covered way that protects the three
doors leading to the library the overseer room and to the back
parlor.

“In the progress of the emprovements I adhered as closely to the

plan furnished you as circumstances would admit. The only
alteration I have made is in adding 2 feet to the length of the
Kitchen, and 20 feet to the length of the East wing. The latter was
done at the request and with the advice of Gen. Coffee which
additions I hope will meet with your approbation.

“The following is the amount that has been expended independent

of what has been done by your one (own) hands—

Cash to stone-cutters, mason & bricklayers 491.00

“ to carpenters and joiners 678.00
“ to painters and glazers 187.00
“ plasterers 168.00
“ copper smith and tinner 350.00
“ Lumber and shingles 468.50
“ Hardware glass &c. 110.00
“ Lurners (?) bill 25.00
“ Halling lumber from Nashville 11.00
$2488.50
“You will perceive by this amount notwithstanding the several 85
additions, the back Portico, and many additional expenses
incident to such emprovements I have been able to effect it with a
less sume than the original estimate which to me is a source of
gratulation without respect to any hope of pecuniary emolument. I
must entreat you to believe that no such sordid matire entered into
my views. To merit your approbation has been my ambition, to
succeed in obtaining it is my best reward—I have received in
addition to the fifteen hundred Dollars the amount of your chieck,
Five hundred dollars from Mr. Josiah Nicholl, making two thousand
dollars, leiving a ballance of Four hundred and eighty-eight Dollars.

“On receipt of your letter of the 18th August for which I return you
my thanks for the expressions of kindness it contains, I employed
an expereanced stone-cutter in whome I have entire confidence
who is progressing with the Temple & Monument it will be
composed intire of stone. The massivenes of the parts of the
Grecian Doric order require a material of great strength such as the
white stone of this neighborhood and when this can be obtained it
must always be a subject of regret that recourse should be had to
any imitation of it however exact: but I found it impossible to get
ceader timber large enough to be wrought into the forms required.
The principle cost of this substantial and highly ornamental
emprovement consists of the hire of stone cutters, and the
purchase of copper for the covering of the doom. I expect in 86
the progress of this work to have the ade of your one hands
& teems in quarry & halling the stone, which will enable me to
bestoe an additional quantity of labor on the building, in order that
it may fully meet publick expectation. I am anxious to have it
finished as soon in the spring as possible, in as much as I will be
necessary detained hear to direct the operation of the workmen in
order that it may be in conformity to the plan furnished you.

“I have made a drawing of the Hermitage as emproved, which is in

the hands of an experanced engraver, it will make a splendid
picture and as soon as it is finished I will send you a copy which
 will give you a better idea of the building than any written
discription I can give—my best respects to your son—Mrs. M joins
with me in tendering you, not our complements, but our kindest &
best wishes,

“I am your most obldge

D Morrison.”

Notes in Andrew Jackson’s own hand on the back of the letter read:
“Mr. Morrison rec’d & answered. A bill for $300 inclosed to Mr.
Morrison or Josiah Nichol. A. J. To be preserved. A. J.”

The picture which Mr. Morrison mentioned has been preserved. It

appears on Ayres’ Map of Nashville, which was published in 1832. An
announcement of the plans for this map appeared in the Nashville
Republican and State Gazette, of December 6, 1831—strangely 87
enough, the exact date of Mr. Morrison’s letter. This notice
reads:

“Map of Nashville—Sketches of the embellishments which are to be

attached to this work have been politely submitted to our
inspection. They consist of three different views of the City—one
from the bank of the Cumberland near the ruins of the Old Steam
Mill; another from a hill on the South near the residence of Dr.
Overton, and the third from a commanding height about two miles
to the North—the Penitentiary from an iminence in front, with its
beautiful back-ground scenery of hill and wood and cultivated field
—a portion of College Street including Yeatman and Woods’ Bank—
the U.S. Branch Bank—a group consisting of the Court House, Inn
and Hotel—a part of the Public Square including the upper end of
the Market House—the University and background—the
Presbyterian, the Baptist, and the Episcopal churches—the Female
Academy and other buildings in the neighborhood. To these is
added a view of the Hermitage in its present newly finished state,
than which there is not to be found west of the Allegany a more
beautiful and splendid private residence.”
A comparison of the engraving on Ayres’ map with Mr. Morrison’s
letter proves the authenticity of the picture. There are ten columns
instead of the six stately ones of the present, and the exterior of the
building corresponds in other details with his description. The 88
tomb, for the artist’s convenience, more than likely, is placed
nearer the house than it is in reality.

Andrew Jackson Baker, present caretaker of the Hermitage, who has

made a careful study of the building, points out a number of
irregularities in the doors of the east wing which are due,
undoubtedly, to the remodeling. The brick walls themselves show
where the east wing was added and where there was once a little
roof or porch extending over the entrance to the cellar. The kitchen
and smoke-house, as Morrison’s letter states, are on line with each
other.

The handsome remodeled Hermitage which was Mr. Morrison’s and

Nashville’s pride was destined, however, to a career of short duration.
In October, 1834, it caught fire and was, with the exception of the
dining-room wing and its sturdy brick walls, destroyed. The
catastrophe is described in the Nashville Republican of October 14,
1834, as follows:

“The Hermitage Burnt—Yesterday evening about 4 o’clock the roof

of the Hermitage was discovered to be on fire, and all attempts to
arrest the progress of the flames proving unavailing, the entire
edifice, with the exception of the room attached to the northern
end and used as a dining room, was in a few hours consumed. The
valuable furniture in the lower story was fortunately saved, though
much broken and otherwise injured in getting it out. That in the
second story was, we understand, chiefly destroyed. The fire 89
is supposed to have been communicated to the roof by the
falling of a spark from one of the chimneys, and there being a
breeze from the northwest, the progress of the flames was
proportionably rapid. The numerous and valuable private papers of
the President were probably all preserved.
 “We need not add that the event has occasioned to this community
deep and universal regret.”

Letters from Bassett’s Correspondence of Andrew Jackson, give

further details of the fire. On October 14, 1834, Col. Robert
Armstrong, Nashville’s postmaster, wrote:

“My dear Genl. Your son and Majr. Donelson have both written you
the perticulars of the unfortunate burning of the Hermitage House.
We heard the news Last evening but not the extent of the
Damage. I sent One of the Young men Out of the Office up After
supper who returned by Sun up this morning. I learned from Majr.
D. and the Young man I sent up that all the furniture and valuables
with the papers, letter Books, etc., have been with the exception of
some furniture upstairs (the Wardrobe and Large bedstead) saved.
Some few things were singed in getting out but on the whol I
expect everything was done that could be done and I have no
doubt it was purely accidental. The House can be rebuilt on the Old
Site for $2,000 or 2,500. The dineing room wing is but Little 90
injured. I will go up this evening to see your Son and also Mr.
Rife, the Carpenter doing Majr. D. work, and the one who built my
House and will write you in a day or two. I will see what will be his
estimate and Austins for its Complete Rebuilding and inform
you....”

Stockley Donelson, General Jackson’s nephew, wrote on the same

day, giving details of the fire.

“A fire was kindled in the old dining room,” he stated, “and the
chimney caught on fire, which not being observed immediately, and
the wind being from the North west, the fire was communicated to
the roof. The flame however had not spread very far before it was
discovered by Squire and Charles and the alarm given. Cousin
Sarah at this moment was in the house having just returned from a
short ride and Andrew was in the field, but a short distance from
the House, The fire was soon discovered by Wm. Donelson hands
who were working near at hand, by A. J. Donelson work men and
hands, as well as by your own hands. They were all on the ground
before the roof fell in, etc. Mr Rife by his own exertions succeeded
in getting on the dining Room roof and extinguishing the flames,
etc. Others were employed in getting out the furniture, etc., which
was nearly all saved, except some bedsteads up stairs.... Cousin
Sarah acted with firmness and gave every necessary direction to
save the furniture, and Her and Andrew though much Hurt, I am
happy to add bear the misfortune with fortitude.
Parlors at the Hermitage
 Below: The Front Hall

Showing the stairway and the historic Telemachus wall paper.

“The walls of the House being originally well built are not 91
much damaged. The workmen Austin, Rife, etc say there will
be no difficulty in rebuilding, etc. Some of the petition walls and
arches over the windows, and some other repairing of the walls all
of which Mr. Austin can furnish brick to do by deferring the building
of some of Maj Donelson back buildings.... Andrew requested me
to say to you that he would move to the Baldwin place, and will
start 3 or 4 whip saws tomorrow, and will get ready to cover it
immediately, which is entirely practicable....”
Col. Armstrong, after his promised visit, wrote: “The dineing room
Wing is but Little injured and I view it this way that you have now the
Stone and Brick-work of your House done, and one Wing Compleate,
and that 2500$ will Compleate the main house and the other office
Wing. The Kitchen and out Houses are all safe.”

Like most estimates, Col. Armstrong’s proved to be far lower than the
final cost. The first estimate made by Joseph Rieff and William C.
Hume amounted to $3,950. Added to this was $239 “for Extra work
done upon change of Plan;” $186, “for work done on West wing and
New Kitchen finding everything;” and $750 “for the full length two
story Porch added finding every thing;” making a grand total of
$5,125.

Among the interesting items included in the first estimate were: 92

“1 Circular stair case 2 storys high, $260; first story of front
poarch with 6 collums etc, $256; second story of ditto, $75; one back
Portico, $40....” (Complete details of the rebuilding are found in
Bassett’s Correspondence of Andrew Jackson, Vol. V.)

A new house called, of course, for new furnishings. Sarah York with
the adored little Rachel, born November 1, 1832, and her infant
brother, Andrew, went on to visit the General at the White House. On
this visit Sarah went on to Philadelphia to visit her own kin and while
there made selections for the paper and the furnishings of the
Hermitage.

One of the hitherto unpublished letters of the Hermitage collection,

written at Washington April 14, 1835, by General Jackson, shows his
interest in the furnishings, as well as his tender solicitude for Sarah
York and the children:

“My dear Sarah: When you get a little rested from your journey
make enquiry about the bedsteads and let me know at what the
eight can be procured, of good plain mahogany.... I shall be
anxious to hear from you, how my dear little Rachel is, as well as
yourself and Andrew—I have great solicitude about my dear little
 Rachel. Keep the dear little ones for me—present me kindly to Mr.
& Mrs. Wetherall and accept a father’s prayers for your health and
happiness. We all salute thee kindly. Andrew Jackson.”

Sarah busied herself with shopping and soon she had 93

purchased a splendid new outfit for the Hermitage. The bill,
dated January 2, 1836 (Correspondence of Andrew Jackson, Vol. V.)
included:

6 Mahogany Bedsteads, including the packing at 40, $240; 24

Fancy Chairs cain seat rich blue and gold at 2.50, $60; 4 Curtins,
Crimson Silk lined with white Silk and full mounted at 75, $300;
box $1, $301; 7 pair Tongs and Shovel polished steel pairs at 4.50,
$31.50; 1 pair Do large, $75.50; 1 pair Chamber Candlesticks
plated, $6; 1 Brass Fender, best, $13, box $1, $14; 1 Wardrobe
Black and ornamented $50; 2 Wash Stands marble tops at $18,
$36; 2 Do small at $5; $10; 2 large size Bureaus at $30, $60; 2
Center Tables at $30, $60; 8 Packing Boxes, $16.50; 5 Wire
Fenders with Knobs, at $4.50, $22.50; 1 Nurcery Fender, $6.50;
Box, $1.75; 2 pair Brass Andirons at $6, $12; 1 pair Brass Andirons,
$6.50; 2 pairs Brass Andirons at $7, $14; 3 Setts of fine paper
hanging Views Telemechus at $40, $120; 150 yards Super Nankeen
Matting at .50, $75; 20 Yards Brussels 4-4 Stair Carpeting Crimson
Damask Center with net Border at $2.87½, $57.50; 1 mahogany
Bedstead packed, $40; 1 Mahogany Bedstead packed very fine,
$60; 1 Blind large Size, $10; 1 pair Blinds to match, $10; 1 doz. 40
inch Stair rods $6.50; Box, $1.75. The grand total, including
insurance on the shipments made on the boats, Bonnaffe, Mile,
and Jno Sergeant, amounted to $1,364.50.

There was trouble about the wall paper, and again General 94
Jackson’s friend, Col. Armstrong, came to the rescue. He wrote,
on May 27, 1836 (Bassett’s Correspondence, Vol. V.):

“Dear Genl. I send you inclosed a note addressed to me by the

Mess. Yeateman after a conversation I had with them this morning.
They have always been ready and willing to do all in their power to
 get back the paper from those who purchased it. When I call’d on
Campbell I expected to get the paper, that night he cut it and put it
on the Walls.

“Williams is not at home. I saw Shelly who will do nothing in it, he

is not disposed to restore it. Williams dare not, as his wife claims it,
so I call’d on the Mess. Yeateman and stated the facts who willingly
proposed to purchase another set....”

There has long been a tradition in Nashville that the old Campbell
house, not far from town, on the Lebanon Pike, had paper like that in
the Hermitage hall, but it was, evidently, destroyed when the walls
were scraped and re-papered. Further details concerning the
determined woman who kept the paper have not, at the present
writing, come to light.

A bill dated May 30, 1836, shows that Jackson’s merchant and
personal friend, Henry Toland, of Philadelphia, arranged for another
shipment of paper. This bill includes the items: “3 Views of
Telemachus at $29, $87; 7 ps Pannell Paper, at $2.50, $17.50; 7 ps.
Bordering, at $3.00; $21; 4 ps. Plain Blue, at .75, $3.” A box 95
cost fifty cents and five per cent was deducted because of the
cash payment, making the final amount $122.60. The bill is marked
“Received payment fr H Toland, October 25th 1836. Robert Golder,
per Jas. Cameron Golder.”

Nancy McClelland, in her monumental work, Historic Wall-Papers,

(Lippincott Company, Philadelphia, 1924) states that “the complete
set consisted of 25 strips in colours, and the scenes are constructed
on the account of the adventures of Telamachus.” It was
manufactured in Paris by Dufour about 1825 and, though rare, was
not an exclusive pattern. It is still found on the walls of certain
historic homes and in a few private and public collections.

According to the late Mrs. Rachel Jackson Lawrence, daughter of

Sarah York and Andrew Jackson, Jr., the Telemachus paper now on
the walls of The Hermitage hallway is the third set of its kind
purchased by General Jackson. The first, she declared, was put on
the walls at the time of the remodelling in 1831 and was burned in
the fire of 1834. The second was the one acquired by Mrs. Campbell
and the third, which, like the others, is the work of Dufour, was
placed on the walls some time after it was ordered in the late spring
of 1836.

Sarah York selected papers for the Hermitage, but, as his letter of
April 14, 1835, (Hermitage MSS. Collection) shows, President Jackson
took a personal interest in the Telemachus paper.

“I rec’ a note from Mr. Toland,” he wrote, “after you left us, 96
informing that Mr. South had forwarded the order to Paris for
the Telamucus and the other would be detained until you arrived
and made the selection for those rooms not selected for. As soon
as you can attend to this and have the selection made and the
paper shipped for New Orleans so that it may get up to Nashville
before the Steam boats stop running. I have written Mr. Toland on
this subject....”

Eighteen packages of furniture for the Hermitage were lost when the
steamer John Randolph was burned at Nashville, May 16, 1836, but it
is evident that they were replaced as quickly as possible. There was
always, however, the delay of waiting for sufficiently high water, in
addition to the long, tedious journey around the coast to New
Orleans and up the Mississippi, Ohio and Cumberland to Nashville.

Another large bill of furnishings for the Hermitage was purchased of

Barry and Krickbaum, of Philadelphia, in February, 1837. It included 1
Large Wardrobe, $75; 2 dressing Bureaus to match, $110; 2
Wardrobes, french pattern, $120; 1 Eliptic front Bureau, $5; 1 Secy
and Bookcase complete, $50; 2 pier tables, marble tops, $120; 1
Work table Elegantly fitted up, $50; 1 Work Stand, marble tray top,
$5; 2 Work Stands, marble tray top, $50; 1 Marble Slab, $10. Total
$665.
About the same time a long list of smaller furnishings amounting to
$481.93 was bought of Lewis Veron and Company, 97
Philadelphia. There were fenders, and irons, screens and such,
things. Among them were “2 Pair french And Irons $70; 1 Gallérie for
fire place, $55; 1 Clock Shade and Stand, very large, $17; 1 Plated
Egg Boiler, $19; and one Silver Mounted Butter Tub, $12.” (The list is
given in full in Bassett’s Correspondence, Vol. V.)

The new furnishings, with such as were left from the fire, were
assembled in a harmonious whole toward the end of General
Jackson’s second term as President. Sarah York, after her arrival at
the Hermitage in 1832 had bought carpets, linens, and various
necessities. General Jackson had written his son at this time:

“Sarah writes me about a Carpet for the dining room and some
table linnen and common furniture for the Table. There were
abundant supply. of table linnen, etc. etc. when we left the
Hermitage, but I suppose it must have gone the same way as the
sheets. I have said in my letter to Sarah inclosed that a carpet
must be bought for the dining room. There is always a supply of
the carpets made by the Shakers, to be had at Mr. Nichols, and she
must buy such furniture as the House wants, having an eye to
proper economy. This you will have done agreeable to her
directions. I have named domestic carpet, as it will be cheaper and
better than an oil cloth or matt....”

Again he wrote: “View those East India matts or carpeting and 98

see whether these recommended by Mr. Toland will answer
better for the passage than oil cloth, and whether Sarah would prefer
these to common carpets for the bedrooms....”

After all the delays and the characteristic confusion of moving the
furnishings—old and new—were at last arranged. A weary old man—
ill and hemorrhaging heavily from the lungs—turned his face eagerly
to the spot which, in all the world, he loved best. To Nicholas P. Trist
he wrote on March 2, 1837, “Your letter ... found me confined to my
room, indeed, I might say to my bed, and I have been only four
times down stairs since the 15th of Novb. last, altho I have been
obliged to labour incessantly.... Tomorrow ends my official carier
forever, on the 4th I hope to be able to go to the capitol to witness
the glorious scene of Mr. Van Buren, once rejected by the Senate,
sworn into office....”

Late in December, 1936, he had written Andrew Jackson Donelson, a

letter of condolence—the spirited Emily, whom he loved deeply, but
whom he, in high dudgeon, had sent home because she refused to
receive the much-discussed Peggy O’Neal Timberlake Eaton, had
succumbed to a lung trouble similar to that from which he was
suffering.

“I have this moment recd. the sad and melancholy intelligence that
our Dear Emily is no more.... I have no language in which I can
express my grief.... My health is slowly returning, and my strength
improving slowly....”

The Garden and the Tomb

 Upon the tomb is carved General Jackson’s immortal tribute to his wife:
“Her face was fair, her person pleasing, her temper amiable, her heart
kind; she delighted in relieving the wants of her fellow creatures, and
cultivated that divine pleasure by the most liberal and unpretending
methods; to the poor she was a benefactor; to the rich an example; to
the wretched a comforter; to the prosperous an ornament; her piety
went hand in hand with her benevolence, and she thanked her creator
for being permitted to do good. A being so gentle and so virtuous
slander might wound, but could not dishonor. Even Death, when he bore
her from the arms of her husband, could but transport her to the bosom
of her God.”

The rest, sunlight, and pleasant atmosphere of the Hermitage 99

were destined, however, to work a great improvement. His
wiry, long-suffering body was to recover sufficiently for him to spend
eight years in his new home before he was laid to rest in the garden
beside the beloved Rachel. During these years his young men, under
his wise guidance, had a tremendous influence in the nation—and in
1845, James K. Polk, who had openly conducted his campaign as
“Young Hickory,” the legitimate political heir of the “sage of the
Hermitage,” was inaugurated.

Andrew Jackson and his family, after Van Buren’s inauguration, made
a triumphant progress southward and, on March 25, 1837, reached
the Hermitage. To Martin Van Buren he wrote on March 30: “I
reached home ... with a very bad cough, increased by a cold taken on
board the Steam Boat.... I hope rest in due time may restore my
health so as be enabled to amuse myself in riding over my farm and
visiting my neighbors....”

But however interested he was in his farm and his neighbors he took
time to write his successor and protégé several pages of very sound
advice on state affairs:

“Fearlessly pursue your principles avowed, and the people will

sustain you against all apostates, ambitious, and designing 100
men ...” and take care of “the safety of the deposit Banks of
the West, and south....”
From that time onward the Hermitage was prominent in the eyes of
the nation. The younger statesmen paid visits to “the sage of the
Hermitage” as the ancients consulted oracles—and the masses
continued to worship the “Hero of New Orleans.”

His domestic life flowed easily and pleasantly under the skilled and
tactful direction of his daughter, Sarah. The adored little Rachel
dogged his footsteps, rode with him, and, with her bright prattle,
enlivened his days. Mrs. Marion Adams, Sarah’s older sister, now
widowed, made her home at the Hermitage, and Rachel’s relatives
came from their neighboring estates to pay respects to their beloved
kinsman. Never was a lonely old man surrounded with greater
affection or more kindly care.

But what of the outward appearance of the Hermitage of this period?

There is every indication that the cedars along the driveway were set
out at this time. A drawing of the Hermitage dated 1856 indicates
that the cedars were still quite young at that time, and a statement
of Parton, based on his visit to Nashville prior to the publication of his
Life of Andrew Jackson in 1859, further corroborates it and gives, as
well, an interesting picture of the appearance which the Hermitage
finally assumed after its series of changes. He wrote:

“Now we leave the turnpike and turn into a private road, 101
straight, narrow, a quarter of a mile long, the land on both
sides dead level. We come to a low iron gate in a white wooden
frame, which admits us to an avenue of young cedars, ending in a
grove, through which a guitar-shaped lawn is visible.... We alight,
at length, on the stone steps of the piazza, and the Hermitage is
before us.... A two-story brick house, with a double piazza both in
front and in the rear; the piazza wooden and painted white
supported by thick grooved pillars of the same material and color.
The floors of the lower piazza are of stone, and each terminates in
a wing of the house....”

A familiar and cherished picture to Tennesseans, and to many

thousands of Americans who have journeyed the same road to pay
tribute to the memory of Andrew Jackson. Parton, like the Frenchmen
with Lafayette, was struck by the simplicity of the Hermitage, but he
was much impressed with the fertility of the land and the natural
beauty of the estate. Like the Frenchmen, he, too, was much
concerned with the “sad spectacle” of slavery, but he was convinced
that the Jackson slaves had an unusually happy lot.

The best-known authority on the laying out of the cedar drive is the
narrative of Mrs. Rachel Jackson Lawrence (“little Rachel”) which
appears in the second volume of the late S. G. Heiskell’s Andrew
Jackson and Early Tennessee History. Mr. Heiskell was not only an
eminent lawyer, but he was a careful and painstaking 102
historian. He quotes Mrs. Lawrence as saying:

“Colonel Earle assisted in laying off the grounds, the front yard, at
the Hermitage. My mother drew the plan, and Colonel Earle
superintended the laying off, and the planting of all those cedars
you can see there. He also laid off the center of the Hermitage
garden. I think it was exposure to the sun, after being so closely
confined in his studio, that resulted in his death. He came in, I
remember, and sat down at the dinner table, and said he did not
feel very well, thought he had something like a chill.... When
supper time came, he was still feeling very badly.... About daylight
he died with a congestive chill.”

Earl’s death was mentioned in General Jackson’s letters of September,

1838. “His death,” he wrote, “is a great bereavement to me ... he was
my friend and constant companion....”

Mrs. Lawrence’s statement does not definitely place the laying out of
the flower beds in the center of the garden. It is possible that, in
those lonely days after his young wife’s death in 1819, he worked
with Rachel Jackson in the garden of her new home. Frost, the
English gardener may have worked with them. At any rate, the
garden grew as the estate developed and, through the twenty years
of his residence at the Hermitage, it must have delighted the beauty-
loving soul of the artist.
But what suggested the guitar as a model for the drive? There 103
is a tradition that General Jackson selected it because Rachel
played the guitar—certainly, even at Hunter’s Hill, she played a
harpsichord, and often accompanied the General when he played
upon his flute. There is definite proof that Sarah York had a guitar, for
General Jackson, in a letter written in Washington, April 12, 1832,
said: “Your cousin Saml. J. Hays has agreed to take the Dog—will rest
at Rockville with you tonight. He takes on Sarah’s Gator (guitar)—you
must direct him where to leave it....”

Somewhere the connection between music and the cedars was seen
by a mind poetic enough to look forward to a day when they would
grow into a massive instrument upon which the pleasant winds might
play. Perhaps “Old Hickory” himself conceived the idea—at any rate
he approved it, or the drive would not have been planted. It is
enough to know that in planting the trees he connected them with
the music of at least one—perhaps two—mistresses of the Hermitage.

General Jackson was interested, too, in the willows which he had

planted by Mrs. Jackson’s tomb and in the flowers she had loved. In a
letter written to Andrew Jackson, Jr., on August 20, 1829, he
expresses deep concern for the care of her grave in the garden:

“In your letter although you have informed me of your visit to your
dear mother’s tomb, still you have not informed me of its situation,
and whether the weeping that we planted around it are growing, or
whether the flowers reared by her industrious and beloved 104
hands, have been set around the grave as I requested. My
D’r son, inform me on this subject, you know it is the one dearest
to my heart, and her memory will remain fresh there as long as life
lasts....”

“As long as life lasts....” Each evening at sunset a failing old man
turned his footsteps toward the garden. The chattering little girl who
held his hand paused at the gate and watched in silence while he
made his way slowly down the garden paths to the white stone
temple in the lower end of the garden.
 “No one ever went to the tomb with him,” Mrs. Lawrence told Mr.
Heiskell. “I always went to the gate, and saw him in, but I realized
he was going to the tomb. He would stay there a half hour, I
suppose, then return. He did this as long as he was able to walk.”

It was not long to wait. Louis Philippe sent the artist Healy to paint
his portrait, and Sam Houston was hastening from Texas that his fast-
failing friend might lay his hands on his young son’s head in blessing.
The portrait was finished three days before the old General’s death,
but Sam Houston reached the Hermitage just a few hours too late.

The end came quietly and peacefully on June 8, 1845, and two days
later Andrew Jackson was laid to rest beside his beloved 105
Rachel. Their mortal remains have rested peacefully in the
earth they loved these many years, while the changing seasons have
brought their fleeting beauty to the garden—but who shall say that
their story has not become immortal?

106
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