COMPUTER NETWORKS

- A collection of computers that communicate and share resources with one

another form a network.
- In a network these computers are connected through various communication
channels.
- If required a network may also have different networking devices, e.g. Hub,
Switch, Router etc.
- Each computer in a network is called a node.

Advantages:
- Exchange of information/message.
- Nodes can share Hardware.
- Nodes can share Software.
- Nodes can share Storage.
Disadvantages:
- Threat to data.
- Difficult to set up
- Not always cost effective.
- Require regular and proper management.

Evolution of Network

ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network)

- In 1969 ARPANET was formed by the US govt.

- It connected various computers at different Universities and Defence Agencies.
- The main goal of ARPANET was to develop a network that will continue to work
efficiently even if a nuclear attack happens.

NSFNET(National Science Foundation Network)

- From 1985 to 1995 US started NSFNET.
- It was a program of coordinated and evolving projects sponsored by the National
Science Foundation.
- The main idea was to promote advance research and education networking in
the US.

INTERNET(INTERconnection NETwork)
- The Internet can be understood as a worldwide network of networks.
- It is owned by nobody.
- It evolved from ARPANET.
- It facilitates services such as E-mail, file transfer, WWW, remote login etc.
 - The internet follows certain rules while data communication rules which are
called protocols.

Interspace
- It is a client/server program that allows multiple users to communicate online with
real time audio, video, text-chat.
- These online communications take place inside a 3D environment.

Data Communication Terminologies

Communication is a means of sending or receiving information. Components of a

communication are as follows:
Sender, Receiver, Message, Communication Media and Protocols.

Sender
- A sender is a computer or any such device which is capable of sending data
over a network.
- It can be a computer, mobile phone, smartwatch, walkie- talkie, video recording
device, etc.

Receiver
- A receiver is a computer or any such device which is capable of receiving data
from the network.
- It can be a computer, mobile phone, smartwatch, walkie- talkie, video recording
device, etc.

Message
- Any data transmitted over a network that is intended for human interpretation.
- Data becomes a message when it is transmitted from one person to another.
Communication Media
- Communication media refer to the ways, means or channels of transmitting
messages from sender to the receiver.
- Example: Optic Fibre, Coaxial Cable, Bluetooth etc.

Protocols
- A network protocol is an established set of rules that determine how data is
transmitted between different devices in the same network.
- it allows connected devices to communicate with each other, regardless of any
differences in their internal processes, structure or design.

Measuring Capacity of Communication Media

The capacity of a channel is the maximum amount of signals or traffic that a channel
can carry. It is measured in terms of bandwidth and data transfer rate.

Bandwidth
- Bandwidth of a channel is the range of frequencies available for transmission of
data through that channel.
- Higher the bandwidth, higher the data transfer rate.
- Normally, bandwidth is the difference of maximum and minimum frequency
contained in the composite signals.
- Bandwidth is measured in Hertz (Hz).
1 KHz =1000 Hz
1 MHz =1000 KHz = 1000000 Hz

Data Transfer Rate

- Data travels in the form of signals over a channel. One signal carries one or more
bits over the channel. Data transfer rate is the number of bits transmitted
between source and destination in one second.
- It is also known as bit rate.
- It is measured in terms of bits per second (bps).

1 Kbps=210 bps=1024 bps

1 Mbps=220 bps=1024 Kbps
1 Gbps=230 bps=1024 Mbps
1 Tbps=240 bps=1024 Gbps

# MBps stands for Megabyte per second whereas Mbps stands for Megabit per second.

Switching and Switching Techniques

- The process of transferring information from one computer network to another
network is known as switching.
- Switching in a computer network is achieved by using a networking device called
switch.
 - Two types of switching techniques used are : Circuit Switching and Packet
Switching.

Circuit Switching
- First the complete end-to-end transmission path is established between the
source and the destination computers.
- Then the message is transmitted through the path.
- The main advantage of this technique is guaranteed delivery of the message.
- Mostly used for voice communication.

Packet Switching
- Using the TCP protocol a single large message is divided into a sequence of
packets of size limits from 128 to 4096 bytes.
- Each packet is independent and has the address of sender and destination.
- The IP (Internet protocol) does the routing for the packets. It keeps track of all the
different routes available to the destination. If one route is not available it finds
the alternate route to the destination.
- At the destination, the TCP protocol re-assembles the packets into the complete
message.
- If any packets are lost or damaged, a request is sent to retransmit the same
message.

Circuit Switching Packet Switching

Circuit switching requires a dedicated Packet switching does not require any
path before sending data from source to dedicated path to send data from source
destination. to destination.

It reserves the entire bandwidth in It does not reserve bandwidth in advance

advance.

No store and forward transmission It supports store and forward transmission

Each packet follows the same route A packet can follow any route

Call setup is required No call setup is required

Bandwidth wastage No bandwidth wastage

Transmission Media
- A transmission medium can be anything that can carry signals or data between
the source (transmitter) and destination (receiver).
- Transmission can be classified as guided or unguided.
 - In guided/wired transmission, there is a physical link made of wire/cable through
which data in terms of signals are propagated between the nodes.
- In unguided/wireless transmission, data travels in air in terms of electromagnetic
waves using an antenna.

Wired Transmission Media

- Any physical link that can carry data in the form of signals belongs to the
category of wired transmission media.
- Three commonly used guided/wired media for data transmission are, twisted pair,
coaxial cable, and fiber optic cable.

Twisted Pair Cable

- A twisted-pair consists of two copper wires twisted like a DNA structure.
- Both the copper wires are insulated with plastic covers.
- a number of such pairs are combined together and covered with a protective
outer wrapping.
- Each twisted pair is used as a single communication link.
- Generally used for telephone network.
- Advantages:
Cost effective
Easy to install
Generally used for short distance data transmission
Easy to repair
- Disadvantages:
Not so secure
Efficient only up to 100m distance
Limited and lesser bandwidth

Coaxial Cable
- It has a copper wire at the core of the cable which is surrounded with insulating
material.
- The insulator is further surrounded with an outer conductor (usually a copper
mesh).
 - This outer conductor is wrapped in a plastic cover.
- General uses: TV cables, CCTV, Video Transmission
- Advantages:
support high bandwidth
easy to install coaxial cables
more reliable and durable.
Less affected by noise or cross-talk or electromagnetic interference
support multiple channels
- Disadvantages:
Coaxial cables are expensive.
must be grounded in order to prevent any crosstalk
There is a chance of breaking the coaxial cable and installing a t-joint by
hackers.

Optical Fiber
- The optical fiber cable carries data as light, which travels inside a thin fiber of
glass.
- A thin transparent strand of glass at the center is covered with a layer of less
dense glass called cladding.
- This whole arrangement is covered with an outer jacket made of PVC or Teflon.
- Such types of cables are usually used in backbone networks.
- Advantages:
light weight
have higher bandwidth
Higher data transfer rate
Signals can travel longer distances and electromagnetic noise cannot
affect the cable.
- Disadvantages:
Expensive
Unidirectional
Two cables are required for full duplex communication.
Repairing is not easy.
Wireless Transmission Media
- Wireless technologies allow communication between two or more devices in
short to long distance without requiring any physical media.
- There are many types of wireless communication technologies such as
Bluetooth, WiFi, WiMax etc.
- information travels in the form of electromagnetic signals through air.
Electromagnetic spectrum
- frequency ranging from 3 KHz to 900 THz
- can be divided into 4 categories Radio waves, Microwaves and Infrared waves.

Radio Waves
- Radio waves are transmitted in all directions, i.e. Omnidirectional
- Range is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
- the wave sent by the sending antenna can be received by any receiving antenna.
- An example of the radio wave is FM Radio, Television, CordlessPhone etc.
- Advantages:
mainly used for wide area networks and mobile cellular phones.
cover a large area
can penetrate the walls
provides a higher transmission rate
- Disadvantages:
Radio spectrum is limited
Can be affected by bad weather

Microwaves
- frequency range 1GHz - 300GHz.
- Unidirectional, can move in only one direction.
- Used in unicast communication such as radar or satellite.
- Advantages:
Cheaper than using cables
Does Not require land for installing wires
Communication over ocean can be achieved
Provides very large carrying capacity
- Disadvantages:
Cannot penetrate solid objects such as walls, hills or mountains.
Any malicious user can catch the signal in the air by using its own
antenna. Thus insecure.
Any environmental change such as rain, wind can distort the signal.
Limited bandwidth.

Infrared Communication
- Infrared is the frequency of light that is not visible to the human eye.
- Far infrared waves are thermal. This is the reason we feel the heat from sunlight,
a fire or a radiator.
 - Infrared communication requires a transceiver (a combination of transmitter and
receiver) in both devices that communicate.
- In infrared transmission, senders can be simple light emitting diodes (LEDs) or
laser diodes. Photodiodes act as receivers.
- Infrared wireless is used for medium and short range communications and
control.
- With infrared transmission, computers can transfer files and other digital data
bidirectional.
- Infrared technology is used in instruction detectors; robot control system, medium
range line of sight laser communication, cordless microphone, headsets,
modems, and other peripheral devices.
- Advantages:
- it's simple and extremely cheap senders and receivers which are
integrated into nearly all mobile devices available today.
- No licenses are required for infrared
- Electrical devices cannot interfere with infrared transmission.
- Since it has a short range of communication hence it is considered
to be a secure mode of Transmission.
- Disadvantages:
- It can only be used for short range communication.
- Infrared wave transmission cannot pass through obstructions like
walls, buildings etc.
- It has low bandwidth compared to other LAN technologies.
- Limited transfer rates to 115 Kbit/s.

BASIS OF RADIO WAVE MICROWAVE INFRARED

COMPARISON

Generation A radio wave is The microwaves are The primary source

generated when a produced with the of infrared radiation
charged particle is help of klystron or is heat or thermal
swiftly accelerated magnetron in which radiation. Any object
and decelerated in the radio wave is which has a
the air. propagated in a temperature radiates
magnetic field in in the infrared.
order to generate
microwave.

Nature Microwave is a The radio wave is a Infrared is a high

high frequency low frequency and frequency low
and high energy low energy wave. energy wave.
wave.
Direction These are These are These are
omni-directional in unidirectional in unidirectional in
nature. nature. nature.

At Low At low frequency, At frequency, they They cannot

Frequency they can penetrate can penetrate penetrate through
through solid. through solid any solid object and
objects and walls, at walls.
high frequency they
cannot penetrate.

Detection The detection of a Microwave is Infrared are

radio wave is done detected using point detected using
using aerials. contact diodes. photon detectors

Frequency Frequency ranges Frequency ranges Frequency ranges

from 3 KHz to from 1GHz to 300 from 300GHz to 400
1GHz. GHz. GHz.

Attenuation Attenuation is Attenuation is Attenuation is low.

high. variable.

Uses Radio waves are Microwaves are Infrared are

commonly used in commonly used in commonly used in
AM, FM, cellular radar systems, applications like
systems etc. aircraft navigation remote sensing,
and microwave remote controls,
oven. optical fibres,
security systems
and thermal imaging
cameras which
detect people in the
dark.

Costs Setup and usage Setup and usage Setup and usage
costs are high. costs are high. costs are low.

Communication Radio waves are Microwave are used They are not used in
use in long in long distance long distance
distance communication. communication.
communication.

Security Offers poor Offers medium Offers high security.

security. security.
Network Devices
- Computer hardware devices which are used to connect computers, printers, or
any other electronic device to a computer network are called network devices.
- These devices transfer data in a fast, secure and correct way with some specific
functionality over same or different networks.
- Some devices are installed on the device like Internal modem, NIC card or RJ45
connector, whereas some are part of the network like router, switch, etc.

Modem
- Modem is short for Modulator Demodulator.
- It converts the digital signal into analogue data signals and vice versa.
- It maintains a dedicated connection to get the internet connection.
- It acts as a bridge between the internet/telephone line and the computer.

- They can be installed within the computer in a development slot applicable for it.

Ethernet Card

- An Ethernet network card is a device typically connected to a computer to allow

that computer to then connect to other networking hardware.

- This can be either an internal or external device.

- The card allows a computer or similar device to connect to other networking
hardware through an Ethernet cable.
- Ethernet Card is also called Ethernet Network Card.
- This card usually has the Ethernet Port.
RJ45
- RJ45 is also called Registered Jack 45.
- It is an eight wired connector that is used to connect computers on a local area
network (LAN), especially Ethernet.
-
Repeater
- In a network signal travels a long distance in transmission media. Due to
resistance the media signal becomes weak. Repeater is a networking device
which regenerates the signal and forwards these signals with more power.
Hub
- HUB is used to connect multiple computers in a single LAN network of one
workgroup.
- Generally HUBs are available with 4,8,12,24,48 ports.
- When a hub receives a signal on its port, it repeats the signal and forwards that
signal from all ports except the port on which the signal arrived.
Switch

- Switch is also used to connect multiple computers together in a LAN

workgroup,just like a hub.

- Switches are available with 4,8,12,24,48,64 ports.

- Switch makes their switching decisions by using application specific integrated
circuits (ASICs).
- Due to switching decision capability, the switch sends signal to the recipient only
and that’s why switches are called an intelligent hub.

Router

- Router is a networking device which chooses the best optimal path from
available pats to send the signals.

- It interconnects different networks.

- The simplest function of a router is to receive packets from one connected
network and pass them to a second connected network.

Gateway

- A networking device capable of converting protocols so that two different network

architecture based systems can communicate with each other.It works as
protocol converter.

WiFi Card

- These are small and portable cards that allow your computer to connect to the
internet through a wireless network.

- If a Wi-Fi card is not installed inside a computer, we may purchase an external

USB antenna attachment and connect it to our device.
- Wi-Fi cards can be external or internal.

Network Topologies

- The geometrical arrangement of computer resources, network devices along with

communication channels is known as Network structure or Network topology.

- Following are the few Networking topologies: Bus Topology, Star Topology, Tree
Topology.
Bus Topology

- Bus topology is also known as Linear Topology.

- The single cable, where all data is transmitted between devices, is referred to as
the bus, backbone, or trunk.
- All other nodes are connected to this backbone.
- A device wanting to communicate with another device on the network sends a
broadcast message in both directions onto the wire that all other devices see, but
only the intended recipient actually accepts and processes the message.
- Advantages:
- Works efficiently for small networks
- Cost-effective
- Easy to install and add/remove new nodes.
- If one device fails, other devices are not impacted.
- Disadvantages:
- If the backbone is damaged the whole network is affected.
- Detection of fault and isolation of faults is difficult.
- Very slow and not ideal for large networks.
- Less secure as all the devices receive the signal sent from source.

Star Topology

- Every node in a star topology network is physically connected to a central node

such as a router, hub or switch.

- In a star topology, the central hub acts like a server and the connecting nodes act
like clients.
- When the central node receives a packet from a connecting node, it can pass the
packet on to other nodes in the network.
- Advantages:
- Failure of one node does not affect the rest of the nodes.
- Fault detection is easier
- Easy to install, uninstall and configure network devices
- Disadvantages:
- If the central hub goes down, the whole network goes down.
- Requires more cabling than a bus topology.
- High installation cost

Tree Topology

- Tree topology is called a combination of a Bus and Star network topology.

- Each node is related to the others in a hierarchy.
 - Data transmission takes place in the same way as in bus topology.
- Tree topology is best suited for applications which have a hierarchical flow of
data and control.
- Advantages:
- It is scalable.
- Easier fault identification and isolation.
- Disadvantages:
- Difficult to configure as compared to other topologies.
- Maintenance is difficult.
- If the backbone fails the entire network will fail.

Types of Network
Based on the geographical area covered and data transfer rate, computer networks are
broadly categorised as:
PAN ( Personal Area Network)
LAN (Local Area Network)
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
WAN (Wide Area Network)

PAN ( Personal Area Network)

- It is a network formed by connecting a few personal devices like computers,
laptops, mobile phones, smart phones, printers etc.
- All these devices lie within an approximate range of 10 metres.
- A personal area network may be wired or wireless.
- Examples:
- A network of devices such as computer, Phone, MP3/MP4 Player, Camera
etc.
- Transferring songs from one cell phone to another is a PAN of two
phones.
- Transferring files froma PC to an MP3 playeris a PAN between the two.

LAN (Local Area Network)

- It is a network that connects computers, mobile phones, tablet, mouse, printer,
etc., placed at a limited distance.
- The geographical area covered by a LAN can range within a room, an office, a
school or a college.
- The connectivity is done by means of wires, Ethernet cables, fiber optics, or
Wi-Fi.
- no need of regulatory control.
- Operate at relatively high speed.
- Advantages:
 - Resource Sharing
- Software Applications Sharing
- Easy and Cheap Communication
- Centralized Data
- Data Security
- Internet Sharing
- Disadvantages:
- High Setup Cost
- Privacy Violations
- Data Security Threat
- LAN Maintenance Job
- Covers Limited Area

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

- A MAN is usually formed by interconnecting a number of LANs and individual
computers.
- Spread within a city .
- Cover an area of a few kilometers to a few hundred kilometers radius.
- Set up using all types of all guided and unguided media.
- Owned and operated by a government body or a large corporation.
- Example: A network of schools, or banks, or Government offices etc. within a city.

WAN (Wide Area Network)

- Slightly more complex than a LAN.
- A WAN connects computers across longer physical distances.
- The Internet is the most basic example of a WAN, connecting all computers
together around the world.
- Because of a WAN’s vast reach, it is typically owned and maintained by any
single person or owner.

Network Protocols
- Network protocols are sets of rules and regulations that dictate how to format,
transmit and receive data on computer network devices.
- like servers, routers
- Computers can communicate regardless of the differences in their
infrastructures, designs or standards because of Network Protocols.
- To successfully send or receive information, network devices must accept and
follow protocol conventions.
- HTTP, FTP, PPP, SMTP, TCP/IP, POP3, HTTPS, TELNET, VoIP
TCP/IP
- TCP/IP are the two protocols that are used together and together they form the
backbone protocol of the internet.
- They can also be used for private networks i.e. intranets and extranets.
- When you are set up with direct access to the Internet, your computer is provided
with a copy of the TCP/IP program
- TCP/IP has two major components: TCP and IP.
- The Transmission Control Protocol(TCP) breaks the data into packets that the
network can handle efficiently.
- TCP is responsible for the transmission of these packets and reassembling at the
receiver's end.
- The Internet Protocol(IP)handles the address part of each packet so that it
reaches the right destination.
- It gives a distinct address (called IP address) to each data packet.
- An IP address is a unique identifier for a node or host connection on an IP
network.
HTTP
- HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol.
- It is the primary protocol used to access the World Wide Web.
- HTTP is the protocol that is used for transferring hypertext between two
computers.
- By hypertext we mean text, graphic, image, sound, video etc.
- HTTP defines how messages are formatted and transmitted, and what actions
Web servers and browsers should take in response to various commands
- HTTP is based on Client/Server principle.

FTP(File Transfer protocol)

- This is one of the oldest file transfer protocols.
- FTP is based on Client/Server principle.
- It is a TCP/IP based protocol.
- It is an efficient means to send and receive files from a remote host.
- FTP establishes two connections between the hosts. One connection is used for
data File Transfer protocol (FTP) Computer Science 292 transfer and the other
for control information.
- FTP can transfer both ASCII i.e. plain text and binary files.

PPP(Point to Point Protocol)

- This is used for communication between two computers through telephone lines.
- It is an open standard protocol.
- Dial-ups are required to configure PPP.
- It is a TCP/IP based protocol.
SMTP(Simple Mail transfer protocol)
- It is an email transfer protocol.
- It only works for outgoing messages.
- SMTP is a reliable and easy to set up protocol.
- It is a TCP/IP based protocol.
- if the destination computer is not online, mails cannot be received.
- Messages either get to a recipient, or there is an error message that explains
why that wasn't possible.
- It allows the server to break up different parts of a message into categories the
receiver’s server can understand.

POP3 (Post Office Protocol Version 3)

- It is an email transfer protocol.
- It is responsible for receiving and holding an email at the receiver’s end, until
they pick it up.
- POP3 is used while retrieving emails from SMTP server.
- It is highly used because of its simplicity and high success rate.
- The individuals receiving POP3 email will have to input their username and
password in order to successfully receive email.

HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure)

- It is a secure extension or version of HTTP.
- This protocol is mainly used for providing security to the data sent between a
website and the web browser.
- It is widely used on the internet and used for secure communications.
- By default, it is supported by various web browsers.
- Those websites which need login credentials should use the HTTPS protocol for
sending the data.

TELNET (Teletype Network)

- Telnet is the most popular protocol for accessing remote sites/servers.
- It is a type of protocol that enables one computer to connect to a local
computer.
- During telnet operation whatever that is being performed on the remote
computer will be displayed by the local computer.
- Local computer uses a telnet client program and the remote computer uses
a telnet server program.

VoIP (Voice-over-Internet protocol)

- It allows users to interact by audio through an internet connection.
- It converts the voice signal into a digital signal.
 - The obtained digital signal travels through the internet instead of telephone lines.
- lets users make calls using a broadband Internet connection.

Introduction to Web Services

WWW
- World Wide Web, which is also known as a Web, is a collection of websites or
web pages stored in web servers.
- These websites contain text pages, digital images, audios, videos, etc.
- Users can access the content of these sites from any part of the world over the
internet using their devices such as computers, laptops, cell phones, etc.
- The WWW, along with the internet, enables the retrieval and display of text and
media to your device.

HTML
- HyperText Markup Language (HTML) is the set of markup symbols or codes
inserted into a file intended for display on the Internet.
- HTML is the combination of Hypertext and Markup language.
- Hypertext defines the link between web pages.
- A markup language is used to define the text document within the tag which
defines the structure of web pages.

XML
- XML stands for Extensible Markup Language.
- It is a text-based markup language
- XML tags identify the data and are used to store and organize the data
- It is not responsible for specifying how to display the data like HTML.
- XML was developed by an organization called the World Wide Web Consortium
(W3C).

Domain Names
- A domain name is a string of text that maps to a numeric IP addresses.
- used to access a website from client software.
- A domain name is the text that a user types into a browser window to reach a
particular website.

URL
- A URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is a unique identifier used to locate a
resource on the Internet.
- It is also referred to as a web address.
- URLs consist of multiple parts -- including a protocol and domain name
Website
- A website is a collection of publicly accessible, interlinked Web pages.
- Websites can be created and maintained by an individual, group, business or
organization to serve a variety of purposes.

Web Browser
- A software application used to access information on the World Wide Web is
called a Web Browser.
- When a user requests some information, the web browser fetches the data from
a web server and then displays the webpage on the user’s screen.

Web Servers
- Web server is a computer where the web content is stored.
- Basically a web server is used to host the web sites but there exists other web
servers also such as gaming, storage, FTP, email etc.
- When a client sends a request for a web page, the web server searches for the
requested page. If the requested page is found then it will send it to the client
with an HTTP response.
Web Hosting
- Web hosting is a service providing online space for storage of web pages.
- These web pages are made available via the World Wide Web.
- These servers are run by web hosting companies.