Mechatronics (22643) Winter 2024 Answers

Okay, I will now answer every question from the provided Mechatronics (22643) Winter 2024 question paper.

Instructions:

[cite_start]All Questions are compulsory.

[cite_start]Answer each next main Question on a new page.

[cite_start]Illustrate your answers with neat sketches wherever necessary.

[cite_start]Assume suitable data, if necessary.

Question 1: Attempt any FIVE of the following (10 Marks)

[cite_start](a) Distinguish between a transducer and a sensor.

A sensor is a device that detects or measures a physical property and records, indicates, or otherwise

responds to it. It senses changes in the environment.

A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into another. While all sensors are transducers (as

they convert a physical property into a signal, usually electrical), not all transducers are sensors. For

example, a loudspeaker is a transducer (electrical to sound energy) but not typically considered a sensor.

In the context of measurement systems, a sensor is the primary element that detects the physical variable,

and the transducer is the element that converts this sensed information into a more usable form (e.g., an

electrical signal). Often, the terms are used interchangeably when the transducer's input is a physical quantity

and its output is an electrical signal.

[cite_start](b) State and elaborate the importance of mechatronics in various fields of engineering.

Mechatronics is an interdisciplinary field that integrates mechanical engineering, electronics engineering,

computer engineering, and control engineering. Its importance in various fields of engineering is immense

due to its role in automation, improving efficiency, enhancing precision, and enabling complex functionalities.

Manufacturing Engineering:

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 Mechatronics (22643) Winter 2024 Answers

Automation: Robots and automated guided vehicles (AGVs) for assembly lines, material handling, and

welding.

CNC Machines: Precise and automated machining operations.

Quality Control: Automated inspection systems using machine vision.

Automotive Engineering:

[cite_start]Safety Systems: Anti-lock Braking Systems (ABS), airbags, electronic stability control.

Engine Management: Electronically controlled fuel injection and ignition systems.

Comfort and Convenience: Automated climate control, power windows, and infotainment systems.

Aerospace Engineering:

Flight Control Systems: Fly-by-wire systems, autopilots.

Navigation Systems: GPS and inertial navigation systems.

Robotics: Space exploration rovers and robotic arms.

Medical Engineering:

Diagnostic Equipment: MRI scanners, CT scanners, ultrasound machines.

Surgical Robots: Minimally invasive surgery with enhanced precision.

Prosthetics and Implants: Advanced artificial limbs and implantable medical devices.

Consumer Electronics:

Smart Appliances: Washing machines, refrigerators, air conditioners with intelligent controls.

Personal Devices: Smartphones, cameras with autofocus and image stabilization.

Robotics (as a standalone field):

[cite_start]Industrial Robots: For tasks like painting, pick and place, assembly.

Service Robots: For domestic cleaning, elderly care, and logistics.

Elaboration: The integration in mechatronics leads to systems that are often more efficient, reliable, flexible,

and cost-effective than purely mechanical or purely electronic systems. It allows for the design of

sophisticated products with enhanced performance and functionality by synergistically combining different

engineering disciplines.

[cite_start](c) State any two applications of pneumatic system.

Industrial Automation: Pneumatic actuators are widely used for clamping, positioning, lifting, and moving

components in automated assembly lines and manufacturing processes. Examples include pneumatic

presses, grippers in pick-and-place robots, and conveyor belt diverters.

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 Mechatronics (22643) Winter 2024 Answers

Material Handling: Pneumatic systems are used in vacuum lifting devices for handling delicate or heavy

materials like glass sheets or metal plates. They are also used in conveying powders and granular materials

through pipelines.

[cite_start](d) State the features of piezoelectric accelerometer.

A piezoelectric accelerometer is a sensor that measures acceleration by utilizing the piezoelectric effect of

certain materials. Its key features include:

Self-Generating Output: It produces an electrical charge or voltage directly proportional to the applied

acceleration, requiring no external power supply for the sensing element itself (though signal conditioning

circuitry might need power).

High Frequency Response: They can accurately measure vibrations and shocks over a wide range of

frequencies, making them suitable for dynamic measurements.

Wide Dynamic Range: Capable of measuring a broad range of acceleration values, from very small vibrations

to large shocks.

Compact and Rugged: Generally small in size and robust in construction, allowing them to be used in harsh

environments.

High Sensitivity: Can detect very small changes in acceleration.

Low Output Impedance (with internal electronics): Many modern piezoelectric accelerometers include internal

electronics (IEPE - Integrated Electronics Piezoelectric) that provide a low impedance voltage output, making

them easier to interface with measurement systems.

Directional Sensitivity: Designed to measure acceleration along a specific axis. Tri-axial versions are

available to measure acceleration in three orthogonal directions.

[cite_start](e) State any two advantages of Hydraulic system.

High Power Density: Hydraulic systems can generate and transmit very large forces and torques with

relatively small and lightweight components. This means they can provide a high power-to-weight ratio,

making them suitable for heavy-duty applications.

Precise Control and Smooth Operation: Hydraulic systems allow for smooth and precise control of speed and

force. Actuators can be accurately positioned and their movement can be easily regulated, making them ideal

for applications requiring fine adjustments and steady motion, such as in machine tools or aircraft control

surfaces.

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 Mechatronics (22643) Winter 2024 Answers

[cite_start](f) Classify the robots based on workspace.

Robots can be classified based on their workspace, which is the volume of space the end-effector can reach.

Common classifications include:

Cartesian/Rectangular Robot: Has three linear axes of motion (X, Y, Z) that are mutually perpendicular. Its

workspace is a rectangular box.

Cylindrical Robot: Has two linear axes and one rotational axis. Its workspace is a cylinder.

Spherical/Polar Robot: Has one linear axis and two rotational axes. [cite_start]Its workspace is a section of a

sphere.

Articulated/Revolute Robot (Jointed-Arm Robot): Consists of several rotating joints, similar to a human arm.

Its workspace is complex and often irregular, determined by the lengths of its links and the range of motion of

its joints.

SCARA Robot (Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm): Has two parallel rotary joints providing motion in

a horizontal plane and one linear joint for vertical motion. It is designed for high speed and precision in

assembly tasks within a cylindrical or kidney-shaped workspace.

[cite_start](g) Draw block diagram of pick and place robot.

A pick and place robot is designed to pick up objects from one location and place them in another.

+-----------------+ +-----------------+ +-----------------+

| Input Device |----->| Controller |<---->| Memory |

| (e.g., Sensors, | | (e.g., Micro- | | (Program, Data) |

| User Interface)| | controller, PLC)| +-----------------+

+-----------------+ +-------^---------+

| Control Signals

+-----------------+ +-----------------+ +-----------------+

| Power Supply |----->| Actuators |----->| Manipulator |

+-----------------+ | (Motors, | | (Arm, Gripper) |

| Pneumatics) | +--------^--------+

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 Mechatronics (22643) Winter 2024 Answers

+-----------------+ |

Object

Explanation of Blocks:

Input Device: Provides information to the controller. This can include sensors (e.g., vision sensors to locate

the object, proximity sensors) or a user interface for programming or starting the robot.

Controller: The "brain" of the robot. It processes information from input devices and the stored program, and

sends control signals to the actuators. Typically a microcontroller or PLC.

Memory: Stores the robot's operating program (sequence of movements, coordinates) and any necessary

data.

Power Supply: Provides the necessary electrical or pneumatic power to the robot's components.

Actuators: Convert energy into motion to move the manipulator. These can be electric motors (servo or

stepper), pneumatic cylinders, or hydraulic cylinders.

Manipulator: The mechanical structure of the robot, including the arm, wrist, and end-effector (gripper) that

physically interacts with the object to pick it up and place it.

Question 2: Attempt any THREE of the following (12 Marks)

[cite_start](a) List velocity sensors and explain any one type with neat diagram.

List of Velocity Sensors:

Tachogenerator (DC and AC)

Optical Encoder (Incremental and Absolute, when used with time measurement)

Resolver (when its output is processed to determine velocity)

Laser Doppler Velocimeter (LDV)

Moving Coil Velocity Sensor

[cite_start]Stroboscope (for measuring rotational speed, which is related to angular velocity)

Explanation of Tachogenerator (DC Type) with Neat Diagram:

A DC Tachogenerator (or Tacho) is an electromechanical device that produces a DC voltage output

proportional to its rotational speed.

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Diagram:

Permanent Magnets (Stator)

N S

+-----------------+

| ^ |

| | Magnetic Field

| Rotor | |

| Armature Coils |

| | |

| v |

+--------O--------+ <-- Shaft (Connected to the rotating body)

||

||

+----| |----+

| Commutator |

+----| |----+

||

Brushes

||

vv

Output Voltage (Vo)

+ -

Working Principle:

Construction: It consists of a rotor (armature with coils) that rotates within a magnetic field produced by

permanent magnets or field coils (stator). The rotor is mechanically coupled to the shaft whose speed is to be

measured. A commutator and brushes are used to collect the induced DC voltage.

Operation: When the shaft rotates, the armature coils cut through the magnetic flux lines. According to

Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, a voltage (EMF) is induced in the armature coils.

Output Voltage: The magnitude of this induced DC voltage is directly proportional to the rotational speed of

the shaft. The polarity of the output voltage indicates the direction of rotation.

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 Mechatronics (22643) Winter 2024 Answers

V\_o \\propto N \\cdot \\Phi

Where V\_o = Output Voltage, N = Rotational Speed, \\Phi = Magnetic Flux (which is constant for permanent

magnets).

So, V\_o = K \\cdot N, where K is the tachogenerator constant.

Commutation: The commutator segments and brushes ensure that the output is a DC voltage, rectifying the

AC voltage that would otherwise be generated in the rotating coils.

Applications: Used in speed control systems, motor speed indication, and feedback elements in servo

systems to ensure precise speed regulation.

[cite_start](b) Describe the working of electromechanical system with neat diagram.

An electromechanical system is a system that involves both electrical and mechanical components and

processes, where electrical energy is converted into mechanical motion or vice-versa, or where electrical

signals control mechanical operations.

Example: DC Motor (as an Electromechanical System)

Diagram:

Electrical Input Mechanical Output

+----------------+ +-----------------+

| Voltage Source |---------------->| DC Motor |-----------------> Shaft Rotation

| (e.g., Battery)| | | (Torque, Speed)

+----------------+ | Stator (Field) |

| Rotor (Armature)|

| Commutator |

| Brushes |

+--------^--------+

| Control Signal (e.g., from a controller)

| (Optional, for speed/direction control)

Working Principle (of a DC Motor):

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 Mechatronics (22643) Winter 2024 Answers

Input: Electrical energy is supplied to the motor from a voltage source.

Components:

Stator (Field Winding or Permanent Magnets): Creates a stationary magnetic field.

Rotor (Armature): A rotating component carrying current-carrying conductors (windings).

Commutator: A segmented ring attached to the rotor that reverses the direction of current in the armature

conductors at appropriate intervals.

Brushes: Stationary contacts that slide on the commutator to supply current to the rotor.

Lorentz Force Principle: When current flows through the armature conductors situated within the magnetic

field produced by the stator, each conductor experiences a force (Lorentz force). The direction of this force is

given by Fleming's Left-Hand Rule.

Torque Production: These forces on the individual conductors collectively produce a torque on the rotor,

causing it to rotate.

Commutation Action: The commutator ensures that the current in the armature conductors under a particular

stator pole always flows in the same direction. As the rotor turns, the commutator segments switch the

current direction in the coils that are moving from one pole to another. This maintains a continuous torque in

one direction, allowing the motor to keep rotating.

Back EMF: As the armature rotates in the magnetic field, a voltage is also induced in its conductors (similar to

a generator). This is called Back EMF, and it opposes the applied voltage. The speed of the motor adjusts

until the back EMF and the voltage drop across the armature resistance balance the applied voltage.

Output: The mechanical output is the rotation of the motor shaft, which can be used to drive a load, providing

torque and speed.

Interaction: The system clearly demonstrates the conversion of electrical energy (input voltage and current)

into mechanical energy (shaft rotation, torque). Control signals (electrical) can further modulate this

mechanical output (e.g., PWM signals to control speed).

[cite_start](c) Enlist the use of control valve and air actuator in pneumatic system.

Uses of Control Valves in Pneumatic Systems:

Control valves are essential components in pneumatic systems used to manage the flow, pressure, and

direction of compressed air.

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 Mechatronics (22643) Winter 2024 Answers

Directional Control Valves (DCVs):

Starting/Stopping Actuators: To initiate or halt the movement of pneumatic cylinders or motors.

Extending/Retracting Cylinders: To control the direction of movement of a piston in a cylinder (e.g., making a

cylinder extend or retract).

Sequencing Operations: To control the order in which different pneumatic operations occur in an automated

sequence.

Safety Interlocks: To prevent operations if certain conditions are not met.

Flow Control Valves:

Speed Regulation: To control the speed of pneumatic actuators (cylinders or motors) by regulating the rate of

air flow into or out of them. This is often achieved using needle valves or flow regulators.

Pressure Control Valves:

Pressure Regulation: To maintain a constant downstream pressure regardless of upstream pressure

fluctuations or air consumption (using pressure regulators).

Pressure Limiting/Relief: To protect the system components from overpressure by venting excess air (using

pressure relief valves).

Pressure Sequencing: To ensure that a certain pressure level is reached in one part of a circuit before

another operation begins (using sequence valves).

Non-Return Valves (Check Valves):

Uni-directional Flow: To allow air to flow in only one direction and prevent backflow.

Maintaining Pressure: To hold pressure in a part of the circuit.

Time Delay Valves:

Timed Operations: To introduce a delay in the actuation or de-actuation of a pneumatic component.

Uses of Air Actuators in Pneumatic Systems:

Air actuators convert the energy of compressed air into mechanical motion.

Linear Motion (Pneumatic Cylinders):

Clamping: Holding workpieces firmly in place for machining or assembly.

Lifting and Lowering: Moving objects vertically, such as in hoists or lifting platforms.

Pushing and Pulling: Applying force to move objects, such as ejecting parts from a mold or operating gates.

Positioning: Moving components to specific locations in automated systems.

Pressing: Applying force for operations like stamping or forming.

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Rotary Motion (Pneumatic Motors and Rotary Actuators):

Driving Tools: Powering handheld pneumatic tools like drills, grinders, and impact wrenches.

Mixing and Agitating: Rotating paddles or impellers for mixing liquids or powders.

Valve Actuation: Opening and closing large industrial valves.

Conveyor Drives: Providing motion for conveyor belts in some applications.

Indexing Tables: Rotating tables to position parts for sequential operations.

Gripping (Pneumatic Grippers):

[cite_start]Part Handling: Picking up, holding, and placing objects in pick-and-place robot applications and

automated assembly.

[cite_start](d) Draw and explain Rack and Pinion assembly.

A rack and pinion assembly is a mechanical device used to convert rotational motion into linear motion, or

vice-versa.

Diagram:

Rotational Input/Output

+-------+

| |

| Pinion| (Circular Gear)

| |

+-------+

|| engage with

vv

<------------------------ Linear Input/Output ------------------------>

+---------------------------------------------------------------------+

| R A C K (Linear Gear with Teeth on a Straight Bar) |

+---------------------------------------------------------------------+

Explanation:

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Components:

Pinion: A circular gear with teeth around its circumference.

Rack: A straight, flat bar with teeth cut along one of its surfaces. The teeth on the rack are designed to mesh

with the teeth of the pinion.

Working Principle:

Rotational to Linear Motion: When the pinion is rotated (either manually or by a motor), its teeth engage with

the teeth of the rack. As the pinion turns, it pushes the rack, causing the rack to move linearly. The direction

of the rack's linear movement depends on the direction of the pinion's rotation.

Linear to Rotational Motion: Conversely, if a linear force is applied to move the rack, its teeth will engage with

the pinion's teeth, causing the pinion to rotate.

Relationship between Motion:

The linear distance the rack moves for one revolution of the pinion is equal to the circumference of the pinion

at its pitch circle: L = \\pi \\cdot D\_p (where D\_p is the pitch diameter of the pinion), or more precisely, L =

N\_p \\cdot P (where N\_p is the number of teeth on the pinion and P is the circular pitch of the teeth).

Characteristics:

Simple Design: Relatively straightforward and robust mechanism.

Positive Drive: Provides a positive, non-slip engagement between the rack and pinion.

Backlash: There can be some play or "backlash" between the teeth, which can affect precision in some

applications. Anti-backlash mechanisms can be incorporated.

Force/Torque Conversion: It also converts torque (applied to the pinion) into linear force (on the rack), and

vice-versa.

Applications:

Automotive Steering Systems: Commonly used in car steering mechanisms where rotating the steering wheel

(connected to the pinion) moves the rack, which in turn steers the wheels.

Machine Tools: Used for linear positioning of machine tool tables, slides, and cutting heads (e.g., in some

CNC machines).

Lifting Mechanisms: In some types of jacks and lifting devices.

Railway Tracks: The funicular railway uses a rack-and-pinion system for traction on steep slopes.

Gate Openers: Used in some automatic gate opening systems.

Question 3: Attempt any THREE of the following (12 Marks)

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[cite_start](a) Describe Hall effect sensor with neat sketch.

A Hall effect sensor is a transducer that varies its output voltage in response to a magnetic field. It works on

the principle of the Hall effect.

Neat Sketch:

Magnetic Field (B)

Current (I)

+----------------------------------+

| --> --> --> --> --> --> --> --> |

| |

| Semiconductor Slab |

| | <-- VH (Hall Voltage)

| | across these faces

| --> --> --> --> --> --> --> --> |

+----------------------------------+

(Current Flowing through the slab)

Description:

Hall Effect Principle: When a current-carrying conductor (or semiconductor slab) is placed in a magnetic field

perpendicular to the direction of current flow, a voltage (called the Hall voltage, V\_H) is generated across the

conductor, in a direction perpendicular to both the current and the magnetic field.

Construction: A Hall effect sensor typically consists of a thin rectangular slab of semiconductor material (like

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Indium Antimonide (InSb), or Silicon). Current-carrying leads are attached to two

opposite sides of the slab, and voltage-sensing leads (for measuring V\_H) are attached to the other two

opposite sides.

Working:

A constant current (I) is passed through the semiconductor slab.

When a magnetic field (B) is applied perpendicular to the current flow, the charge carriers (electrons or holes)

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 Mechatronics (22643) Winter 2024 Answers

flowing through the slab experience a Lorentz force.

This force deflects the charge carriers towards one side of the slab, creating an accumulation of charge on

that side and a depletion on the opposite side.

This separation of charges results in an electric field and consequently a potential difference (Hall Voltage,

V\_H) across the slab, perpendicular to both I and B.

Output: The Hall voltage (V\_H) is proportional to the product of the current (I) and the magnetic flux density

(B) perpendicular to the slab, and inversely proportional to the thickness (t) of the slab and the charge carrier

density (n).

V\_H = (R\_H \\cdot I \\cdot B) / t

Where R\_H is the Hall coefficient (a property of the material).

Types:

Analog Hall Effect Sensors: Produce an output voltage that is proportional to the magnetic field strength.

Digital Hall Effect Sensors: Incorporate a threshold detector (like a Schmitt trigger) and provide a digital

output (ON/OFF) when the magnetic field strength exceeds a certain preset level.

Applications:

Position Sensing: Detecting the position of a magnet attached to a moving part (e.g., in brushless DC motors,

automotive ignition timing).

Speed Sensing: Measuring rotational speed by detecting passing gear teeth or magnets on a rotating shaft.

Current Sensing: Measuring current by sensing the magnetic field produced by the current flowing through a

conductor.

Proximity Switches: Non-contact detection of objects.

Keyboard Switches.

(b) State the types of actuators. [cite_start]Draw and explain single acting cylinder.

Types of Actuators:

Actuators are devices that convert energy (electrical, pneumatic, hydraulic) into mechanical motion (linear or

rotary). They can be broadly classified as:

Based on Energy Source:

Electrical Actuators:

DC Motors (Brushed, Brushless)

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AC Motors (Induction, Synchronous)

Stepper Motors

Servo Motors

Solenoids (Linear, Rotary)

Voice Coil Actuators

Pneumatic Actuators:

[cite_start]Linear Cylinders (Single-acting, Double-acting)

Rotary Actuators (Vane type, Rack-and-pinion type)

Air Motors

Pneumatic Grippers

Diaphragm Actuators

Hydraulic Actuators:

Linear Cylinders (Single-acting, Double-acting)

Rotary Actuators

Hydraulic Motors

Mechanical Actuators: (Convert one form of mechanical motion to another)

Screws (Lead screw, Ball screw)

[cite_start]Cams and Followers

Gears

Linkages

Other Types:

Piezoelectric Actuators

Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) Actuators

Thermal Actuators

Based on Type of Motion:

Linear Actuators: Produce motion in a straight line (e.g., cylinders, solenoids).

Rotary Actuators: Produce rotational motion (e.g., motors, rotary cylinders).

[cite_start]Single-Acting Cylinder (Pneumatic or Hydraulic) - Draw and Explain:

A single-acting cylinder is an actuator that uses fluid pressure (compressed air for pneumatic, oil for

hydraulic) to produce force and motion in one direction only. The return stroke is typically achieved by a

spring or an external force.

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Diagram (Pneumatic Single-Acting Cylinder, Spring Return):

Spring

<---WWWWWW--->

+--------------------------------------------+

| |

| Piston Rod +--------+ Piston |

<------>+--------------| |-----------------+---> Fluid (Air/Oil) Port

| | Spring | | (for Extension Stroke)

| Cylinder +--------+ |

| Barrel |

+--------------------------------------------+

(Extended Position when fluid is supplied)

Spring

--->WWWWWW<---

+--------------------------------------------+

| |

| Piston Rod +--------+ Piston |

<------>+--------------| |-----------------+---> Fluid (Air/Oil) Port

| | Spring | | (Fluid Vented for Retraction)

| Cylinder +--------+ |

| Barrel |

+--------------------------------------------+

(Retracted Position by Spring Force)

Explanation:

Construction:

Cylinder Barrel: The main body of the cylinder.

Piston: A disc or cylindrical component that fits snugly inside the barrel and separates the two sides.

Piston Rod: Attached to one side of the piston and extends out of the cylinder to transmit force/motion to the

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load.

Port: An opening for the fluid (compressed air or hydraulic oil) to enter and exit the cylinder on one side of the

piston (the "pressure side").

Spring (Optional, but common for return): A compression spring located on the non-pressure side of the

piston (often around the piston rod internally, or externally).

Working (Extension Stroke - Power Stroke):

Pressurized fluid is supplied through the port into the cylinder chamber on one side of the piston.

The fluid pressure acts on the face of the piston, creating a force (F = P \\cdot A, where P is pressure and A

is the piston area).

If this force is greater than the opposing forces (spring force, friction, external load), the piston and the

attached piston rod move outwards, performing the work stroke (extension).

Working (Retraction Stroke - Return Stroke):

To retract the piston rod, the fluid pressure is removed from the port (e.g., by venting the air in a pneumatic

system or returning oil to the tank in a hydraulic system).

The force exerted by the compressed spring (or an external load, if designed for it) pushes the piston back to

its original position.

Characteristics:

Force in One Direction: Only produces thrust or force during the extension stroke (or retraction if designed as

spring-extend, pressure-retract).

Simpler Construction: Generally simpler and less expensive than double-acting cylinders.

Lower Air/Oil Consumption (for spring return): Fluid is consumed only for the power stroke.

Spring Force Limitation: The return force is limited by the spring, which also reduces the effective force

available during the power stroke.

Longer Cylinder Length: The spring takes up space, making the cylinder longer for a given stroke length

compared to a double-acting cylinder without a spring.

Applications: Clamping, ejecting, lifting light loads, locking mechanisms, and situations where force is needed

in only one direction and a spring or external load can provide the return.

[cite_start](c) Classify bearings and explain any one in brief.

Classification of Bearings:

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 Mechatronics (22643) Winter 2024 Answers

Bearings are mechanical elements that permit constrained relative motion between two parts, typically

rotation or linear movement, while reducing friction and supporting loads. They can be broadly classified as:

Based on Type of Motion:

Rotary Bearings (Radial/Journal Bearings & Thrust Bearings): Support rotating shafts.

Radial/Journal Bearings: Support loads acting perpendicular to the shaft axis.

Thrust Bearings: Support loads acting parallel to (along) the shaft axis.

Linear Bearings: Support and guide motion in a straight line.

Based on Principle of Operation / Contact Type:

Plain Bearings (Sliding Contact Bearings):

Journal Bearings: Cylindrical shaft rotates in a sleeve.

Thrust Bearings: Flat surfaces slide against each other.

Bushings: A type of plain bearing, often a sleeve.

Material: Bronze, Babbitt metal, plastics (like Nylon, Teflon).

Lubrication: Hydrodynamic, hydrostatic, boundary, or solid lubrication.

Rolling Contact Bearings (Anti-Friction Bearings):

Ball Bearings: Use spherical balls as rolling elements.

Deep Groove Ball Bearings

Angular Contact Ball Bearings

Self-Aligning Ball Bearings

Thrust Ball Bearings

Roller Bearings: Use cylindrical, spherical, tapered, or needle rollers as rolling elements.

Cylindrical Roller Bearings

Spherical Roller Bearings

Tapered Roller Bearings

Needle Roller Bearings

Thrust Roller Bearings

Jewel Bearings: Used in precision instruments, made from hard materials like sapphire or ruby.

Fluid Bearings: Load is supported by a thin layer of pressurized liquid or gas (e.g., air bearings). No direct

contact between moving parts.

Magnetic Bearings: Support loads using magnetic levitation. No physical contact.

Explanation of Deep Groove Ball Bearing (a type of Rolling Contact Bearing) in Brief:

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Diagram (Cross-section):

Outer Ring

+--------------+

/ \

| Race (Outer) |

| |

| +--+ Ball +--+|

| | |________| ||

| +--+ +--+|

| Cage |

| +--+ to +--+|

| | | keep | ||

| +--+ balls +--+|

| spaced |

| +--+ +--+|

| | |________| ||

| +--+ Ball +--+|

| |

| Race (Inner) |

\ /

+--------------+

Inner Ring

(Mounts on Shaft)

Brief Explanation:

Construction: A deep groove ball bearing consists of an inner ring (mounted on the shaft), an outer ring

(mounted in the housing), a set of spherical balls (rolling elements) placed between these rings, and a cage

(retainer) that keeps the balls evenly spaced and prevents them from rubbing against each other. Both inner

and outer rings have continuous, deep grooves (raceways) in which the balls run.

Operation: When the shaft rotates, the inner ring rotates with it. The balls roll in the raceways of both the

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inner and outer rings. This rolling motion significantly reduces friction compared to sliding contact.

Load Capacity: Deep groove ball bearings are primarily designed to support radial loads (perpendicular to the

shaft axis) but can also handle moderate axial (thrust) loads in both directions due to the deep grooves in the

raceways.

Characteristics:

Versatile: Suitable for high speeds and a wide range of applications.

Low Friction: Offer low frictional torque.

Good Radial and Moderate Axial Load Capacity: Can handle combined loads.

Availability: Widely available in various sizes and precision grades.

Sealing/Shielding: Often available with seals or shields to retain lubricant and protect against contaminants.

Applications: Electric motors, automotive wheels, gearboxes, pumps, conveyors, household appliances, and

many general machinery applications.

(d) Draw and explain block diagram of robot system. [cite_start]List functions of an end effector.

Block Diagram of a Robot System:

+---------------------+ +---------------------+ +---------------------+

| Sensors |----->| Controller |<---->| Memory |

| (Internal/External) | | (Microprocessor/ | | (Program & Data) |

| e.g., Position, | | Microcontroller, | +---------------------+

| Vision, Force | | PLC, Computer) |

+---------^-----------+ +----------^----------+

| Feedback | Control Signals

| v

+---------------------+ +---------------------+ +---------------------+

| Power Supply |----->| Actuators |----->| Manipulator |

| (Electrical, | | (Motors, Cylinders) | | (Links, Joints) |

| Pneumatic, | +---------------------+ +----------^----------+

| Hydraulic) | |

+---------------------+ |

+-----------v-----------+

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 Mechatronics (22643) Winter 2024 Answers

| End-Effector |

| (Gripper, Tool) |

+-----------------------+

| Interaction

Environment/Workpiece

Explanation of Blocks:

Manipulator (Mechanical Structure): This is the main body of the robot, consisting of a series of links

connected by joints. The joints allow relative motion between the links, providing the robot with the ability to

move and position its end-effector. This is often referred to as the robot arm.

End-Effector (Tool): Attached to the last link (wrist) of the manipulator. It is the part of the robot that interacts

directly with the workpiece or environment to perform the specific task. Its form varies greatly depending on

the application.

Actuators: These are the "muscles" of the robot. They provide the force or torque to move the joints of the

manipulator. [cite_start]Common actuators include electric motors (servo, stepper), hydraulic cylinders, and

pneumatic cylinders.

Sensors: These are the robot's "senses." They gather information about the robot's internal state and its

external environment.

Internal Sensors: Measure the position, velocity, and acceleration of the robot's joints (e.g., encoders,

tachometers, resolvers).

External Sensors: Gather information about the environment, such as the presence, location, and orientation

of objects (e.g., vision systems, proximity sensors, force-torque sensors, tactile sensors).

Controller: This is the "brain" of the robot. It receives data from the sensors and the stored program, performs

calculations, and sends control signals to the actuators to achieve the desired motion and task execution. It

often includes microprocessors, microcontrollers, or PLCs.

Memory: Stores the robot's operating system, control programs (task instructions, motion sequences), and

data gathered by sensors.

Power Supply: Provides the necessary energy (electrical, hydraulic, or pneumatic) to operate the actuators,

controller, and sensors.

User Interface/Programming Device: Allows humans to program the robot, monitor its operation, and interact

with it (e.g., teach pendant, computer terminal). (This is often considered part of the controller system or a

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peripheral).

Functions of an End-Effector:

The end-effector is the specialized tool or device attached to the robot's wrist that enables it to perform its

intended task. Its functions are highly application-specific:

Gripping/Holding: To grasp, hold, and manipulate objects. Examples:

Mechanical grippers (two-finger, multi-finger)

Vacuum grippers

Magnetic grippers

Tool Application: To use a specific tool for a process. Examples:

Welding gun (for spot or arc welding)

Spray painting nozzle

Drilling head

Screwdriver

Cutting tool (laser, waterjet, plasma)

Assembly: To join parts together. Examples:

Insertion tools

Fastening tools

Material Removal: To remove material from a workpiece. Examples:

Grinding tools

Deburring tools

Sensing/Inspection: To gather specific data about the workpiece or environment. Examples:

Probes for measurement

Camera for machine vision inspection

Force/torque sensors for interaction control

Dispensing: To apply materials like adhesives, sealants, or paint.

The design of the end-effector is critical to the success of a robotic application.

Question 4: Attempt any THREE of the following (12 Marks)

[cite_start](a) State the function of signal conditioner in measurement system.

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The function of a signal conditioner in a measurement system is to process the raw output signal from a

sensor or transducer and transform it into a form that is more suitable for the next stage of the system, which

could be an analog-to-digital converter (ADC), a display device, a recording device, or a control system.

Key functions include:

Amplification: To increase the amplitude (voltage or current) of a low-level sensor output signal to a level that

is high enough for further processing or to overcome noise. Many sensor outputs are in the millivolt or

microvolt range.

Filtering: To remove unwanted noise or interference from the signal. This can include removing specific

frequencies (e.g., 50/60 Hz hum) or limiting the bandwidth of the signal to the range of interest.

Linearization: To correct for non-linear relationships between the physical variable being measured and the

sensor's output. Some sensors have an inherently non-linear response, and signal conditioning can make the

output signal directly proportional to the measurand.

Isolation: To electrically isolate the sensor from the rest of the measurement system. This is important for

safety (to prevent high voltages from reaching sensitive equipment or operators) and to break ground loops

that can cause noise.

Excitation: To provide the necessary power supply or excitation voltage/current that some sensors require to

operate (e.g., strain gauges, thermistors, RTDs).

Impedance Matching: To ensure maximum power transfer or optimal signal integrity between the sensor and

the subsequent stage by matching output impedance of the sensor to the input impedance of the next device.

Signal Conversion: To convert the signal from one form to another, for example:

Current to Voltage (I/V conversion)

Voltage to Current (V/I conversion)

Analog to Digital Conversion (ADC) - though often ADCs are separate components, some signal conditioners

include this.

Frequency to Voltage (F/V conversion) or Voltage to Frequency (V/F conversion).

Offset Adjustment/Zeroing: To remove any unwanted DC offset or to set a zero point for the measurement.

Multiplexing: In systems with multiple sensors, a signal conditioner might include a multiplexer to select one

of several sensor signals to be processed by a single ADC or downstream channel.

Demodulation/Modulation: For sensors that use AC excitation or produce modulated outputs (like LVDTs),

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the signal conditioner may perform demodulation to extract the desired measurement signal.

In essence, signal conditioning improves the quality, reliability, and usability of the sensor signal.

(b) Describe part programming. [cite_start]Enlist basic requirements for part programming with suitable

example.

Description of Part Programming:

Part programming, in the context of CNC (Computer Numerical Control) machining, is the process of creating

a set of instructions, written in a specific code or language, that directs a CNC machine to perform a

sequence of operations to manufacture a specific part. This program contains all the necessary information

about the part's geometry, the cutting tool's path, cutting conditions (speed, feed, depth of cut), and other

auxiliary functions (coolant on/off, tool changes, etc.).

The part programmer analyzes the engineering drawing of the component to be machined and translates the

design specifications into a format that the CNC machine controller can understand and execute. The most

common language used for part programming is G-code (for geometric functions) and M-code (for

miscellaneous or machine functions).

Basic Requirements for Part Programming:

Engineering Drawing/CAD Model: A detailed drawing or 3D CAD model of the part, specifying dimensions,

tolerances, surface finish, material, and any special features.

Knowledge of Machining Processes: Understanding of various machining operations (turning, milling, drilling,

grinding, etc.), cutting tools, tool materials, and their capabilities.

Understanding of CNC Machine Capabilities: Familiarity with the specific CNC machine tool to be used,

including its axes of motion, available tools, work holding methods, and controller features.

Coordinate System and Reference Points:

Machine Zero: A fixed reference point on the machine tool set by the manufacturer.

Workpiece Zero (Program Zero/Part Origin): A reference point on the workpiece or fixture defined by the

programmer, from which all coordinates in the program are referenced.

Understanding of absolute and incremental programming modes.

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 Mechatronics (22643) Winter 2024 Answers

Tooling Information: Selection of appropriate cutting tools, their dimensions (length, diameter), tool offsets,

and tool numbers.

Cutting Parameters: Determination of optimal cutting conditions:

Spindle Speed (S): Rotational speed of the cutting tool or workpiece.

Feed Rate (F): The rate at which the cutting tool moves relative to the workpiece.

Depth of Cut: The amount of material removed in one pass.

Knowledge of Programming Language (G-codes and M-codes):

[cite_start]G-codes (Preparatory Codes): Define the geometry of the tool path and machine operations (e.g.,

G00 for rapid traverse, G01 for linear interpolation, G02/G03 for circular interpolation, G28 for return to home

position).

[cite_start]M-codes (Miscellaneous Codes): Control auxiliary functions (e.g., M03 for spindle start clockwise,

M05 for spindle stop, M06 for tool change, M08 for coolant on).

Sequence of Operations: Planning the logical order of machining operations to produce the part efficiently

and accurately.

Tool Path Generation: Defining the precise path the cutting tool will follow to machine the part features. This

can be done manually or with the help of CAM (Computer-Aided Manufacturing) software.

Program Verification and Simulation: Tools or methods to check the program for errors and simulate the

machining process before actually running it on the machine to prevent collisions or incorrect machining.

Suitable Example (Simple Milling Operation - Cutting a 10mm deep square pocket of 50x50mm):

Assume:

Workpiece Zero (X0, Y0, Z0) is at the top surface, bottom-left corner of the pocket.

Tool: 10mm diameter end mill (Tool T01).

Material: Aluminum.

<!-- end list -->

N0010 G21 G90 G40 G80 ; (Metric units, Absolute programming, Cancel tool radius comp, Cancel canned

cycles)

N0020 G28 G91 Z0 ; (Return Z to machine home, incrementally)

N0030 G28 G91 X0 Y0 ; (Return X and Y to machine home, incrementally)

N0040 M06 T01 ; (Tool change to Tool 1)

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 Mechatronics (22643) Winter 2024 Answers

N0050 G90 G54 ; (Absolute programming, Select Work Coordinate System 1)

N0060 G00 X-10.0 Y-10.0 ; (Rapid traverse to a point outside the pocket start)

N0070 M03 S2000 ; (Spindle start clockwise, Speed 2000 RPM)

N0080 G43 H01 Z10.0 ; (Tool length compensation on, rapid Z to 10mm above workpiece)

N0090 M08 ; (Coolant ON)

N0100 ; Start Pocket Milling (e.g., using a simple raster pattern or multiple passes)

N0110 G01 Z-2.0 F100 ; (Plunge to first depth -2mm, Feed 100 mm/min)

N0120 G01 X25.0 Y0.0 F200 ; (Example path for first layer - simplified)

N0130 G01 X25.0 Y50.0

N0140 G01 X-25.0 Y50.0

N0150 G01 X-25.0 Y0.0

N0160 G01 X0.0 Y0.0 ; (Complete one layer outline)

N0170 G01 Z-4.0 F100 ; (Plunge to next depth -4mm)

; ... (Repeat similar X,Y movements for the new depth)

; ... (Continue for Z-6.0, Z-8.0, Z-10.0)

N0200 G01 Z-10.0 F100 ; (Final depth)

; ... (Final pass X,Y movements for Z-10.0)

N0210 G01 X25.0 Y0.0 F200

N0220 G01 X25.0 Y50.0

N0230 G01 X-25.0 Y50.0

N0240 G01 X-25.0 Y0.0

N0250 G01 X0.0 Y0.0

N0260 G00 Z50.0 ; (Rapid retract Z)

N0270 M05 ; (Spindle stop)

N0280 M09 ; (Coolant off)

N0290 G28 G91 Z0 ; (Return Z to machine home)

N0300 G28 G91 X0 Y0 ; (Return X, Y to machine home)

N0310 M30 ; (Program end and reset)

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(Note: This is a highly simplified example for illustration. Actual pocketing would involve more complex tool

path strategies, roughing and finishing passes, and potentially tool radius compensation (G41/G42).)

(c) Explain working of Belt. [cite_start]List types of Belt.

Working of a Belt Drive:

A belt drive is a mechanical system that transmits power or motion between two or more rotating shafts,

usually parallel, using an endless flexible belt that runs over pulleys attached to these shafts.

Working Principle:

Friction or Positive Engagement:

Friction Belts (e.g., Flat belts, V-belts): Power is transmitted primarily by the frictional grip between the belt

and the surfaces of the pulleys. When the driving pulley rotates, it pulls the belt due to friction. This tension in

the belt then causes the driven pulley to rotate. The amount of power transmitted depends on the coefficient

of friction, the angle of contact (wrap angle) between the belt and pulleys, and the initial tension in the belt.

Positive Drive Belts (e.g., Timing belts/Synchronous belts): These belts have teeth on their inner surface that

mesh with corresponding grooves on the pulleys. Power is transmitted by the positive engagement of these

teeth, similar to a chain drive or gear drive. This ensures no slippage and maintains a constant speed ratio

between the pulleys.

Power Transmission: The driving pulley imparts kinetic energy to the belt. The belt carries this energy and

transfers it to the driven pulley.

Tension: For friction belts, an initial tension (pre-tension) is applied to the belt to ensure sufficient grip. During

operation, the side of the belt moving from the driven pulley to the driving pulley (slack side) has lower

tension, while the side moving from the driving pulley to the driven pulley (tight side) has higher tension. The

difference in these tensions (T\_1 - T\_2) creates the effective force that transmits power.

Speed Ratio: The speed ratio between the driving and driven shafts depends on the diameters of the pulleys:

N\_1 / N\_2 = D\_2 / D\_1

Where N\_1, D\_1 are the speed and diameter of the driving pulley, and N\_2, D\_2 are the speed and

diameter of the driven pulley.

This allows for increasing or decreasing speed and torque.

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Flexibility: Belts are flexible, which allows them to absorb shock and vibration, protecting the machinery. They

can also accommodate some misalignment between shafts.

Types of Belts:

Flat Belts:

Rectangular cross-section.

Run on flat or slightly crowned pulleys.

Used for moderate power transmission over long distances.

Example: Conveyor belts, older industrial machinery.

V-Belts:

Trapezoidal (V-shaped) cross-section.

Run in V-shaped grooves on the pulleys.

The wedging action in the groove provides a higher frictional grip, allowing for more power transmission with

less pre-tension compared to flat belts.

Can be used in multiple-belt arrangements (matched sets).

Types: Classical V-belts (A, B, C, D, E sections), Wedge V-belts (narrower sections like SPZ, SPA, SPB,

SPC), Cogged V-belts (notches for better flexibility on small pulleys).

Example: Automotive engine accessories (alternator, water pump), industrial drives, appliances.

Round Belts:

Circular cross-section.

Run in pulleys with round grooves.

Used for low power transmission and applications requiring the ability to run in multiple planes or twist.

Example: Sewing machines, small appliances, some types of conveyors.

Timing Belts (Synchronous Belts / Toothed Belts):

Have teeth on the inner surface that engage with corresponding grooves on toothed pulleys (sprockets).

Provide positive drive, no slippage, precise speed ratio.

Require accurate alignment.

Used when synchronization between shafts is critical.

Example: Automotive camshaft drives, printers, robotics, CNC machines.

Ribbed Belts (Poly-V Belts / Serpentine Belts):

Combine the flexibility of flat belts with the higher power capacity of V-belts.

Have multiple longitudinal V-shaped ribs.

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 Mechatronics (22643) Winter 2024 Answers

Run on pulleys with corresponding grooves.

Can transmit high power in a compact space and drive multiple accessories (serpentine drive).

Example: Modern automotive engine accessory drives, industrial machinery, appliances.

Link Belts:

Composed of removable links, allowing for easy installation and length adjustment.

Often used as a replacement for classical V-belts in difficult-to-access drives.

(d) Explain the construction of spherical robot in brief. [cite_start]State its degree of freedom.

Construction of a Spherical Robot (Polar Coordinate Robot) in Brief:

A spherical robot, also known as a polar coordinate robot, is a type of industrial robot whose manipulator arm

is designed such that its end-effector moves within a spherical workspace. Its construction typically involves a

combination of rotary and linear joints.

Key Constructional Features:

Base Joint (Rotary): The robot arm is mounted on a base that can rotate about a vertical axis (waist rotation).

This provides the first degree of freedom (azimuth or \\theta\_1).

Shoulder Joint (Rotary): Connected to the base, there is a rotary joint that allows the arm to pivot or tilt up

and down in a vertical plane (elevation or \\theta\_2).

Arm Extension/Retraction (Linear/Prismatic Joint): The arm itself has a linear joint that allows it to extend and

retract radially (reach or 'r'). This is often achieved using a telescopic or sliding mechanism.

Wrist (Optional, for additional DOFs): At the end of the linear arm, a wrist assembly is usually attached to

orient the end-effector. The wrist can have one, two, or three additional rotary joints (roll, pitch, yaw) to

control the orientation of the tool.

Simplified Structure:

Imagine a central vertical axis (base rotation). From this axis, an arm can pivot up and down (shoulder

rotation). This arm can then extend or retract in length (linear motion). The end-effector is at the tip of this

extendable arm.

State its Degree of Freedom (DOF):

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The degree of freedom (DOF) of a robot refers to the number of independent variables (joint movements)

required to define the position and orientation of its end-effector.

For the main arm positioning (without considering wrist): A spherical robot typically has three degrees of

freedom for positioning the end-effector in 3D space:

Rotary motion about the base axis (azimuth angle, \\theta\_1 or \\phi)

Rotary motion for elevation/inclination (elevation angle, \\theta\_2 or \\theta)

Linear motion for radial extension/retraction (reach, 'r')

These three coordinates (r, \\theta, \\phi) define a point in spherical coordinates, hence the name.

With a wrist: If a wrist is attached for orientation, it will add more DOFs.

A simple wrist might add 1 DOF (e.g., rotation of the gripper).

A more complex wrist can add 2 or 3 DOFs (e.g., for roll, pitch, and yaw), allowing full orientation control of

the end-effector.

Therefore, a spherical robot typically has 3 DOFs for positioning. With a wrist, the total DOFs can be 4, 5, or

commonly 6 (3 for position + 3 for orientation). The question likely refers to the main arm positioning, so 3

DOFs is the primary answer for constructing its spherical workspace.

[cite_start](e) Explain the basic components of pneumatic systems with neat sketch.

A pneumatic system uses compressed air to transmit and control energy to perform work.

Neat Sketch (Basic Pneumatic System):

+-----------------+ +-----------------+ +-----------------+ +-----------------+ +-----------------+

| Air |--->| Air Filter |--->| Pressure |--->| Directional |--->| Actuator |

| Compressor | | (Removes | | Regulator | | Control Valve | | (e.g., Cylinder)|

| (Generates | | contaminants) | | (Sets desired | | (Controls air | | (Performs work) |

| compressed air)| +--------^--------+ | pressure) | | flow direction)| +--------^--------+

+-----------------+ | +--------^--------+ +--------^--------+ | Output Motion

| Optional: | Optional: |

| Air Dryer | Lubricator |

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 Mechatronics (22643) Winter 2024 Answers

+-------------+ +-------------+ |

| | Exhaust to

| | Atmosphere

v v

+-------------------------------------+

| Air Receiver (Tank) |

| (Stores compressed air, dampens |

| pulsations) |

+-------------------------------------+

+-------------------------------------+

| Distribution Network |

| (Pipes, Hoses to various points) |

+-------------------------------------+

Basic Components and their Explanation:

Air Compressor:

Function: This is the heart of the pneumatic system. It draws in atmospheric air, compresses it to a higher

pressure, and delivers it to the system.

Types: Reciprocating piston compressors, rotary screw compressors, vane compressors, etc.

Air Receiver (Tank):

Function: A storage tank for compressed air. It helps to:

Dampen pressure pulsations from the compressor.

Meet intermittent high demands for air that might exceed the compressor's immediate capacity.

Allow moisture and some contaminants to settle out of the compressed air.

Allow the compressor to operate more efficiently by cycling on and off less frequently.

Air Filter:

Function: Removes contaminants from the compressed air, such as dust, dirt particles, water droplets, and oil

(if carried over from an oil-lubricated compressor). Clean air is crucial for the longevity and proper functioning

of pneumatic components.

Air Dryer (Often part of FRL unit or separate):

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Function: Removes water vapor from the compressed air. Moisture can cause corrosion, freezing in cold

environments, and malfunction of components.

Types: Refrigerated dryers, desiccant dryers, membrane dryers.

Pressure Regulator:

Function: Reduces and maintains the air pressure supplied to the pneumatic circuit at a constant, desired

level, regardless of fluctuations in the supply pressure from the receiver (as long as the supply pressure is

higher). This ensures consistent operation of actuators.

Lubricator (Often part of FRL unit, used less frequently now with self-lubricating components):

Function: Injects a fine mist of oil into the compressed air stream to lubricate moving parts of downstream

components like valves and actuators, reducing wear and friction. However, many modern pneumatic

components are designed for non-lube operation. (The Filter, Regulator, and Lubricator are often combined

into a single unit called an FRL unit or Air Service Unit.)

Directional Control Valves (DCVs):

Function: Control the direction of airflow to and from the actuators. They determine when an actuator

extends, retracts, or stops.

Types: Based on the number of ports and positions (e.g., 3/2 valve, 5/2 valve), and actuation method

(manual, solenoid, pilot-operated).

Actuators:

Function: Convert the energy of compressed air into useful mechanical motion (linear or rotary).

Types:

[cite_start]Linear: Single-acting cylinders, double-acting cylinders.

Rotary: Air motors, rotary actuators.

Piping and Hoses (Distribution Network):

Function: Transport the compressed air from the source to the various components and actuators in the

system.

Exhaust:

Function: After performing work in an actuator, the used air is typically vented to the atmosphere, often

through a silencer to reduce noise.

Question 5: Attempt any TWO of the following (12 Marks)

[cite_start](a) Explain with sketch torque measurement using : (i) Stroboscope method (ii) Capacitive method

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 Mechatronics (22643) Winter 2024 Answers

(i) Torque Measurement using Stroboscope Method:

The stroboscope method is primarily used for measuring rotational speed (RPM). It is not a direct method for

measuring torque. Torque is a twisting force. While speed measurement is related (Power = Torque ×

Angular Speed), a stroboscope itself doesn't measure force.

However, a stroboscope can be used in conjunction with other devices in certain dynamic torque

measurement setups, for example, to "freeze" the motion of a rotating shaft that has markings related to

angular twist (which can then be correlated to torque if the shaft's torsional stiffness is known). This is more

about measuring angular displacement or twist dynamically than directly measuring torque.

Explanation (Speed Measurement using Stroboscope):

A stroboscope produces brief, intense flashes of light at an adjustable frequency.

Sketch (Illustrating Speed Measurement):

+-------------+

| Stroboscope | ---- Flashing Light ----> Rotating Shaft

| (Adjustable | with a Reference Mark

| Flash Freq)| +-----+

+-------------+ |-----|--< Mark

| |

+-----+

| Rotation

Method for Speed Measurement:

A reference mark is made on the rotating shaft or component.

The stroboscope is aimed at the rotating shaft.

The flashing frequency of the stroboscope is adjusted until the reference mark on the shaft appears to be

stationary or "frozen."

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 Mechatronics (22643) Winter 2024 Answers

When the mark appears stationary, the flash frequency of the stroboscope is equal to the rotational speed of

the shaft (or an integer multiple or sub-multiple of it). If a single stationary image is seen, the shaft speed is

equal to the flash rate.

RPM = Flash Frequency (in flashes per minute)

How it might relate indirectly to Torque (Torsional Vibration / Twist Measurement): If a shaft is transmitting

torque, it will experience some angular twist along its length. If two discs with markings are placed at two

points along the shaft, a stroboscope could be used to observe the relative angular displacement between

the markings on these two discs when the shaft is under load. This angular displacement (\\theta\_{twist}) can

be related to torque (T) if the torsional stiffness (k) of the shaft segment between the discs is known: T = k

\\cdot \\theta\_{twist} The stroboscope helps in visualizing this small dynamic angular displacement by

"freezing" the motion. This is an indirect application and more complex than simple speed measurement.

Limitations for Torque: This is not a primary or direct torque measurement method. It's more suitable for

speed or visualizing dynamic phenomena like torsional vibration.

(ii) Torque Measurement using Capacitive Method:

Capacitive sensors can be used for torque measurement by designing a system where the applied torque

causes a change in capacitance. This change is then measured and correlated to the torque value.

Principle: The capacitance (C) of a parallel plate capacitor is given by: C = (\\epsilon\_0 \\cdot \\epsilon\_r

\\cdot A) / d Where:

\\epsilon\_0 = Permittivity of free space (constant)

\\epsilon\_r = Relative permittivity of the dielectric material (constant for a given material)

A = Overlapping area of the plates

d = Distance between the plates

Torque can cause a change in either the overlapping area (A) or the distance (d) between capacitor plates, or

change the dielectric.

Sketch (Example: Torsion Bar with Capacitive Sensing of Angular Displacement):

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Applied Torque (T)

-->

+------------------O------------------+

| Fixed End | Shaft (Torsion Bar)| Rotating End (Coupled to Load)

+------------------O------------------+

|<---- L ---->|

(Cross-section or detail of capacitive sensor arrangement)

Shaft Cross-Section at Sensing Point

(Showing relative rotation causing change in A or d)

Alternative 1: Changing Overlapping Area

+-------+ +-------+

| Plate1| ----- | Plate2| ------> Fixed to one part of shaft

| (Fixed| ^ | (Moves|

+-------+ | d +-------+ ------> Fixed to another part of shaft that twists

| (Overlapping Area 'A' changes with twist)

Alternative 2: Changing Distance

+-------------+

| Plate 1 | -------> Fixed

+-------------+

^ d (changes with twist due to axial movement component or lever)

+-------------+

| Plate 2 | -------> Attached to twisting part

Explanation of a Common Approach (Angular Displacement):

Sensing Element Design:

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A common design involves two sets of capacitor plates. One set is attached to one part of a shaft (e.g., input

side) and the other set to another part of the shaft (e.g., output side, after a torsionally compliant section).

As torque is applied to the shaft, the shaft twists. This torsional deformation causes a relative angular

displacement between the two sets of capacitor plates.

Capacitance Change:

This relative angular displacement can be designed to:

Change the overlapping area (A) of the plates: If the plates are arranged like sectors of a circle, rotation

changes how much they overlap.

Change the distance (d) between the plates: A more complex mechanism might convert the angular twist into

a linear change in plate separation.

Change the dielectric: Less common for torque, but possible.

Measurement Circuitry:

The change in capacitance is measured using suitable electronic circuitry, such as a capacitance bridge, an

LC oscillator (where capacitance change alters frequency), or a charge amplifier.

Calibration:

The system is calibrated by applying known torques and measuring the corresponding change in capacitance

(or the output of the measurement circuit). This establishes the relationship between the electrical output and

the applied torque.

Advantages of Capacitive Torque Sensors:

Non-contact measurement: Can be designed for non-contact sensing, reducing wear and maintenance.

High sensitivity: Can detect small changes in torque.

Good frequency response: Suitable for dynamic torque measurements.

Compact size: Can be relatively small.

Disadvantages:

Susceptible to environmental factors like temperature and humidity if not properly compensated or shielded.

Requires relatively complex signal conditioning electronics.

Calibration can be critical.

(b) Draw block diagram of CNC machine. State four advantages of CNC system. [cite_start]What are G

codes and M codes?

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Block Diagram of a CNC (Computer Numerical Control) Machine:

+---------------------+ +---------------------+ +---------------------+

| Input Device |----->| Machine Control Unit| | Display Unit |

| (Program, Keyboard,| | (MCU) |<---->| (Monitor for status,|

| Tape Reader, USB) | | - Data Processing | | program, alarms) |

+---------------------+ | - Interpolator | +---------------------+

| - Servo Control |

+----------^----------+

| Control Signals & Feedback Loop

+---------------------+ +---------------------+ +---------------------+

| Driving System |<---->| Feedback Devices | | Machine Tool |

| (Servo Motors, | | (Encoders, Resolvers| | (Spindle, Slides, |

| Amplifiers, | | Tachometers) | | Tool Changer, |

| Ball Screws) | +---------------------+ | Worktable) |

+---------------------+ +----------^----------+

| Machining Process

Workpiece

Explanation of Blocks:

Input Device: Used to feed the part program and other data into the MCU. Examples: Keyboard for manual

data input (MDI), USB drive, Ethernet connection, older systems used punched tape readers.

Machine Control Unit (MCU) / Controller: The "brain" of the CNC machine.

Data Processing Unit (DPU): Decodes the part program, performs calculations (e.g., for tool compensation,

coordinate transformation).

Interpolator: Calculates the intermediate coordinate points along the programmed path for the cutting tool to

follow (e.g., for linear, circular, or helical paths). It generates signals for each axis of motion.

Servo Control Unit: Receives commands from the interpolator and feedback from the feedback devices. It

generates control signals for the drive motors to move the machine axes to the desired positions at the

programmed feed rates. It manages the closed-loop control.

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Display Unit: A monitor or screen that displays information to the operator, such as the current status of the

machine, the active part program, positions of the axes, error messages, and soft keys for interaction.

Driving System: Provides the power and motion to the machine tool axes and spindle.

Servo Motors/Stepper Motors: Provide precise motion control for the machine slides and spindle.

Amplifiers: Amplify the control signals from the MCU to drive the motors.

Ball Screws/Lead Screws: Convert the rotary motion of the motors into precise linear motion for the machine

slides.

Feedback Devices (Position and Velocity Sensors): Measure the actual position and velocity of the machine

slides and spindle. This information is fed back to the MCU to ensure that the machine is moving as

programmed (closed-loop control).

Encoders (Linear or Rotary): Provide position feedback.

Resolvers: Also provide position feedback, often more robust.

Tachometers: Provide velocity feedback.

Machine Tool: The physical structure of the machine that performs the machining operations.

Spindle: Rotates the cutting tool (in milling/drilling) or the workpiece (in turning).

Slides/Axes (X, Y, Z, etc.): Provide motion for the tool or workpiece along different directions.

Tool Changer: Automatically changes cutting tools as required by the program.

Worktable/Fixture: Holds the workpiece securely.

Coolant System, Lubrication System, etc.

Four Advantages of CNC System:

High Accuracy and Repeatability: CNC machines can produce parts with very high precision and consistency.

Once a program is proven correct, identical parts can be manufactured repeatedly with minimal variation,

reducing errors associated with manual operation.

Increased Productivity and Efficiency: CNC machines can operate continuously for long periods with minimal

human intervention (once set up). They allow for faster machining cycles, reduced setup times (with features

like automatic tool changers), and optimized tool paths, leading to higher output rates.

Flexibility and Reduced Lead Times: It's relatively easy to switch from manufacturing one part to another by

simply loading a different part program. This flexibility is ideal for small to medium batch production and

reduces the lead time for producing new components. Complex shapes that are difficult or impossible to

make manually can be readily produced.

Reduced Operator Skill Requirement (for operation): While programming CNC machines requires skilled

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personnel, the actual operation of the machine (loading/unloading parts, monitoring) often requires less

intensive manual skill compared to traditional machining. This can lead to reduced labor costs and less

operator fatigue. (However, skilled setup personnel are still crucial).

[cite_start]What are G codes and M codes?

G-codes (Preparatory Codes):

G-codes are the primary programming words in a CNC part program that instruct the machine tool on the

geometry of the tool path and the type of motion or operation to be performed.

They prepare the machine for a specific kind of movement or machining cycle.

Each G-code typically tells the machine to move in a certain way (e.g., rapid traverse, linear feed, circular

interpolation) or to execute a pre-defined cycle (e.g., drilling cycle, tapping cycle).

Examples:

G00: Rapid traverse (move tool quickly to a programmed point, not cutting)

G01: Linear interpolation (move tool in a straight line at a programmed feed rate, for cutting)

G02: Circular interpolation, clockwise

G03: Circular interpolation, counter-clockwise

G28: Return to machine home position

G40: Cancel tool radius compensation

G81: Drilling cycle

G90: Absolute programming

G91: Incremental programming

M-codes (Miscellaneous Codes):

M-codes control auxiliary functions of the CNC machine that are not directly related to the tool path geometry.

They instruct the machine to perform actions like starting or stopping the spindle, changing tools, turning

coolant on or off, or ending the program.

M-codes are often related to machine-specific functions and can vary slightly between different machine

controllers.

Examples:

M00: Program stop (machine stops, operator intervention needed)

M01: Optional stop (machine stops if optional stop switch is on)

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M02: Program end (resets machine, but not always controller)

M03: Spindle start, clockwise rotation

M04: Spindle start, counter-clockwise rotation

M05: Spindle stop

M06: Tool change

M08: Coolant on

M09: Coolant off

M30: Program end and reset (often preferred over M02)

Both G-codes and M-codes are essential components of a CNC part program, working together to fully define

the machining process.

[cite_start](c) Describe with sketch : (i) Poppet valve (ii) Spool valve

(i) Poppet Valve

A poppet valve is a type of valve used to control the flow of fluids (liquids or gases). It consists of a movable

sealing element (the poppet) that moves perpendicular to a seat to open or close a flow path.

Sketch (Simple Poppet Valve - Normally Closed):

Fluid Inlet

+--------------+

| Valve Body |

| +--------+ |

| | Poppet | | <--- Actuating Force (e.g., from solenoid, spring, manual)

| | (Disc/ | |

| | Ball) |==|-----+

| +--------+ | Spring (to keep closed)

| || | --WWW--

| VV |-----+

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| Valve Seat |

| ////////// | <--- Sealing Surface

+--------------+

Fluid Outlet (Blocked when poppet is on seat)

Fluid Inlet

+--------------+

| Valve Body |

| +--------+ |

| | Poppet | | <--- Actuating Force applied

| | (Lifted | | (overcomes spring)

| | off |==|-----+

| | seat) | | Spring Compressed

| +--------+ | --WWW--

| |-----+

| Valve Seat |

| \\\\\\\\\\ |

+--------------+

| Flow

v------>

Fluid Outlet (Open)

Description:

Components:

Valve Body: Houses the internal parts and has inlet and outlet ports.

Poppet: The moving element that seals against the valve seat. It can be shaped like a disc, ball, or cone.

Valve Seat: A precisely machined surface in the valve body against which the poppet seals to stop flow.

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Actuator/Spring: A mechanism (e.g., spring, solenoid plunger, cam, manual lever) that applies force to move

the poppet. In a normally closed valve, a spring typically holds the poppet against the seat.

Operation:

Closed Position: When no actuating force is applied (or when the spring force dominates), the poppet is held

firmly against the valve seat, preventing fluid flow from the inlet to the outlet.

Open Position: When an actuating force (greater than the spring force and fluid pressure forces) is applied to

the poppet, it lifts away from the valve seat. This creates a passage for the fluid to flow from the inlet port,

around the poppet, and out through the outlet port.

When the actuating force is removed, the spring (and sometimes fluid pressure) returns the poppet to the

seat, closing the valve.

Characteristics:

Good Sealing: Can provide a tight seal, especially when using soft seat materials.

Fast Acting: Can open and close relatively quickly.

Simple Construction: Relatively simple design.

Flow Path: The flow path is somewhat tortuous as the fluid has to flow around the poppet.

Pressure Limitations: The force required to open the poppet can be affected by the fluid pressure acting on it.

Applications:

Directional control valves in pneumatic and hydraulic systems (especially for smaller sizes or as pilot stages).

Relief valves and safety valves.

Internal combustion engine intake and exhaust valves.

Check valves (non-return valves) often use a poppet design.

(ii) Spool Valve

A spool valve is a type of directional control valve that uses a sliding spool with lands (raised sections) and

grooves (undercuts) to connect or block flow paths between different ports in the valve body.

Sketch (Simple 3-Port, 2-Position Spool Valve - Manually Actuated):

Actuator (e.g., Lever)

+-------------------------------------+ Valve Body

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| P (Pressure) A (Outlet/Cylinder) E (Exhaust) | Ports

| | | | |

| +----V------------V-----------V----+ |

| | ||

| | +-----+======+-----+======+-----+ | Spool

| | |Land1|Groove|Land2|Groove|Land3| |

| | +-----+======+-----+======+-----+ |

| | ||

| +----------------------------------+ |

+-------------------------------------+

Position 1 (e.g., Lever Left): P connected to A, E blocked

Actuator

+-------------------------------------+

| P A E |

| | | | |

| +-V------------V-----------V-----+ |

| | <<<<< Flow >>>>> ||

| | +-----+======+-----+======+-----+ |

| | |Land1|Groove|Land2|Groove|Land3| | (Spool shifted left)

| | +-----+======+-----+======+-----+ |

| | P -> A E blocked ||

| +----------------------------------+ |

+-------------------------------------+

Position 2 (e.g., Lever Right): A connected to E, P blocked

Actuator

+-------------------------------------+

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| P A E |

| | | | |

| +------------V-----------V-----V-+ |

| | <<<<< Flow >>>>>| |

| | +-----+======+-----+======+-----+ |

| | |Land1|Groove|Land2|Groove|Land3| | (Spool shifted right)

| | +-----+======+-----+======+-----+ |

| | P blocked A -> E ||

| +----------------------------------+ |

+-------------------------------------+

Description:

Components:

Valve Body (Housing): Contains a precisely machined cylindrical bore and ports for fluid connections (e.g.,

pressure inlet P, outlet(s) to actuator A, B, exhaust/return E, R, T).

Spool: A cylindrical component that slides axially within the bore of the valve body. The spool has raised

sections called "lands" and recessed sections called "grooves" or "undercuts."

Actuator: A mechanism to shift the spool (e.g., manual lever, solenoid, pilot pressure, spring).

Operation:

The lands on the spool are designed to cover or uncover the ports in the valve body as the spool slides.

The grooves on the spool create flow paths between different ports when aligned correctly.

By shifting the spool to different axial positions, different combinations of ports are interconnected or blocked,

thus directing the fluid flow as required.

For example, in one position, the pressure port (P) might be connected to an actuator port (A), while the other

actuator port (B) is connected to the exhaust/tank port (E). In another position, P might be connected to B,

and A to E.

Characteristics:

Versatility: Can be configured for many different flow patterns (e.g., 2-way, 3-way, 4-way, 5-way) and

positions (2-position, 3-position).

Balanced Design: Spools can be designed to be pressure-balanced, meaning fluid pressure forces acting on

the spool are largely equalized, reducing the force needed to shift the spool.

Leakage: There is typically some internal leakage (clearance flow) between the spool lands and the valve

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body bore.

Contamination Sensitivity: Close tolerances make them somewhat sensitive to contamination in the fluid,

which can cause sticking or wear.

Overlap Conditions: The design of the lands determines the transition characteristics when the spool shifts

(e.g., "open center" where all ports are connected to exhaust in the center position, "closed center" where all

ports are blocked).

Applications:

Widely used as directional control valves in hydraulic and pneumatic systems for controlling actuators like

cylinders and motors.

Found in machine tools, mobile equipment, industrial automation, and aerospace systems.

Question 6: Attempt any TWO of the following (12 Marks)

[cite_start](a) Draw and explain strain gauge accelerometer.

A strain gauge accelerometer is a device that measures acceleration by sensing the strain produced in a

mechanical structure (often a cantilever beam with a seismic mass) due to the inertial force acting on the

mass.

Diagram (Cantilever Beam Type Strain Gauge Accelerometer):

Acceleration (a) -->

Inertial Force (F = m*a)

<--

+---------------------------------------+

| Seismic Mass (m) |

+-------------------V-------------------+

| Deflection due to Force

+-------------------O-------------------+ <-- Cantilever Beam

| Strain Gauge 1 (Top, Tension) | (Fixed at this end)

|SG1 |

+-------------------+

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| Strain Gauge 2 (Bottom, Compression) |

| S G 2 (Optional, for full bridge) |

+---------------------------------------+

|| ||

|| Fixed Support (Housing) ||

=====================================

Circuit Diagram (Wheatstone Bridge):

R1 (SG1 - Tension)

/----vvv----\

/ \

Vin -- -- Vout1

\ /

\----vvv----/

R2 (Fixed or SG on dummy un-strained beam)

R4 (Fixed or SG on dummy un-strained beam)

/----vvv----\

/ \

Vin -- -- Vout2

\ /

\----vvv----/

R3 (SG2 - Compression, if used)

Output Voltage Vout = Vout1 - Vout2

(Often SG1, SG2, SG3, SG4 are arranged in a full bridge on the beam for max sensitivity and temp

compensation)

Explanation:

Construction:

Seismic Mass (Proof Mass): A mass (m) is attached to the free end of a flexible element, typically a cantilever

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beam.

Cantilever Beam: One end of the beam is fixed to the accelerometer housing, while the other end holds the

seismic mass. The beam is designed to deflect when a force is applied to the mass.

Strain Gauges: One or more strain gauges are bonded to the surface(s) of the cantilever beam, usually near

the fixed end where the strain (and bending stress) is highest. Strain gauges are resistive elements whose

electrical resistance changes proportionally to the mechanical strain they experience.

Housing: Protects the internal components and provides a mounting point.

Working Principle:

When the accelerometer experiences acceleration (a) in a direction perpendicular to the beam and mass, the

seismic mass (m) exerts an inertial force (F = m \\cdot a) on the cantilever beam, according to Newton's

second law.

This inertial force causes the cantilever beam to bend or deflect.

The bending of the beam creates strain on its surfaces:

If the acceleration is upwards (in the diagram's perspective, force downwards on mass), the top surface of the

beam experiences tensile strain (stretching), and the bottom surface experiences compressive strain

(shortening).

The strain gauges bonded to these surfaces will also stretch or compress, causing a change in their electrical

resistance.

Signal Conversion (Wheatstone Bridge):

The strain gauges are typically connected in a Wheatstone bridge circuit.

When the resistances of the strain gauges change due to strain, the bridge becomes unbalanced, producing

an output voltage (V\_{out}) that is proportional to the strain.

Since strain is proportional to the inertial force, and force is proportional to acceleration, the output voltage

from the bridge is ultimately proportional to the acceleration being measured.

Using multiple strain gauges (e.g., two in tension and two in compression in a full-bridge configuration)

increases sensitivity and helps compensate for temperature effects.

Damping: Some accelerometers include damping (e.g., oil damping or magnetic damping) to prevent

excessive oscillations or ringing of the seismic mass-beam system, especially when measuring shocks or

vibrations near the natural frequency of the accelerometer.

Characteristics:

Can measure both static (e.g., gravity) and dynamic acceleration.

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Frequency response depends on the natural frequency and damping of the mass-spring system (beam acts

as a spring).

Robust and can be designed for various acceleration ranges.

Applications: Vibration measurement, shock testing, inertial navigation systems, automotive testing,

aerospace applications.

(b) State the working principle of cam. Give any four applications of cam. [cite_start]List its types.

Working Principle of a Cam:

A cam is a rotating or oscillating mechanical element with a specially shaped profile (the cam profile) that

imparts a predetermined, often complex, motion to another element called a follower. The follower maintains

contact with the cam profile.

Principle:

Profile Transformation: As the cam rotates or oscillates, its contoured surface (the profile) pushes against the

follower.

Follower Motion: The shape of the cam profile dictates the precise manner in which the follower moves. The

follower can be made to rise (move away from the cam's axis of rotation), fall (move towards the cam's axis

of rotation), or dwell (remain stationary for a period) during specific parts of the cam's rotation.

Contact: The follower is kept in contact with the cam surface by an external force (like a spring) or by the

geometry of a groove in the cam (in the case of grooved or face cams).

Motion Conversion: The cam-follower mechanism primarily converts rotary motion of the cam into a

reciprocating (back and forth linear) or oscillating (rocking) motion of the follower. The output motion of the

follower is precisely determined by the cam's profile design.

In essence, the cam acts as a mechanical program, where its shape stores the information for the desired

follower motion sequence.

Four Applications of Cam:

Internal Combustion Engines: Cams (on the camshaft) are used to operate the intake and exhaust valves,

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precisely timing their opening and closing relative to the piston movement.

Automated Machinery / Assembly Lines: Cams are used to synchronize and actuate various mechanisms in

automated machines, such as feeding parts, indexing tables, and performing specific assembly operations.

Textile Machinery: Used in looms for operating heddles (which lift and lower warp threads) and in knitting

machines for controlling needle movements to create fabric patterns.

Printing Presses: Cams control various operations like paper feeding, ink distribution, and the movement of

printing plates or cylinders.

Types of Cams (Based on Shape and Follower Motion):

Based on Cam Shape:

Plate Cam (Disc Cam): The cam profile is cut on the edge of a flat disc. The follower moves in a plane

perpendicular to the axis of cam rotation.

Radial Cam: Follower motion is radial (towards or away from cam center).

Offset Cam: Follower's line of motion is offset from the cam's axis.

Cylindrical Cam (Barrel Cam): The cam profile is cut as a groove on the surface of a cylinder. The follower

moves in a plane parallel to the axis of cam rotation (or oscillates).

Face Cam (End Cam): The cam profile is a groove cut into the face (end) of a disc or cylinder. The follower

usually moves parallel to the cam's axis of rotation.

Wedge Cam: A wedge-shaped cam that has translational motion. The follower moves perpendicular to the

cam's motion.

Globoidal Cam: Has a complex, three-dimensional profile, often used for indexing mechanisms where the

follower arm oscillates.

Concave Globoidal Cam

Convex Globoidal Cam

Spherical Cam: The profile is cut on a spherical surface.

Based on Follower Motion Output:

Rise-Return-Rise (RRR) Cam: Follower rises, returns, then rises again.

Dwell-Rise-Dwell-Return-Dwell (DRDRD) Cam: Includes periods where the follower remains stationary

(dwell). This is very common.

Dwell-Rise-Return-Dwell (DRRD) Cam.

Based on Type of Follower: (Though this classifies followers, it's often discussed with cam types)

Knife-edge follower

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Roller follower

Flat-faced follower

Spherical-faced (mushroom) follower

Based on Constraint of Follower:

Gravity Cam: Follower relies on gravity for contact.

Spring-Loaded Cam: A spring maintains contact between cam and follower.

Positive Drive Cam (Grooved Cam/Closed Track Cam): The follower is constrained to follow the cam profile

by being in a groove or track on the cam.

[cite_start](c) Explain microcontroller based Antilock Brake System (ABS) with neat block diagram.

An Antilock Braking System (ABS) is a safety system in automobiles that prevents the wheels from locking up

during hard braking or on slippery surfaces. This allows the driver to maintain steering control and often

reduces stopping distances. A microcontroller is the core component that processes sensor data and controls

the braking pressure.

Neat Block Diagram of a Microcontroller-Based ABS:

+---------------------+ +---------------------+ +---------------------+

| Wheel Speed |----->| |<---->| Hydraulic Unit |

| Sensors (4 wheels) | | Microcontroller | | (Modulator with |

| - Sensor 1 (FL) | | (ECU/ABS | | Solenoid Valves, |

| - Sensor 2 (FR) |----->| Controller) |----->| Pump, Accumulator) |

| - Sensor 3 (RL) | | | +----------^----------+

| - Sensor 4 (RR) |----->| - Signal Processing | | Control Signals

+---------------------+ | - Algorithm Logic | | (to valves)

| - Valve Control | |

+----------^----------+ | Apply/Hold/Release

| | Brake Pressure

| Feedback (Valve Status, |

| Pressure - optional)

+---------------------+ +----------v----------+ +---------------------+

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| Brake Pedal |----->| Master Cylinder & |----->| Brakes (at each |

| (Driver Input) | | Brake Booster | | wheel - calipers/ |

+---------------------+ +---------------------+ | drums) |

+---------------------+

| Warning Lamp on Dashboard (ABS Fault/Active)

+----------------------------------------------

Explanation of Components and Working:

Wheel Speed Sensors:

Function: These sensors (typically one at each wheel, sometimes fewer in older systems) continuously

monitor the rotational speed of each wheel. Common types are Hall effect sensors or variable reluctance

sensors that detect teeth on a rotating tone ring attached to the hub or axle.

Output: They send electrical pulses or signals proportional to wheel speed to the microcontroller.

Microcontroller (Electronic Control Unit - ECU / ABS Controller):

Function: This is the "brain" of the ABS. It receives wheel speed data from all sensors.

Signal Processing: It processes these signals to calculate the speed and deceleration/acceleration of each

wheel.

Algorithm Logic: It runs a sophisticated algorithm to detect impending wheel lock-up. A wheel is considered to

be locking if its deceleration rate is excessively high compared to the vehicle's deceleration or if its speed

drops significantly below a calculated reference speed (often based on the speeds of other wheels or an

estimated vehicle speed).

Valve Control: If incipient lock-up is detected on one or more wheels, the microcontroller sends precise

commands to the hydraulic unit to modulate the brake pressure to the affected wheel(s).

Hydraulic Unit (Modulator):

Function: This unit controls the brake fluid pressure applied to each wheel brake, based on commands from

the microcontroller.

Solenoid Valves: It contains a set of solenoid-operated valves (typically three per wheel circuit: an isolation

valve, a dump/release valve, and sometimes an apply valve, or two valves performing these functions).

These valves can:

Hold Pressure: Maintain the current brake pressure.

Reduce Pressure: Release some brake fluid from the wheel brake circuit back to a low-pressure accumulator

or the master cylinder reservoir, reducing braking force.

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Re-apply Pressure: Allow brake fluid pressure to increase again (up to the level applied by the driver via the

master cylinder).

Pump: A high-pressure pump is included to return brake fluid from the low-pressure accumulator back to the

master cylinder or to actively re-apply pressure if needed, allowing for rapid cycling of pressure.

Accumulator: Temporarily stores the brake fluid released during pressure reduction.

Brake Pedal, Master Cylinder, and Brake Booster:

Function: When the driver presses the brake pedal, this system generates hydraulic pressure in the normal

way. The ABS intervenes downstream of the master cylinder. The booster assists the driver's pedal effort.

Brakes (Calipers/Drums at each wheel):

Function: These are the standard friction brakes that slow down the wheels. The ABS modulates the

hydraulic pressure supplied to these components.

Warning Lamp:

Function: Located on the vehicle's dashboard. It illuminates if there's a fault in the ABS system or sometimes

briefly when the ABS is active.

Working Cycle of ABS:

Normal Braking: During normal braking without wheel lock risk, the ABS is essentially passive, and brake

fluid flows directly from the master cylinder to the wheel brakes, controlled by the driver's pedal pressure.

Impending Lock-up Detection: If the driver brakes hard or on a slippery surface, and the microcontroller

detects that a wheel is about to lock up (based on its rapid deceleration), the ABS activates for that wheel.

Pressure Modulation Cycle:

Hold Phase: The microcontroller commands the hydraulic unit to close the isolation valve for the affected

wheel, holding the current brake pressure steady.

Release Phase: If the wheel continues to decelerate towards lock-up, the microcontroller commands the

dump/release valve to open briefly, releasing some brake pressure from that wheel's brake. This allows the

wheel to regain traction and speed up slightly.

Re-apply Phase: Once the wheel has regained traction and is no longer locking, the microcontroller

commands the valves to allow brake pressure to be re-applied to that wheel, resuming braking.

Pulsation: This cycle of holding, releasing, and re-applying pressure can occur very rapidly (many times per

second). The driver often feels this as a pulsation in the brake pedal.

Maintaining Control: By preventing wheel lock-up, the ABS allows the tires to maintain rolling friction with the

road surface, which provides better grip for both braking and steering compared to skidding (sliding friction).

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This enables the driver to maintain steering control and potentially stop in a shorter distance, especially on

uneven or slippery surfaces.

The microcontroller continuously monitors all wheels and adjusts brake pressures individually or in pairs as

needed to achieve optimal braking performance while preventing lock-up.

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