EE3602 - POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL

UNIT I – PRELIMINARIES ON POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL

Unit I: Introduction

Power scenario in Indian grid – National and Regional load dispatching centres – Requirements of good
power system – Necessity of voltage and frequency regulation – real power vs frequency and reactive
power vs voltage control loops – System load variation, load curves – Load forecasting – Computational
methods in load forecasting – Load shedding and Islanding – deregulation – Basics of electrical energy
tariff.

1. POWER STATION .

A power plant or a power generating station is basically an industrial location that is utilized for the
generation and distribution of electric power in mass scale, usually in the order of several 1000 Watts. These
are generally located at the sub-urban regions or several kilometres away from the cities or the load centres,
because of its requisites like huge land and water demand, along with several operating constraints like the
waste disposal etc. For this reason, a power generating station has to not only take care of efficient
generation but also the fact that the power is transmitted efficiently over the entire distance and that‟s why,
the transformer switch yard to regulate transmission voltage also becomes an integral part of the power
plant. At the centre of it, however, nearly all power generating stations has an AC generator or an alternator,
which is basically a rotating machine that is equipped to convert energy from the mechanical domain
(rotating turbine) into electrical domain by creating relative motion between a magnetic field and
the conductors. The energy source harnessed to turn the generator shaft varies widely, and is chiefly
dependent on the type of fuel used.

. 2. TYPES OF POWER STATION .

A power plant can be of several types depending mainly on the type of fuel used. Since for the
purpose of bulk power generation, only thermal, nuclear and hydro power comes handy, therefore a power
generating station can be broadly classified in the 3 above mentioned types. Let us have a look in these types
of power stations in details.

A) THERMAL POWER STATION:

A thermal power station or a coal fired thermal power plant is by far, the most conventional method
of generating electric power with reasonably high efficiency. It uses coal as the primary fuel to boil the water
available to superheated steam for driving the steam turbine. The steam turbine is then mechanically coupled
to an alternator rotor, the rotation of which results in the generation of electric power. Generally in India,
bituminous coal or brown coal are used as fuel of boiler which has volatile content ranging from 8 to 33%
and ash content 5 to 16 %. To enhance the thermal efficiency of the plant, the coal is used in the boiler in its
pulverized form. In coal fired thermal power plant, steam is obtained in very high pressure inside the steam
boiler by burning the pulverized coal. This steam is then super heated in the super heater to extreme high
temperature. This super heated steam is then allowed to enter into the turbine, as the turbine blades are
rotated by the pressure of the steam. The turbine is mechanically coupled with alternator in a way that its
rotor will rotate with the rotation of turbine blades. After entering into the turbine, the steam pressure
suddenly falls leading to corresponding increase in the steam volume. After having imparted energy into the
turbine rotors, the steam is made to pass out of the turbine blades into the steam condenser of turbine. In the
condenser, cold water at ambient temperature is circulated with the help of pump which leads to the
condensation of the low pressure wet steam. Then this condensed water is further supplied to low
pressure water heater where the low pressure steam increases the temperature of this feed water, it is again
heated in high pressure. This outlines the basic working methodology of a thermal power plant.

 ADVANTAGES OF THERMAL POWER PLANTS:

Fuel used i.e coal is quite cheaper.

Initial cost is less as compared to other generating stations.
It requires less space as compared to hydro-electric power stations.

 DISADVANTAGES OF THERMAL POWER PLANTS:

 It pollutes atmosphere due to production of smoke & fumes.

 Running cost of the power plant is more than hydro electric plant.

B) NUCLEAR POWER STATION:

The nuclear power generating stations are similar to the thermal stations in more ways than one.
However, the exception here is that, radioactive elements like uranium and thorium are used as the primary
fuel in place of coal. Also in a nuclear station the furnace and the boiler are replaced by the nuclear
reactor and the heat exchanger tubes. For the process of nuclear power generation, the radioactive fuels are
made to undergo fission reaction within the nuclear reactors. The fission reaction propagates like a
controlled chain reaction and is accompanied by unprecedented amount of energy produced, which is
manifested in the form of heat. This heat is then transferred to the water present in the heat exchanger tubes.
As a result, super heated steam at very high temperature is produced. Once the process of steam formation is
accomplished, the remaining process is exactly similar to a thermal power plant, as this steam will further
drive the turbine blades to generate electricity.

C) HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER STATION:

In Hydro-electric plants the energy of the falling water is utilized to drive the turbine which in turn
runs the generator to produce electricity. Rain falling upon the earth‟s surface has potential energy relative to
the oceans towards which it flows. This energy is converted to shaft work where the water falls through an
appreciable vertical distance.
The hydraulic power is therefore a naturally available renewable energy given by the eqn:
P = gρ QH
Where,
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/sec 2
ρ = density of water = 1000 kg/m 3
H = height of fall of water.

This power is utilized for rotating the alternator shaft, to convert it to equivalent electrical
energy. An important point to be noted is that, the hydro-electric plants are of much lower capacity
compared to their thermal or nuclear counterpart. For this reason hydro plants are generally used in
scheduling with thermal stations, to serve the load during peak hours. They in a way assist the thermal or the
nuclear plant to deliver power efficiently during periods of peak hours.

 ADVANTAGES OF HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER STATION

It requires no fuel; water is used for generation of electrical energy.

It is neat and clean energy generation.
Construction is simple, less maintenance is required.
It helps in irrigation and flood control also.
 DISADVANTAGES HYDRO ELECTRIC POWER STATION:

It involves high capital cost due to dam construction.

Availability of water depends upon weather conditions.
It requires high transmission cost as the plant is located in hilly areas.

TYPES OF POWER GENERATION:

As mentioned above, depending on the type of fuel used, the power generating stations as well as the
types of power generation are classified. Therefore the 3 major classifications for power production in
reasonably large scale are,

 Thermal power generation.

 Nuclear power generation.
 Hydro-electric power generation.

Apart from these major types of power generations, we can resort to small scale generation techniques as
well, to serve the discrete demands. These are often referred to as the alternative methods or non
conventional energy of power generation and can be classified as ,

 Solar power generation. (making use of the available solar energy)

 Geo-thermal power generation. (Energy available in the Earth‟s crust)
 Tidal power generation.
 Wind power generation (energy available from the wind turbines)

These alternative sources of generation has been given due importance in the last few decades owing to
the depleting amount of the natural fuels available to us. In the centuries to come, a stage might be reached
when several countries across the globe would run out of their entire reserve for fossil fuels. The only way
forward would then lie in the mercy of these alternative sources of energy which might play an instrumental
role in shaping the energy supplies of the future. For this reason these might rightfully be referred as the
energy of the future.
. 3. STRUCTURE OF ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEM .

 1. Transmission and pool level

 2. Sub-transmission level
 3. Distribution level
 Fig1: Structure of Electric
Power System A) TRANSMISSION:

The power plants typically produce 50 cycle/second (Hertz), alternating-current (AC)

electricity with voltages between 11kV and 33kV. At the power plant site, the 3-phase voltage
is stepped up to a higher voltage for transmission on cables strung on cross-country towers. High
voltage (HV) and extra high voltage (EHV) transmission is the next stage from power plant to
transport A.C. power over long distances at voltages like; 220 kV & 400 kV. Where
transmission is over 1000 kM, high voltage direct current transmission is also favoured to
minimize the losses. Sub-transmission network at 132 kV, 110 kV, 66 kV or 33 kV constitutes the
next link towards the end user. Distribution at 11 kV / 6.6 kV / 3.3 kV constitutes the

last link to the consumer, who is connected directly or through transformers depending upon the
drawl level of service. The transmission and distribution network include sub-stations,
lines and distribution transformers. High voltage transmission is used so that smaller,
more economical wire sizes can be employed to carry the lower current and to reduce losses.
Sub-stations, containing step-down transformers, reduce the voltage for distribution to
industrial users. The voltage is further reduced for commercial facilities. Electricity must be
generated, as and when it is needed since electricity cannot be stored virtually in the system.

B) DISTRIBUTION:

There is no difference between a transmission line and a distribution line except for the
voltage level and power handling capability. Transmission lines are usually capable of
transmitting large quantities of electric energy over great distances. They operate at high
voltages. Distribution lines carry limited quantities of power over shorter distances. Voltage drops
in line are in relation to the resistance and reactance of line, length and the current drawn. For the
same quantity of power handled, lower the voltage, higher the current drawn and higher the
voltage drop. The current drawn is inversely proportional to the voltage level for the same
quantity of power handled. The power loss in line is proportional to resistance and square of
current. (i.e. PLOSS=I2R). Higher voltage transmission and distribution thus would help to
minimize line voltage drop in the ratio of voltages, and the line power loss in the ratio of
square of voltages. For instance, if
distribution of power is raised from 11 kV to 33 kV, the voltage drop would be lower by a factor
1/3 and the line loss would be lower by a factor (1/3)2 i.e., 1/9. Lower voltage transmission and
distribution also calls for bigger size conductor on account of current handling capacity needed.

. 4. NEED OF POWER SYSTEM CONTROL

 Power system normally operates under steady state condition.

 In the steady state it is essential to maintain a power balance in the system.
 Under steady state operation both the system frequency and bus voltages are
maintained constant.  In reality, the system is never under steady state, as the load on
the system changes continuously.  The power output of generators must be adjusted all
times so that power balance is maintained.

. 5. POWER SYSTEM CONTROL

 System Level Control.

A) PLANT LEVEL CONTROL:

1. Governor Control (or) Prime Mover Control:

It is concerned with speed regulation of the governor and the control of energy
supply system variables such as boiler pressure, temperature and flows.

Governor is a device used to control the speed of a prime mover. A governor protects
the prime mover from overspeed and keeps the prime mover speed at or near the desired
revolutions per minute. When a prime mover drives an alternator supplying electrical power at a
given frequency, a governor must be used to hold the prime mover at a speed that will yield this
frequency. An unloaded diesel engine will fly to pieces unless it is under governor control.

2. Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) or Excitation Control:

 The function of AVR excitation control is to regulate generator voltage and reactive
power output.  Regulate generator voltage and output power.
 Terminal voltage & reactive power is also met.
Fig2: Plant and System Level Control.
B) SYSTEM LEVEL CONTROL:

1) Load Frequency Control (LFC) :

 It involves the sensing of the bus bar frequency and compares with the tie-line power frequency.
 The frequency of tie-line is maintained as constant.
 Sense the bus bar frequency & power frequency
 Difference fed to the integrator & to speed changer.
 Tie line frequency maintained constant

2) Economic Dispatch Control (EDC):

 The purpose of economic dispatch (or) optimal dispatch is to minimize the fuel costs for the power
system.
 When load distribution between a number of generator units considered optimum schedule affected
when increase at one replaces a decreases at other.
 Optimum use of generators at each station at various load is known as economic dispatch control.

3) System Voltage Control (SVC):

 It involves the process of controlling the system voltage within tolerable limits.
 Control the voltage within the tolerable limits. Devices used are
 Static VAR compensator.
 Synchronous condenser.
 Tap changing transformer.

4) Security Control:

 The main objective of real time power system operation requires a process guided by control and
decisions based on constant monitoring of the system condition.

Level 1: Monitoring and Decision:

 The condition of the system is continuously observed in the control centres by protective relays for
faults or contingencies caused by equipment trouble and failure.

Level 2: Control:

 At each sample, the proper commands are generated for correcting the abnormality on protecting the
system from its consequences.
 If no abnormality is observed, then the system is in a normal condition.
 Proper commands are generated for correcting the abnormality in protecting the s ystem
 If no abnormality is observed, then the normal operation proceeds for next interval.
 Central controls are used to monitor the interconnected areas
 Inter connected areas can be tolerate larger load changes with smaller frequency deviations
  Central control centre monitors information about frequency, generating unit outputs and tie line
power flows to interconnected areas.
 This information is used by automation load frequency control in order to maintain area frequency at
its scheduled value.

. 6. SYSTEM LOAD VARIATION .

 The variation of load on power station with respect to time.

SYSTEM LOADS:

From system point of view, there are 5 broad categories of loads:

 Domestic Load.
 Commercial Load.
 Industrial Load.
 Agriculture Load.
 Others - street lights, traction.

1. DOMESTIC LOAD:

 Lights, fans, domestic appliances like heaters, refrigerators, air conditioners, mixers, ovens, small
motors etc.
 Demand factor = 0.7 to 1.0; Diversity factor = 1.2 to 1.3; Load factor = 0.1 to 0.15

2. COMMERCIAL LOAD:

 Lightings for shops, advertising hoardings, fans, AC etc.

 Demand factor = 0.9 to 1.0; Diversity factor = 1.1 to 1.2; Load factor = 0.25 to 0.3

3. INDUSTRIAL LOAD:

 Small scale industries: 0-20kW.

 Medium scale industries: 20-100kW.
 Large scale industries: above 100kW.
 Industrial loads need power over a longer period which remains fairly uniform throughout the day.

4. FOR HEAVY INDUSTRIES LOAD:

 Demand factor = 0.85 to 0.9; Load factor = 0.7 to 0.8.

5. AGRICULTURE LOAD:

 Supplying water for irrigation using pumps driven by motors.

 Demand factor = 0.9 to 1; Diversity factor = 1.0 to 1.5; Load factor = 0.15 to 0.25.

6.OTHER LOADS:

 Bulk supplies, street lights, traction, government loads which have their own peculiar characteristics.

7. BASE LOAD:

 It is the load that has been drawn constantly throughout the time.
 7. SYSTEM LOAD CHARACTERISITICS
 LOAD: It is a device that taps energy from the network.

1. RESISTIVE LOADS (25%):

 Heating and lighting equipments. e.g. Toaster, iron, electric blankets, Incandescent lamps

2. MOTORS LOADS (70%):

 Compressors (air conditioner, refrigerator), Pumps (well, pool), Fans, Household appliances (washer,
mixer, vacuum cleaner), Large commercial 3-phase motors (grocery store chiller), Power tools (hand
drill, lawn mower), Electric street cars.

3. ELECTRONIC DEVICES (5%):

 Power supplies for computers etc. e.g. Transformers (adapter, battery charger).

TWO TYPES OF CHARACTERISITICS:

 Static characteristics.
 Dynamic characteristics.

1. STATIC CHARACTERISTICS:

A) LIGHTING AND HEATING LOADS: Assume impedance load (Lumped load),

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
P + jQ = |V|2 Y* = |V|2 [Y = = ]
𝐑−𝐣𝐗 𝐙 𝐑+𝐣𝐗
Multiplying by complex conjugate of denominator and numerator, we get

|𝑽|𝟐 𝐑+𝐣𝐗 𝐑+𝐣𝐗

𝐑−𝐣𝐗
x 𝐑+𝐣𝐗
= |V|2 . 𝑹𝟐+𝑿𝟐
Equating real and imaginary parts, we get

𝐑 𝐗
P = |V|2 . 𝟐 ; Q = |V|2 . 𝟐
𝑹 +𝑿𝟐 𝑹 +𝑿𝟐
B) COMPOSITE LOADS:

For a small voltage perturbation ΔV, for the real power.

Differentiating P with respect to |V|,
𝚫𝐏 𝝏𝑷 𝐑
≈ = 2 |V| .
𝚫𝐕 𝝏 [𝑽] 𝑹𝟐 +𝑿𝟐

𝟐 2P
. |V|2 . 2 =
|𝑽| 𝑅 +𝑋 2 |V|
 𝜟𝑷
𝑷
= 𝟐 𝜟|𝑽||𝑽|
 So a small change in voltage results in twice the relative change in MW.

Differentiating P with respect to f,

𝚫𝐏 𝝏𝑷
≈ = V2R (− 1
)x 2 x 2πfL x 2πL
𝚫𝐟 𝝏𝒇 (𝑅 +(2𝜋𝑓𝐿)^2)
𝚫𝐏 𝟐
= − |𝑽𝟐| 𝟒𝑹𝑿𝝅𝑳
𝟐
𝚫𝐟 (𝑹 +𝑿 )^𝟐

𝟐𝝅𝑳 𝟏
Multiplying Numerator and Denominator by X, and substituting = , we get
𝑿 𝒇

− |𝑉|2 2𝑅 𝑋^2 − P 2 𝑋^2

= 𝒇 (𝑅2 +𝑋 2 )^2 = 𝒇 (𝑅2 +𝑋 2 )
𝜟𝑷 − 𝟐 𝑿^𝟐 𝜟 𝒇
∴ 𝑷
= 𝑹𝟐 +𝑿𝟐
. 𝒇
For cos ɸ = 0.8,

From the Impedance triangle,

𝑋 𝑋
sin ɸ = =
√𝑅2 +𝑋2

𝑋2
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ɸ = 0.36
𝑅 +𝑋
𝜟𝑷 𝜟𝒇
∴ 𝑷 = - 0.72 . 𝒇

∴2% frequency drop results in a 1.44% load increase.

. 8. ECONOMICS OF GENERATION .
 Load Curve.
 Load Duration Curve.

A) LOAD CURVE:
  Curve between load variations on power station with respect to time.

 Daily load curve.(load variation for 24hrs).

 Monthly load curve (load variation for month).
 Yearly or Annual load curve (load variation for year).

Fig3: Load Curve

 DAILY LOAD CURVE:

 The load variation during the whole day are recorded hourly or half hourly and plotted against the
time to get daily load curve.

 MONTHLY LOAD CURVE :

 Obtained by calculating the average value of power at a particular time of the day from daily load
curve.

 ANNUAL LOAD CURVE:

 Obtained from monthly load curve of a particular year by calculating average value of power at a
particular time of the day.

NEEDS OF LOAD CURVES:

 Load variation.
 Total number of power generated.
 Maximum demand.
 Average load.
 Load factor (curve Area and total rectangle area (Max Demand)).

B) LOAD DURATION CURVE:

 It is also load variation curve, but with loads arranged in descending order of magnitude.
 Can find load factor.
 When the load elements of a load curve are arranged in the order of descending magnitudes, the
curve thus obtained is called load duration curve.
 The curve shows the number of hours during which the given load has prevailed.
 Area under this curve is same as that of the daily load curve.
 It can be extended to include any period of time.
 Fig4: Load Duration Curve

Fig5: Peak and Base Load

 BASE LOAD:

 The unvarying load which occurs almost the whole day on the station is known as base load.

 PEAK LOAD :

 The various peak demands of load over and above the base load of the station is known as peak load.

1. CONNECTED LOAD:

 Sum of continuous ratings of all electrical equipments connected to supply system.

2. MAXIMUM DEMAND:

 Greatest of all short time interval averaged.

 It determines cost and size of installation.

3. DEMAND FACTOR:
Actual Maximum Demand
Total Connected Load

4. AVERAGE LOAD OR DEMAND:

KWhr supplied ina day

Daily Avg Load or Avg Demand 

KWhr supplied in a month

Monthly Avg Load or Avg Demand 

KWhr supplied in a year

Annual Avg Load or Avg Demand 
5. LOAD FACTOR: (<1)

Average Load over a given time period

Peak Load during the same time period

Average Demand
Maximum Demand

Units Generated over a given time period (T)

Maximum Demand during the same time period (T)
6. DIVERSITY FACTOR:
Sum of individual maximum demands
Maximum demand of power Station

7. COINCIDENCE FACTOR: 1/ Diversity Factor

8. CAPACITY FACTOR:

Capacitor Factor 
Rated Capacity of power plant

Units or KWhr Generated

Plant Capacity x No of Hours
Max.Demand on the Power Satation
Rated Capacity of the Power Station

9. RESERVE CAPACITY: Plant Capacity – M.D

. 9. LAOD FORECASTING .

LAOD FORECASTING:

 Calculate the future power demand from given historical power data.

 NEEDS OF LAOD FORECASTING:

 To meet out the future demand.

 Long-term forecasting is required for preparing the maintenance schedule.
 For day-to-day operation, short term load forecasting is needed.
 Very short term load forecasting are used for generation and distribution.
 STRAIGHT LINE CURVE:

PDi = Yi = a + bXi , Here (Xi = xi - xb), ( xb is Base year)

The matrix equation is,

𝒂
𝒏 ∑𝑵 𝒊=𝟏 𝐘𝐢
𝒏 ∑𝒊 𝟏 𝑿𝒊
[ ] [𝒃] = [ ]
∑𝒏𝒊=𝟏 𝑿𝒊 ∑𝒏𝒊=𝟏 𝑿𝒊𝟐 𝑵
∑ 𝒊=𝟏 𝐘𝐢 𝐗𝐢
𝒄
From this we can calculate ∆, ∆1, ∆2 from this can calculate a, b values.

 EXPONENTIAL CURVE:

PDi = 𝒆𝐚 + 𝐛𝐗𝐢 , but here Yi =ln(PDi ), Here (Xi = xi - xb), ( xb is Base year)

The matrix equation is

𝒂
𝒏 ∑𝑵𝒊=𝟏 𝐥𝐧𝐘𝐢
𝒏 ∑𝒊 𝟏 𝑿𝒊
[ ] [𝒃] = [ ]
∑𝒏𝒊=𝟏 𝑿𝒊 ∑𝒏𝒊=𝟏 𝑿𝒊𝟐 𝑵
∑𝒊=𝟏 𝐥𝐧𝐘𝐢 𝐗𝐢
𝒄
From this we can calculate ∆, ∆1, ∆2 from this can calculate a, b values.

 PARABOLA (OR) QUADRATIC CURVE:

PDi = Yi = a + b Xi + c Xi2 Here (Xi = xi - xb), ( xb is Base year)

The matrix equation is

 𝒏 ∑𝑵
𝒊=𝟏 𝐗𝐢 ∑𝑵
𝒊=𝟏 𝐗𝐢
𝟐 ∑𝑵
𝒊=𝟏 𝐘𝐢
𝒂
∑𝑵
𝒊=𝟏 𝐗𝐢 ∑𝑵
𝒊=𝟏 𝐗𝐢
𝟐 ∑𝑵 𝟑
𝒊=𝟏 𝐗𝐢 [𝒃] = ∑𝑵
𝒊=𝟏 𝐘𝐢 𝐗𝐢

𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝒄
[∑𝑵
𝒊=𝟏 𝐗𝐢 ∑𝑵
𝒊=𝟏 𝐗𝐢 ∑𝑵
𝒊=𝟏 𝐗𝐢 ]
𝑵
[∑𝒊=𝟏 𝐘𝐢 𝐗𝐢𝟐]

From this we can calculate ∆, ∆1, ∆2 from this can calculate a, b values.

. 10. RESERVE REQUIREMENTS .

 Installed Reserves - Generating capacity which is the power intended to be always available.
 Spinning Reserves - Generating capacity which is connected to the bus and is ready to take load.
 Cold Reserves - it is available for service but not in operation.
 Hot Reserves - it is available for operation not in service.

PROBLEMS
. SYSTEM LOAD CHARACTERISITCS PROBLEMS .

1. Consider an inductive load of type Z=R+jX. By how many percent will the real load drop if the
voltage is reduced by 5%? (6)
Solution:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
P + jQ = |V|2 Y* = |V|2 [Y = = ]
𝐑−𝐣𝐗 𝐙 𝐑+𝐣𝐗
Multiplying by complex conjugate of denominator and numerator, we get

|𝑽|𝟐 𝐑+𝐣𝐗 𝐑+𝐣𝐗

𝐑−𝐣𝐗
x 𝐑+𝐣𝐗
= |V|2 . 𝑹𝟐+𝑿𝟐
Equating real and imaginary parts, we get

𝐑 𝐗
P = |V|2 . 𝟐 ; Q = |V|2 . 𝟐
𝑹 +𝑿𝟐 𝑹 +𝑿𝟐
For a small voltage perturbation ΔV, for the real power.

Differentiating P with respect to |V|,

𝚫𝐏 𝝏𝑷 𝐑
= 2 |V| .
𝚫𝐕 𝝏 [𝑽] 𝑹𝟐 +𝑿𝟐

𝟐 2P
. |V|2 . 2 =
|𝑽| 𝑅 +𝑋 2 |V|
 𝜟𝑷
𝑷
= 𝟐 𝜟|𝑽||𝑽|
A small change in voltage results in twice the relative change in MW. In this case
5% drop in voltage causes a 10% drop in load.
..............................................................................................................................................................................

2. Consider an inductive load of type Z=R+jX. How would a 2 percent drop in frequency affect the
real load, if the load is assumed to have a power factor of 0.8.
Solution:

𝐑 𝑽𝟐 𝑹
P = |V|2 . = [Where X = 2πfL]
𝑹𝟐 +𝑿𝟐 𝑹𝟐 +(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑳)𝟐
Differentiating P with respect to f,
𝚫𝐏 𝝏𝑷
≈ = V2R (− 1
)x 2 x 2πfL x 2πL
𝚫𝐟 𝝏𝒇 (𝑅 +(2𝜋𝑓𝐿)^2)
𝚫𝐏 𝟐
= − |𝑽𝟐| 𝟒𝑹𝑿𝝅𝑳
𝟐
𝚫𝐟 (𝑹 +𝑿 )^𝟐

𝟐𝝅𝑳 𝟏
Multiplying Numerator and Denominator by X, and substituting = , we get
𝑿 𝒇

− |𝑉|2 2𝑅 𝑋^2 − P 2 𝑋^2

= 𝒇 (𝑅 2 +𝑋 2 )^2
= 𝒇 (𝑅2 +𝑋 2 )
𝜟𝑷 − 𝟐 𝑿^𝟐 𝜟 𝒇
∴ 𝑷
= 𝑹𝟐 +𝑿𝟐
. 𝒇
For cos ɸ = 0.8,

From the Impedance triangle,

𝑋 𝑋
sin ɸ = =
√𝑅2 +𝑋2

𝑋2
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ɸ = 0.36
𝑅 +𝑋
𝜟𝑷 𝜟𝒇
∴ 𝑷 = - 0.72 . 𝒇
∴2% frequency drop results in a 1.44% load increase.
.................................................................................................................................................................................

. LOAD AND LOAD DURATION CURVE PROBLEMS .

3. The maximum demand on a power system is 100 MW. If the annual load factor is 40%, evaluate the
total energy generated in a year.
Solution:
Maximum Demand = 100MW
Annual Load Factor = 40% = 0.4
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑚
o dF or =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋 365 𝑋 24

Energy generated in a year = Load factor x Maximum Demand x 8760

= 0.4 x 100 x 8760 = 350.4 x103 MWhr.
..............................................................................................................................................................................

4. A generating station has the following daily load cycle:

Time (hours): 0-6 6-10 10-12 12-16 16-20 20-24

Load (MW): 20 25 30 25 35 20

Construct the load curve and evaluate,

1. Max.demand,
2. Units generated/day,
3. Average load,
4. Load factor.

Solution:
Load Curve:

(i) Maximum Demand = 35 MW = 35x103 kW

(ii) Units generated per day= Area under the load curve in kWhr
= ((6x20) + (4x25) + (2x30) + (4x25) + (4x35) + (4x20)) x 103
=600 x 103 kWhr

𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦

(iii) Average Load=
3
= = 25000 kW
 (iv) Load factor =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
= = 0.7143 = 71.43%
.....................................................................................................................................................
5. A power station has to meet the following demand:
Group A: 200 kW between 8 A.M and 6 P.M
Group B: 100 kW between 6 A.M and 10 A.M
Group C: 50 kW between 6 A.M and 10 A.M
Group D: 100 kW between 10 A.M and 6 P.M and then between 6 P.M and 6 A.M.
Construct the daily load curve and determine:
(i) Diversity factor, (ii) Units generated per day, (iii) Load factor.

Solution:
The given load cycle can be tabulated as follows:
Time (hours)
0-6 6–8 8 - 10 10 - 18 18 - 24
Group
A - - 200 kW 200 kW -
B - 100 Kw 100 kW - -
C - 50 Kw 50 kW - -
D 100 kW - - 100 kW 100 kW
Total Load on
100 kW 150 Kw 350 kW 300 kW 100 kW
Power station

Load Curve:

(i) Maximum Demand = 350 kW

𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠
Diversity factor
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
(200+100+50+100)
= = 1.286

(ii) Units generated per day= Area under the load curve
= ((100x6) + (150x2) + (350x2) + (300x8) + (100x6) = 4600 kWhr
 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
(iii) Load factor =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦
Average Load=

= = 191.666 kW
191.666
Load factor = = 0.5476 = 54.76%
 UNIT II - REAL POWER AND FREQUENCY CONTROL

TECHNICAL TERMS

Control area: Most power systems normally control their generators in unison. The individual
control loops have the same regulation parameters. The individual generator turbines tend to have
the same response characteristics then it is possible to let the control loop in the whole system
which then would be referred to as a control area.

Power Pool: An association of two or more interconnected electric systems having an

agreement to coordinate operations and planning for improved reliability and efficiencies.

Prime Mover: The engine, turbine, water wheel, or similar machine that drives an electric
generator; or, for reporting purposes, a device that converts energy to electricity directly (e.g.,
photovoltaic solar and fuel cell(s)).

Pumped-Storage Hydroelectric Plant: A plant that usually generates electric energy during
peak-load periods by using water previously pumped into an elevated storage reservoir during off-
peak periods when excess generating capacity is available to do so. When additional
generating capacity is needed, the water can be released from the reservoir through a conduit to
turbine generators located in a power plant at a lower level.

Regulation: The governmental function of controlling or directing economic entities through the
process of rulemaking and adjudication

Reserve Margin (Operating): The amount of unused available capability of an electric power
system at peak load for a utility system as a percentage of total capability.

Restructuring: The process of replacing a monopoly system of electric utilities with

competing sellers, allowing individual retail customers to choose their electricity supplier but still
receive delivery over the power lines of the local utility. It includes the reconfiguration of the
vertically-integrated electric utility.

Retail Wheeling: The process of moving electric power from a point of generation across one or
more utility-owned transmission and distribution systems to a retail customer.

Revenue: The total amount of money received by a firm from sales of its products and/or
services, gains from the sales or exchange of assets, interest and dividends earned on
investments, and other increases in the owner's equity except those arising from capital
adjustments.

Scheduled Outage: The shutdown of a generating unit, transmission line, or other facility, for
inspection or maintenance, in accordance with an advance schedule.

Real power: The real power in a power system is being controlled by controlling the driving
torque of the individual turbines of the system.
LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL
The following basic requirements are to be fulfilled for successful operation of the system:

1. The generation must be adequate to meet all the load demand

2. The system frequency must be maintained within narrow and rigid limits.
3. The system voltage profile must be maintained within reasonable limits and
4. In case of interconnected operation, the tie line power flows must be maintained at the specified
values.

BASICS OF SPEED GOVERNING MECHANISM AND MODELING

This diagram represents the Speed Governing System of the steam Turbine.
By controlling the position of the control valve or gate, we can exert control over the flow of high pressure
Steam (or water) through the turbine.

Components of Speed Governing Systems:

Fly Ball Speed Governor:

 It is purely mechanical speed – sensitive device coupled directly to the hydraulic amplifier which
adjusts the control valve opening via the linkage mechanism.
 As the load increase, speed of the Turbine decrease and the speed changer gives raise command,
so the fly balls move outwards and the point B moves downwards and the reverse happens with
the increased speed.

Speed Changer:
 It makes it Possible to restore the frequency to the initials (nominal) value after the operation of
the speed governors which has steady state characteristics.
 A Small download movement of the linkage point A Corresponds to an increase ΔPc in the
reference power setting.
 )

Hydraulic Amplifier :
 It constists of pilot valve and main piston. With this arrangement, a low power pilot valve
movement is converted into high power level movement of the oil – servomotor piston. The input
to this amplifier is the position XD of the pilot Valve. The output is the position XE of the main
piston.
 Hydraulic amplification is necessary so that the steam valve or gate could be operated against
high pressure steam.

Linkage Mechanism:
 ABC is a rigid link pivoted at B and CDE is another
rigid link pivoted at D. The function of the link mechanism is to control the steam valve or gate.
 We get feedback from the movement of the steam valve via link CD.

Working:
As load increases, the speed of the turbine decreases, the speed changer gives raise command and fly
balls outwards and the point B moves downloads and D moves upwards and high pressure oil enters into the
upper pilot valve and presses the main piston downwards and opens the valve or gate (i.e) increases the flow
of steam to the turbine. Thereby, speed of flow of steam to the turbine increases and maintains constant
frequency.
SINGLE AREA STATIC ANALYSIS OF UNCONTROLLED CASE
Consider the speed changer has a fixed setting. Under this condition ΔPc = 0and the
load demand changes. This is known as “Free Governor Operation”. (1)
The block diagram is shown below drawn from substituting ΔPc = 0in Fig. a.

Fig. a.

Using block reduction technique, the block diagram is shown in Fig. b.

 Fig. b.

𝑘𝑝
1+𝑠 𝑇 𝑝 (𝑠 )
ΔF(s) = [-ΔPD (s)] [T.F = ]
𝑝 1+𝐺(𝑠 )𝐻(𝑠)
1 +1+𝑠 𝑇 𝑋𝑅 (1+𝑠 𝑇 𝑡1+𝑠 𝑇
𝑝 𝐺)( 𝑡)
𝑘𝑝
ΔF (s) = [-ΔPD (s)]
𝑝 𝑡
1 + 𝑠 𝑇𝑝 + 𝑅 (1+𝑠 𝑇 1+𝑠
𝐺)( 𝑇𝑡)

ΔP𝐷
For a step load change ΔPD (s) =

− 𝑘𝑝
ΔF (s) =
𝑝 𝑡
x ΔP𝐷
1 + 𝑠 𝑇𝑝 + 𝑅 (1+𝑠 𝑇
𝐺)( 1+𝑠 𝑇𝑡)

Applying final value theorem,

−𝒌
𝜟𝒇𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒔. 𝚫𝐅 (𝐬)=
𝒔→𝟎 𝒌 𝒑 𝒌 𝒌𝒕 x ΔPD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
𝟏+ 𝑮

Practically 𝑘𝐺 𝑘𝑡 = 1. [𝑘𝑡 is fixed and 𝑘𝐺 can beadjusted by changing the links.]

Equation (1) becomes,

𝑝
𝛥𝑓𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 = 𝑝
ΔPD
1+
𝑅

Since 𝑘𝑝 = and ΔPD = M

𝐵
Where,
B = Load damping constant (normally expressed in percent. A value of B = 2 means that 1.0%
change in frequency would cause a 2% change in load).
ΔPD = Increase in load
− 𝐵
ΔP 𝐷 −𝑀 −𝑀 1
𝛥𝑓 = = = where β = B + .
1 + 𝐵𝑅 𝐵+ 𝑅
 β = Area frequency Response coefficient (or) characteristics (AFRC) in p.u. MW/Hz.
The system performance in terms of how the change in power affects the change in frequency is
evaluated through AFRC.

In practice B ˂˂ , neglecting B.
𝑅
𝛥𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑡 = - R ΔPDHz
𝜟𝒇𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕 Hz / MW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
=-R
𝚫𝐏𝐃
Where R = Speed regulation

𝛥𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑡 = Change in steady state frequency

𝛥𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑡 = - R x ΔPDHz

When several generators with governor speed regulations R1, R2, . . . . . . . . Rnare connected to the
system, the steady state deviation in frequency is given by:
ΔPD
𝛥𝑓𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 =
(𝐵 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ..........+ 𝑅𝑛 )

The droop of the load frequency curve is shown in Fig. c is mainly determined by regulation.

Fig. c. Speed – Load Characteristics

Case (ii) : Static Analysis of Controlled Case

In this case, there is a step changeΔPcforce for speed changer setting and the load demand remains
fixed. i.e., ΔPD= 0.

The block diagram is shown in Fig. d.

Fig. d.
 (1)

Fig. e.
𝑘𝐺 𝑘 𝑡 𝑘 𝑝
ΔF (s) = ΔPC(s)
𝑡 𝑝
(1 + 𝑠 𝑇𝐺 )(1 + 𝑠 𝑇𝑡 )(1 + 𝑠 𝑇𝑝 )+
𝑅

Since𝑘𝐺 𝑘𝑡 = 1, Tt = TG= 0

For a step change ΔPC,

𝐶
ΔPC(s) =
ΔP
𝒌𝒑 𝚫𝐏𝑪
ΔF (s) = x
(𝟏 + 𝒔 𝑻𝑮 )(𝟏 + 𝒔 𝑻𝒕 )(𝟏 + 𝒔 𝑻𝒑 )+ 𝒔
𝑹

Applying final value theorem, 𝛥𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑡 = lim 𝑠. ΔF (s)

→

𝑝
𝛥𝑓𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 = 𝑝
ΔPC
1+
𝑅
1
𝛥𝑓𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 = ΔPC =
1 + 𝐵𝑅 𝐵+ 𝑅

𝜟𝒇𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕 𝟏
𝚫𝐏𝐜 = 𝑩+
Hz / MW
𝑹

TIE-LINE WITH FREQUENCY BIAS CONTROL OF TWO AREA SYSTEM

Inadvertent Exchange:
The persistent static frequency error is intolerable in the single control area case.
A persistent static error in tie-line power flow called “Inadvertent Exchange” – would mean that one
area would have to support the other on a steady state basis.
Principle of tie line bias control (Pool Operation):
All operating pool (interconnected) members must contribute their share to frequency control in
addition to taking care of their own net interchange.
 EE3602 - POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL / EEE / SANCET (8)

In two-area system, we could conceive of an arrangement that area 1 be responsible for frequency
reset and area 2 takes care of the tie-line power.
This arrangement gives rise to following Area Control Errors (ACE):

ACE1 𝜟𝒇𝟏
ACE2 𝜟𝑷𝒕𝒊𝒆 𝟐
Area Control Error:
ACE is the change in area frequency which when used in integral control loop forced the steady state
frequency error to zero.
ACE = ΔP tie + b. Δf p.u. MW (for multi area system)
ACE = Δf (for single area system)
Where, b – Area frequency bias
ΔP tie – Change in tie-line power, Δf - Change in frequency
The ACE‟s would be fed via slow integrators (or) to the respective speed changers.
But this arrangement is not so good.
Tie-line Bias Control:
 A control strategy which has been developed and adopted by most operating systems, is termed
“tie-line bias control”.
 It is based on the principle that all operating pool (interconnected) members must contribute their
share to frequency control in addition to taking care of their
own net interchange.

Block Diagram of Two Area Load Frequency Control with Tie-line Bias Control
 Determination of Tie Line with Frequency Bias Control of Two Area System:
In order to make the steady state tie line power to zero, another integral control loop (one for each
area) must be introduced to integrate the incremental tie line power signal and fed it back to speed
changer.
ACE1 = ΔP tie, 1 + b1. Δf1 ……. (1)
ACE2 = ΔP tie, 2 + b1. Δf2…… (2) (1)
Taking Laplace transform on equations (1) and (2), we get,
ACE1 (s) = ΔP tie, 1 (s) + b1. ΔF1 (s)
ACE2 (s) = ΔP tie, 2 (s) + b2. ΔF2 (s)
Speed changer commands are,
ΔPc1 = - k11ʃ (ΔP tie, 1 + b1. Δf1) dt ……. (3)
ΔPc2 = - k12ʃ (ΔP tie, 2 + b2. Δf2) dt ……. (4)
The constants k11 and k12are integrator gains and constants b1 and b2 are the frequency bias
parameters.
The minus sign must be included, since each area should increase its generation if either its
frequency error or tie line power increment is negative.

MODELLING OF MULTI AREA (TWO AREA) SYSTEM

Static Analysis of Uncontrolled Case:

Case (i): For uncontrolled case,
ΔPc1= ΔPc2 =0,i.e., No need to change the position of speed changer.
Suppose there is a sudden increase in load demand in the two areas by incremental steps ΔPD1&
ΔPD2. Frequency drops in the steady state and these drops will be equal.
𝛥𝑓1𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 = 𝛥𝑓2𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 = 𝛥𝑓𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡
At steady state condition, we will have incremental tie line power.
𝟏
ΔPG1, stat = - 𝜟𝒇𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕
𝑹𝟏
𝟏
ΔPG2, stat = - 𝜟𝒇𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕 . . . . . . . . . . (1)
𝑹𝟐
From the block diagram as shown in Fig.
𝑝
[ΔPG1, stat - ΔPD1 – ΔPtie,1, stat] = 𝛥𝑓𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡
1+𝑠 𝑇𝑝 1
1

[ΔPG1, stat - ΔPD1 – ΔPtie,1, stat] 2 𝐻𝑠 = 𝛥𝑓𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡

𝑓𝑜 𝐵
ΔPG1, stat - ΔPD1 – ΔPtie,1, stat =[𝐵 + 2 𝐻𝑠] 𝛥𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑡
𝟐𝑯 𝒅
= B 𝜟𝒇𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕 + 𝒐 𝒔 𝒅𝒕 𝜟𝒇𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕
𝒇
 Fig. Block Diagram of Two Area Load Frequency Control

Put 𝛥𝑓 = 0 for area 1, we get,

𝑑𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡
ΔPG1, stat - ΔPD1 – ΔPtie,1, stat = 𝐵1𝛥𝑓𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡
ΔPtie,1, stat = ΔPG1, stat - ΔPD1 – 𝑩𝟏 𝜟𝒇𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕 . . . . . . (2)
Similarly for area 2,
ΔPG2, stat - ΔPD2 = 𝐵2 𝛥𝑓𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 + ΔPtie,2, stat
= 𝐵2𝛥𝑓𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 - 𝑎12ΔPtie,1, stat
= 𝑩𝟐 𝜟𝒇𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕 - 𝒂𝟏𝟐 [ΔPG1, stat - ΔPD1 – 𝑩𝟏 𝜟𝒇𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕 ]. . . . . . . (3)
Substituting equation (1) in equation (3), we get
1 𝑎12
- 𝛥𝑓𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 - ΔPD2 = 𝐵2 𝛥𝑓𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡+ 𝛥𝑓𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 - 𝑎12 ΔPD1+ 𝑎12 𝐵1 𝛥𝑓𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡
1 𝑎12
𝛥𝑓𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 [- - 𝐵2 - - 𝑎12𝐵1 ] = - 𝑎12ΔPD1 + ΔPD2
2 1
− [𝚫𝐏𝐃𝟐+𝒂𝟏𝟐𝚫𝐏𝐃𝟏]
𝜟𝒇 = . . . . . . . .. (4)
𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕 𝟏 𝟏
(𝑩𝟐 +𝑹 )+𝒂𝟏𝟐 (𝑩𝟏 +𝑹 )
𝟐 𝟏
1
ΔPtie,1, stat =ΔPG1, stat - ΔPD1 –𝐵1𝛥𝑓𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 = - 𝛥𝑓𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 - ΔPD1 - 𝐵1𝛥𝑓𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡
𝟏
= - 𝜟𝒇𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕 [B1 + ] - ΔPD1 .. . . . . . . (5)
𝑹𝟏
Substituting (4) in equation (5), we get,
𝚫𝐏𝐃𝟐+𝒂𝟏𝟐 𝚫𝐏𝐃𝟏
𝜟𝒇𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕 = - [ 𝜷𝟐 +𝒂𝟏𝟐𝜷𝟏
]
 For two identical areas,
β1 = β2 = β
R1 = R 2 = R
B1 = B2 = B
𝑟1
𝑎12 = =1
𝑟2
𝚫𝐏𝐃𝟐−𝚫𝐏𝐃𝟏
∴𝜟𝒇𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕 -[ ]
𝟐𝜷
𝚫𝐏𝐃𝟐−𝚫𝐏𝐃𝟏
∴ tie,1, stat = - tie,2, stat =
𝟐
Suppose a step load change occurs at area (1),
ΔPD2 = 0
−𝚫𝐏𝐃𝟏
𝜟𝒇𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕 Hz
𝟐𝜷
−𝚫𝐏𝐃𝟏
ΔPtie,1, stat = p.u MW
𝟐
Suppose a step load change occurs at area (2),
ΔPD1 = 0
−𝚫𝐏𝐃𝟐
𝜟𝒇𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕 Hz
𝟐𝜷
−𝚫𝐏𝐃𝟐
ΔPtie,1, stat = p.u MW
𝟐
For interconnected power system, the steady state frequency error is reduced by 50% and the change
in tie line power is also reduced by 50%.

STATE VARIABLE MODEL OF SINGLE AREA LFC SYSTEM

The model of load frequency control of single area system is shown in Fig. a.

Fig. a. Model of LFC of Single Area

Assume KGKT῁ 1
Laplace transform equations are,
𝟏 𝟏
ΔPV (s) = [ΔPC (s) - ΔF (s)] . . . . . . . . (1)
(𝟏 + 𝒔 𝑻𝑮 ) 𝑹
𝟏
ΔPT (s) = ΔPV(s) . . . . . . . . (2)
(𝟏 + 𝒔 𝑻𝑻 )
𝒌𝒑
ΔF (s) = [ΔPT(s) – ΔPD(s)] . . . . . . . . (3)
(𝟏 + 𝒔 𝑻𝒑 )
We can write equations (1), (2) and (3) as,
𝟏
ΔPV (s) + s TGΔPV (s) = [ΔPC (s) - ΔF (s)] . . . . . . . . (4) (1)
𝑹
ΔPT (s) + s TT ΔPT (s) = ΔPV (s). . . . . . . . (5) (1)
ΔF (s) + s Tp ΔF (s) = kpΔPT(s) - kpΔPD(s) . . . . . . . . (6) (1)

We can rewrite equations (4), (5) and (6) as,

 𝑑(ΔPV) ΔF)
ΔPV + TG = ΔPC -
𝑑(ΔPT)
ΔPT + TT = ΔPV
𝑑(ΔF)
ΔF + Tp = kpΔPT - kpΔPD
Let us define control input ΔPC = uand disturbance factor ΔPD = P
𝑑(ΔPV) − ΔP𝑉 ΔF u
In the domain form, = - +
𝑅 𝐺
𝑑(ΔPT) ΔP𝑉 ΔP𝑇
=
𝑑𝑡 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇
𝑑(ΔF) k𝑝 ΔF 𝑘𝑝
= ΔP𝑇 - – P
𝑑𝑡 𝑇𝑝 𝑇𝑝 𝑇𝑝
Let ΔPV, ΔPT andΔF be the state variables.
𝒙𝟏 𝚫𝐏𝑽
∴ State vector X = [𝒙𝟐] = [𝚫𝐏𝑻 ]
𝒙𝟑 𝚫𝐅
Write the equations in state variable form as,
−𝟏 −𝟏
𝟎 𝒙𝟏 𝟏
𝑻 𝑮 𝑹𝑻 𝑮
.
1
𝑻𝑮 𝟎
𝟏 −𝟏
x2 = 𝟎 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟎 U+ 𝟎 P
𝑻𝑻 𝑻𝑻

−𝒌𝒑
[ x3 ] 𝒌𝒑 −𝟏 [ 𝑻𝒑 ]
𝟎 [𝒙𝟑] [𝟎]
[ 𝑻𝒑 𝑻𝒑 ]
In compact form, X = AX + BU + ɼ P
Block diagram of linear model is as shown in Fig. b.

Fig. b. Block Diagram of Linear State Model

If we are considering economic dispatch controller, the optimum feedback controller is as shown in Fig.c.

Fig. c. Optimum Feedback Controller

Consider two area system, we have two control and disturbance forces.
Let u be the control force & p be the disturbance force vector.
𝒖 𝜟𝑷 𝒑 𝜟𝑷
u = [ 𝟏 ]∆[ 𝑪𝟏 ]; p = [ 𝟏 ]∆ [ 𝑫𝟏 ]
𝒖𝟐 𝜟𝑷𝑪𝟐 𝒑𝟐 𝜟𝑷𝑫𝟐
Advantages of Two Area Control:
Interconnection between areas is advantageous because:
(i) Under normal operating conditions, besides meeting respective area loads, scheduled interchange
between areas can take place.
 (ii) Under abnormal conditions, such as loss of generation in area, power can flow from other areas, through
the interconnection.
(iii) Such pool (interconnected) operation where mutual assistance is possible which reduces the reserve
capacity needed.
(iv) For a large system with many areas, the kinetic energy of the rotatory inertia is high.
A sudden load change may not cause any considerable transient frequency deviation.

A two area system connected by a tie-line has the following parameters with base MVA for each area.
Area 1 2
Turbine output power 2000 MVA 1000 MVA
Nominal Frequency 50 Hz 50 Hz
Speed regulation 3% 5%
50 Hz / p.u
Power system gain (kp) 40
MW
Governor time constant 0.3 0.2
Turbine time constant 0.6 0.4

The synchronizing power coefficient is computed from the initial operating condition
T12 = 2.0 p.u. A load change of 400 MW occurs in area 1. Determine the steady state frequency and the
change in the tie-line flow, comment on the results. (13)
Solution:
B1 =
𝑘 𝑝1
= 50= 0.02 p.u MW / Hz
1 1
B2= = = 0.025 p.u MW / Hz
𝑝2

R1 =
100
x 𝑃𝑟 = 100x = 7.5 x 10-4 Hz / MW
𝑟
= 7.5 x 10-4 x 2000 = 1.5 Hz / p.u MW
R2=
100
x 𝑃𝑟 = 100x = 2.5 x 10-3 Hz / MW
𝑟
= 2.5 x 10-3x 1000 = 2.5 Hz / p.u MW
ΔPD1 = 400 MW = = 0.2 p.u
2000
ΔPD2= 0
1
β1= B1+ = 0.02 + 1.5= 0.6867
1
β2 = B2 + = 0.025 + 2.5= 0.425 (1)
𝑃𝑟 1 2000
a12 = = 1000= 2
𝑟2
−(ΔP𝐷2 + a12ΔP𝐷1) 0+2 𝑥 0.2)
Δf = = - [0.425+2 𝑥 0.6867] = - 0.2224 Hz
β2+ a12 β1
System frequency, f = f0+ Δf = 50 + (0.2224) = 49.777 Hz (2)
β1 ΔP𝐷2 − β2ΔP𝐷1 0−0.425 𝑋(0.2)
ΔP tie, 1 ,stat = =
β2+ a12 β1 0.425 +2 𝑋 0.6867
= - 0.0472 p.u
= - 0.0472 x 2000 = - 94.52 MW
−Δf 0.2224
Change in generation for area 1,ΔP G1= =
1 .
= 0.149 p.u = 296.5 MW
−Δf 0.2224
Change in generation for area 2,ΔPG2 = =
2 .
= 0.08896 p.u = 88.96 MW
 Change in load for area 1, ΔPD1= B1 Δf = 0.02 x – 0.2224
= - 4.448 x 10-3 p.u = - 8.896 MW
Change in load for area 2, ΔPD2 = B2Δf = 0.025 x – 0.2224
= - 5.56 x 10-3 p.u = - 5.56 MW
Change in total load = ΔPD1 + ΔPD2 = - 14.456 MW
i.e., 94.52 MW flows from area 2 to area 1 and 88.96 MW comes from the increased generation in area 2
and 5.56 MW comes from the reduction in area 2 load due to frequency drop.
 UNIT III – REACTIVE POWER AND VOLTGE CONTROL
GENERATORS AND CONSUMERS OF REACTIVE POWER IN A POWER SYSTEM

 Synchronous Generators:
 Synchronous machine can generate or absorb reactive power (Q).
 Reactive power (Q) supplied by synchronous generators depending upon the
Short Circuit Ratio (SCR).
SCR = 1 / Xs
Where, Xs– Synchronous reactance
 An overexcited synchronous machine operated either as generator or motorgenerates
KVARand acts as a shunt capacitor as viewed from the network.
 While the under excited synchronous machine, absorbs KVAR from the network and acts
consequently, as a shunt reactor.(2)

 Transformers:
 Transformers always absorb reactive power.
 If XTis the transformer reactance per phase and |I| is the current flowing through it then,
 The total reactive power absorbed is QT = 3|I|^ 2 XT VAR
Where, XT is in ohms, |I| is in amperes. (2)

 Cables:
 Cables generate more reactive powerthan transmission line because the cables have
high capacitance. (1)

 Overhead Lines:
 Transmission lines are considered as,
 Generating KVAR in their Shunt Capacitance
 Consuming KVAR in their Series Inductance
 Inductive KVAR QL vary with line current
 Capacitive KVAR QC vary with system potential
Consider transmission line be loadedsuch that loadcurrent ‘I’amperes and
loadvoltageV’volts as shown below.

(2)
  If we assume the transmission line to be lossless, the reactive power absorbedby the line
will be,
ΔQL = I 2 XL

ΔQL= I 2  L
 Due to the capacitance of the line, the reactive power generatedby the line,

Where „Zn‟ is called Surge Impedanceof the line.

 Surge Power:
 A line is said to be operatingat its surge impedance loadingwhen it is terminated by a
resistance equal to its surge impedance. The power transmittedunder this condition is called
“natural (or) surge power”. (2)

 Case (i) :

 Here the line is loaded below Zn i.e., light load condition. The net effectof the linewill
be absorbed reactive power. (1)

 Case (ii) :

 Here we find that the voltage rises and maintains constant voltage at the ends.
 The effect of shunt capacitorsis predominating and the line will
generate reactive power. (1)
 The voltage sags if the voltages at the two ends are maintained constant; the variation of
voltage along the line is shown below.

Variation of voltage as a function of distance of time

METHODS OF VOLTAGE CONTROL
(i) Shunt Capacitors
(ii) Series Capacitors

 Static Shunt Capacitors:

 Shunt capacitor banks are used to supply reactive power at both transmission and
distribution levels; along lines or substations and loads.
 Capacitors are either directly connected to a busbar (or) the tertiary winding of a main
transformer. They may be switched ON and OFF depending on the changes in
load demand.
 When they are in parallel with a load having a lagging power factor, the capacitors supply
reactive power.
 As the voltage reduces, so does the reactive power output, when it is required the most. This
is called the “destabilizing effect” of power capacitors.

 Rise in Voltage due to Shunt Capacitance:

 The equivalent circuit of a short transmission line with static shunt capacitor is
shown below.

Equivalent Circuit

 Voltage drop without the shunt capacitor is,

 Voltage drop with shunt capacitor is,

 Capacitor raises the voltage,

 Voltage profile of a radial feeder having a capacitor is shown below.

 Voltage profile

Applications of using Shunt Capacitor to Distribution and Transmission System:

 Shunt capacitors are used in distribution system to:

 Improve power factor
 Improve feeder voltage control
 Power factor correction
 Feeder voltage control
 Voltage regulation
 Reducing power loss
 Static Series Capacitors:
 It is connected in seriesto compensate the inductive reactance of line.This reduces the
transfer reactance between the buses to which the line is connected.
 It increases maximum power that can be transmitted and reduces the reactive power loss.
 Under fault conditions,the voltage across the capacitor rises, and unlike a shunt capacitor, a
series capacitor experiences many times its rated voltage due to fault currents.
 A zinc oxide varistor in parallel with the capacitormay be adequate to limit this voltage.
The schematic diagram of a series capacitor installation is shown in below fig.
 Schematic diagram of a series capacitor installation (1)

Phasor diagram when series capacitor is connected on a line (1)

 Drawbacks of Series Capacitor:

 High over-voltage is produced across the capacitor terminals under
short circuit conditions.Therefore, very high protective equipment is used.
(Ex: Spark gap)
 Problems Associated with Series Capacitor:
 Locking of synchronous motorduring starting.
 Hunting of synchronous motorat high load due to high R/X ratio.
 Ferro resonanceoccurs between transformers and series capacitors which produces
harmonic over voltages.
 Advantages:
Series capacitors are used:
 To improve voltage regulation of distribution and industrial feeders
 To reduce light flicker problems
 To improve system stability
 Applications:
The applications of Series capacitors are:
 Voltage rise due to reactive current.
 By passing the capacitor during faults and reinsertion after fault clearing.

 MODELLING OF TYPICAL EXCITATION SYSTEM (OR) MODELLING OF

AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR (AVR)
 Assume that for some reasons generator terminal voltage V has been decreased.
 This results in increased “error voltage” (e) which in turn, causes increased values of VR,
ie, Vf and if.
 The “direct axis” generator flux increases as a result of increase in if, thus, raising the
magnitude of the terminal voltage to the required level.(Thus Voltage is automatically
regulated as our desired).

 Potential Transformer and Rectifier:

 Using potential transformer (P.T), the terminal voltage of the generator is
stepped down to the value required for the control signal and then rectified to get
DC voltage proportional to the r.m.s value of terminal voltage.
 Comparator:
  The comparator compares the measured signal V against the reference
DC signal. V ref The difference between these two signals produce an error voltage „Ve‟
called “error signal”.

The error signal, ∆e = Δ V re - Δ. . . . . . . . . . . (1)

Taking Laplace transform of equation (1),

Δ (s) – Δ (s) = ∆e (s) ref V

Model of Comparator

 Amplifier:
 The amplifieramplifies the input error signal depending on the amplification factor.
 There are various types of amplifiers used in excitation system. They are
tuned generator, amplidyne and electronic amplifier.

Δ VR α Δ e
Δ VR = kA Δ e . . . . . . . . . (2)

Where, kA = Amplifier gain, ΔVR = Output voltage of an amplifier

Taking Laplace transform (L.T.) of equation (2).

Δ VR (s)= kA Δ e (s)

 Amplifier transfer function

GA = Δ VR (s) / Δ e (s)
GA = kA

Where, kA – Instantaneous amplifier gain, GA – Amplifier transfer function.

In reality, the amplifier will have a time delay that can be represented by a time constant T A
shown in figure.

The amplifier transfer function becomes;

Δ𝑉 (s) 𝑘𝐴
GA = =
Δ e (s) 1+𝑠𝑇𝐴

Model of Comparator

 Typical value of kA: 10 to 400 & TA: 0.02 to 0.1 sec(2)

  Exciter:
 The purpose of exciteris to supply field currentto the rotor field of the synchronous
generator.

Circuit of an Exciter Equivalent circuit for

field winding of an exciter

Let Re – exciter field resistor, Le – exciter field inductance

From the equivalent circuit,

 Input Voltage,

 Output Voltage of an exciter or Field voltage of generator,

Δ Vf α Δ ie

Δ Vf = k1 Δ ie

Taking Laplacetransform of above equations,

 Transfer function of the exciter,

Where, ke = k1 / Re ;Te = Le / Re
ke = Gain of the exciter, Te= Time constant of the exciter in sec.
Values of time constant, Teranges from 0.5 – 1.0 seconds
 Model of an Exciter(2.5)
 Synchronous Generator:
 Synchronous generator generates 3ɸ AC power at its terminals.
The terminal voltage of the generator is maintained constant during its varying load
conditions, with the help of excitation system.
 The terminal voltage (V) of the generator equals to the difference between
induced emf (E) and drop across the armature (Vdrop).
∆V = ∆E - Vdrop
The relationship between Vf and V depends on the generator loading.
At no load the drop can be neglected, Hence, V = E (neglect drop)

Circuit diagram of a Equivalent circuit for

Synchronous Generator field winding of a
Synchronous Generator
Taking Laplace transform,
Hence, ∆V(s) = ∆E(s)
Applying KVL to the field winding,

Taking Laplace transform,

Transfer function of the generator,

 Where, kf = and T‟do = Open circuit direct axis time constant

Generator Model

Typical values of kf: 0.7 to 1 and Tdo: 1.0 to 2.0 sec(2.5)

Combining all the individual blocks, we get the closed loop model of AVR as
shown below:

Closed Loop Model of AVR(1)

Applying block reduction technique, the reduced model as shown below:

Open loop transfer function,

Where, Open loop gain, k = kA ke kf

TAP CHANGING TRANSFORMER IN VOLTAGE CONTROL:

 Off-Load Tap Changing Transformer :
 Off-load tap changing transformer
 The off-load tap changing transformer requires the disconnection of the transformer
when the tap setting is to be changed.
 Off-load tap changers are used when it is to be operated in frequently due to
load growth (or) some seasonal change.

 On-Load Tap Changing Transformer (OLTC):

 The On-load tap changing transformer is used when changes in transformer ratio to be
needed frequently, and no need to switch off the transformer to change the tap of
transformer.
 It is used on power transformers, auto transformers and bulk distribution transformers
and at other points of load service.(2)
 The modern practice is to use on-load tap changing transformer which is shown in the
following figure.

On-load tap changing transformer

 In the position shown, the voltage is maximum and since the currents divide equally and
flow in opposition through the coil between 𝑄1 and 𝑄2, the resultant flux is zero and
henceminimum impedance.

 Voltage Reduction in OLTC:

 To reduce the voltage, the following operations are required in sequence.
1. Open Q1
2. Move selector switch S1to the next contact
3. Close Q1
4. Open Q2
5. Move selector switch S2to the next contact
6. Close Q2 (3)
 Thus, six operations are required for one change in tap position. The voltage change
between taps is often 1.25 percent of the nominal voltage.
  Applications of Tap-changing Transformers:

 Transformer with tap-changing facility constitute an important means of

controlling voltage throughout the system at all voltage levels.
 These are usually present throughout the network interconnecting transmission systems of
different levels.
 During lightly loaded condition, it is usually required to lower the network voltage, to
reduce line charging and avoid under excited operation of generators.
 Transformers with off-load tap –changing facilities can also help to maintain
satisfactory voltage profiles, while transformers with OLTC can be used to take care of
daily, hourly and minute-by-minute variation in system conditions.

EXCITATION SYSTEM AND EXPLAIN THE OPERATION OF BRUSHLESS AVR WITH

SUITABLE SCHEMATICS
 Types of Excitation system:
 D.C Excitation system.
 A.C Excitation system.
 Static excitation system.

 Brushless AVR:
 Out of the three types of excitation systems, the modern excitation system tend to be either
“brushless (or) static design”.
 Here the exciter consists of a 3ɸ alternator with “rotating armature type and
stationary field”. i.e., 3ɸ armature on the rotor&field on the stator
 The AC armature voltage is rectified by “diode bridge” mounted on the rotating shaft, and then
fed directly into the main generator field.
 This design eliminates the need for slip rings and brushes. Hence it is called as
“Brushless Automatic Voltage Regulator – Brushless AVR”. (2)

Brushless AVR
 Assume that for some reasons generator terminal voltage has been decreased.
  This results in increased“error voltage” (e) which in turn, causes increased values of VR, ie, Vf
and if.
 The “direct axis” generator flux increases as a result of increase in if, thus, raising the
magnitude of the terminal voltage to the required level. (Thus Voltage is automatically
regulated as our desired).

 Potential Transformer and Rectifier:

 Using potential transformer (P.T), the terminal voltage of the generator is stepped down
to the value required for the control signal and then rectified to get DC voltage proportional
to the r.m.s value of terminal voltage. (1)

 Comparator:
 The comparator compares the measured signal against the reference
DC signal V ref .
 The difference between these two signals produce an error voltage „Ve‟ called
“error signal”. (1)

 Amplifier:
 The amplifieramplifies the input error signal depending on the amplification factor.(1)

 Exciter:
 The purpose of exciter is to supply field current to the rotor field of the
synchronous generator. (1)

 Synchronous Generator:
 Synchronous generator generates 3ɸ AC power at its terminals.
 The terminal voltage of the generator is maintained constant during its varying load
conditions, with the help of excitation system.
 The terminal voltage (V) of the generator equals to the difference between induced emf
(E) and drop across the armature (Vdrop).
∆V = ∆E - Vdrop
The relationship between Vfand V depends on thegenerator loading.

METHODS OF VOLTAGE CONTROL AND EXPLAIN ANY TWO IN DETAIL:

 Voltage level control is accomplished by controlling the generation, absorption and reactive power
flow at all levels in the system.
 The following are the methods of voltage control.
1. By excitation control
2. By static shunt capacitors
3. By static series capacitors
4. By static shunt reactors
5. By synchronous condensers
 Other methods for voltage control:
1. Tap-changing transformer
2. Booster transformer
3. Regulating transformer
 )

4. Static VAR compensators (SVC: (TCR + TSC))

5. STATCOM (2)

 Tap-Changing Transformer:

 Off-Load Tap Changing Transformer :

Off-load tap changing transformer(1)

 The off-load tap changing transformer requires the disconnection of the transformer when
the tap setting is to be changed.
 Off-load tap changers are used when it is to be operated in frequently due to
load growth (or) some seasonal change.(1)

 On-Load Tap Changing Transformer (OLTC):

 The On-load tap changing transformer is used when changes in transformer ratio to be needed
frequently, and no need to switch off the transformer to change the tap of transformer.
 It is used on power transformers, auto transformers and bulk distribution transformers and
at other points of load service.(1)
 The modern practice is to use on-load tap changing transformer which is shown in the
following figure.

On-load tap changing transformer(1)

 In the position shown, the voltage is maximum and since the currents divide equally and flow in
opposition through the coil between 𝑄1 and 𝑄2, the resultant flux is zero and hence minimum
impedance.
 Voltage Reduction in OLTC:
 To reduce the voltage, the following operations are required in sequence.
1. Open Q1
2. Move selector switch S1to the next contact
 3. Close Q1
4. Open Q2
5. Move selector switch S2to the next contact
6. Close Q2(1)
 Thus, six operations are required for one change in tap position. The voltage change between
taps is often 1.25 percent of the nominal voltage.

 By Static Series Capacitors:

 Static Series Capacitors:

 It is connected in seriesto compensate the inductive reactance of line.This reduces the transfer
reactance between the buses to which the line is connected.
 It increases maximum power that can be transmitted and reduces the reactive power loss.
 Under fault conditions,the voltage across the capacitor rises, and unlike a shunt capacitor, a
series capacitor experiences many times its rated voltage due to fault currents.
 A zinc oxide varistor in parallel with the capacitormay be adequate to limit this voltage.
(1)
 The schematic diagram of a series capacitor installation is shown in below fig.

Schematic diagram of a series capacitor installation (2)

Phasor diagram when series capacitor is connected on a line (1)

 Drawbacks of Series Capacitor:
  High over-voltage is produced across the capacitor terminals under
short circuit conditions. Therefore, very high protective equipment is used.
(Ex: Spark gap)
 Problems Associated with Series Capacitor:
 Locking of synchronous motor during starting.
 Hunting of synchronous motor at high load due to high R/X ratio.
 Ferro resonance occurs between transformers and series capacitors which produces harmonic
over voltages.
 Advantages:
Series capacitors are used:
 To improve voltage regulation of distribution and industrial feeders
 To reduce light flicker problems
 To improve system stability

AVR WITH FEEDBACK STABILITY COMPENSATION

 Stability Compensation:

 Stability compensation improves the dynamic response characteristics without affecting the
static loop gain.
 Even for a small amplifier gain of kA, AVR step response is
not satisfactory.
 Thus, we must increase the relative stability by introducing a controller, which would add a zero
to the AVR open loop transfer function.(2)

 The block diagram of AVR as shown below:

Block Diagram of an AVR (2)

 High loop gain is needed for static accuracy, but this causes undesirable dynamic response (i.e)
possibly instability.
 This conflict situation can be avoided by adding series and/or feedback stability compensationto
the AVR loop.

Consider the addition of a series phase lead compensatoras

shown below:

Series compensator with unity feedback (2)

P
  Transfer function of series compensator is:

𝑮𝒔 = 1 + s 𝑻𝒄

where, T is the compensator time constant

 Open loop T.F = (1 + s 𝑻𝒄 ) (

Series compensator network will not affect the static loop gain (K)

i.e., K = KA Ke Kf

and thus maintains the static accuracy.

But the dynamic characteristics will change.

If we tune, 𝑻𝒄 = 𝑻𝒆

∴ Open loop T.F becomes

(1)

 Root Loci:

Number of zeros, z = 0
Number of poles, p = 2

(2)
 (1)

Root loci for zero compensated loop

 Low loop gain (a) still results in negative eigen values, the
dominant poles 𝑠2 yields sluggish (lethargic (or) inactive) response.

 Increasing loop gain (b) results in oscillatory response. The damping of the oscillatory term will
however, not decrease with increasing gain as was the case in uncompensated system. So, the
system is stable.

 Feedback Stability Compensation:

 Consider the addition of feedback stability compensation (stabilizer).

 Even for a small amplifier gain of kA, AVR step response is not satisfactory.
 Thus, we must increase the relative stability by introducing a controller, which would add a zero
to the AVR open loop transfer function.

The block diagram of AVR with feedback stability compensation is shown below:

Block Diagram of an AVR with feedback stability compensation (2)

 By proper adjustment of 𝐾𝑠 and 𝑇𝑠 , a satisfactory response can be obtained.

 )

UNIT IV – ECONOMIC OPERATION OF POWER SYSTEM

INCREMENTAL COST IN POWER DISPATCH:
The rate of change of fuel cost with active power generation is called “Incremental Cost”.
It is represented by „λ‟and expressed in Rs. / MWhr.
λ = dFi/dPGi
Where,
Fi– Fuel cost expressed in Rs. / hr.
PGi – Power generation in MW.

PURPOSE OF ECONOMIC DISPATCH:

The purpose of Economic Dispatch (ED) (or) Optimal Dispatch (OD) is to minimize the
fuel costs of the power system.

COORDINATION EQUATION TAKING THE EFFECT OF TRANSMISSION LOSSES:

The exact coordination equation is,
(𝑰𝑪)𝒊
λ=
𝟏− (𝑰𝑻𝑳)𝒊
Where,
IC– Incremental Cost
ITL – Incremental Transmission Loss

DIFFICULTIES TO FIND UNIT COMMITMENT SOLUTION:

 Time consuming process.
 If the numbers of units are more, the number of combinations is more in a complex bus system.
If „n‟ be the number of units, then the number of combinations will be (2n - 1).

PRIORITY LIST METHOD:

 It is the simplest unit commitment solution method which consists of creating a priority list
of units.
 The priority list can be obtained by noting Full-Load Average Production Cost (FLAPC)
of each unit.

ALGORITHM FOR ITERATIVE SOLUTION OF ECONOMIC DISPATCH WITH LOSSES

CO-ORDINATED:
 Solution by λ – iteration Method with Loss:
EE3602 - POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL / EEE / SANCET (2)

(2)
 EE3602 - POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL / EEE / SANCET (3)

Flowchart for Economic Dispatch including Losses

VARIOUS CONSTRAINTS IN UNIT COMMITMENT:

 Each individual power system may impose different rules on the scheduling of units, depends on
generation make-up and load curve characteristics, etc.
 The constraints to be considered for Unit Commitment are:
 Spinning reserve
  Thermal Constraints
 Minimum uptime
 Minimum downtime
 Crew constraint

 Other Constraints
 Hydro constraint
 Must run constraint
 Fuel constraint (2)

 Spinning Reserve: It is the total amount of generation available from all the units synchronized
on the system minus the present load and losses being supplied.
 Spinning reserve = ((Total amount of generation) – (Present load + Losses))
 Spinning reserve must be established so that the loss of one (or) more units does not cause
drop in system frequency. (i.e., If one unit is lost, the spinning reserve unit has to make up for
the loss in a specified time period) (2)
 Reserve Capacity:Capacity in excess of that required to carry peak load.
 Reserve Generating Capacity:
 It includes quick-start diesel (or) gas turbine unit, (or) hydro unitsand pumped-storage hydro-
units that can be brought on-line, synchronized and brought up to full capacity quickly.
 Reserve Margin:
 The percentage of installed capacity exceeding the expected peak demand during a specified
period. (3)

 Thermal Unit Constraints:

 Minimum up time:Once the unit is running, it should not be turned off immediately.
 Minimum down time:Once the unit is decommitted, there is a minimum time before it can be
recommitted.
 Crew Constraints:If a plant consists of two (or) more units, they cannot both be turned on at
the same time. Since there are not enough crew membersto attend both units while starting up.
(3)

 Other Constraints:
 Hydro Constraints:
 Unit commitment problem involves only thermal units.
 In hydro-thermal scheduling, to allocate maximum hydro units during rainy seasons and to
allocate thermal units during remaining periods.
 We are not considering hydro units for unit commitment because start-up and
shut-down time, operating costs are negligible. So we couldn‟t get the optimal solution.
 Must run Constraints:
 Some units like nuclear units are given a must-run status during certain times of the year to
maintain the voltage in the transmission system.
 Fuel Constraints:
 If thermal and hydro sources are available, a combined operation is economic and
advantageous i.e to minimize the fuel cost of thermal unit over a commitment period.
 Daily Load Curve

PRIORITY LIST METHOD USING FULL LOAD AVERAGE PRODUCTION COST. STATE
THE MERITS AND DEMERITS:

 Priority list method is the simplest unit commitment solution method which consists of creating
a priority list of units.

 The priority list can be obtained by noting the full load average production cost of each unit.
Full load average production cost={net heat rate at full load} x Fuel cost.

𝐶𝑖(𝑃𝐺𝑖) 𝐾.𝐻𝑖(𝑃𝐺𝑖)
FLAPC = =

 Assumptions:
 No load costs are zero.
 Unit input – output characteristics are linear between zero output and full load.
 There are no other constraints.
 Start-up costs are a fixed amount.
 Ignore minimum up time and minimum down time.

 Algorithm of Priority List Method:

 Determine the full load average production cost for each units.
𝐾.𝐻𝑖(𝑃𝐺𝑖)
FLAPC =
 Form priority order based on average production cost, (ascending order)
 Commit number of units corresponding to the priority order.
 Calculate PG1, PG2....PGN from economic dispatch problem for the feasible combinations
only.
 For the load curve in diagram each hour load is varying.
 Assume load is dropping or decreasing, determine whether dropping the next unit will supply
generation and spinning reserve.
 If not, continue as it is.
 If yes, go to next step.
 Determine the number of hours H, before the unit will be needed again.
 Check H, Minimum shutdown time.
 If yes, go to last step.
 )

 If yes, go to next step.

 Calculate the two costs.
 Sum of hourly production costs for the next H hours with the unit up.
 Recalculate the same for the unit down + Start up cost for the either cooling or banking.
 If the second case is less expensive, the unit should be on.
 Repeat this procedure, until the priority list.

 Merits:
 No need to go for N combinations.
 Complications reduced.

 Demerits:
 Start up cost are fixed amount.
 No-load costs are not considered.

FORWARD DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING SOLUTION METHOD OF UNIT COMMITMENT

PROBLEM:
 In dynamic programming method, the unit commitment table is to be arrived at for the complete
load cycle.
 Advantages:
 Reduction in the dimensionality of the problem i.e., number of combinations to be tried are
reduced in number.
 If a strict priority order is imposed, the number of combinations for a 4 unit case are:
 Priority 1 unit
 Priority 1 unit + Priority 2 unit
 Priority 1 unit + Priority 2 unit + Priority 3 unit
 Priority 1 unit + Priority 2 unit + Priority 3 unit + Priority 4 unit(2)
 Assumptions:
 Total number of units available, their individual cost characteristics and the load cycle on the
station are assumed priori (previously).
 A state consists of an array of units with specified units operating and the rest off-line.
 The start-up cost of a unit is independent of the time it has been off-line (i.e., fixed amount).
 There are no costs for shutting down a unit.
 There is a strict priority order and in each interval a specified minimum amount of capacity must
be operating. (2)
 Forward Dynamic Programming Method:
 Advantages:
 Algorithm to run forward in time from the initial hour to the final hour.
 Forward dynamic programming is suitable if the start-up cost of a unit is a function of the time
it has been off-line (i.e., fixed amount).
 Initial conditions are easily specified. (1)
 Algorithm:
 For a load cycle, at each load level, the algorithm is to run either of the units (or) both units
with a certain load sharing. Determine the most economical cost curve of a single equivalent
unit. Then add the third unit and repeat the steps. The process is repeated until all the units are
added.
  Determine the possible number of combinations and determine the economic dispatch and total
cost.
 Compute the minimum cost in hour K with combination I is,

(3)

Flow chart for Dynamic Programming Method (5)

Dynamic Programming Algorithm with N=2 and X=3

LAMBDA ITERATION METHOD FOR SOLVING THE ECONOMIC DISPATCH PROBLEM
WITHOUT LOSS:

 Case i: Operating limits of Power generations are not specified

 Step 1:Assign initial trail value of λ or calculate λ using

𝑏𝑖
𝑃𝐷 + ∑𝑖=1 2𝑎𝑖
λ=
1
∑𝑖=1 2𝑎𝑖

 Step2: Compute PGi corresponding to λ,

PGi =αi+βi λ+γi λ2

𝜆−𝑏𝑖
𝐏𝐆𝐢 = i=1,2,......N
 Step 3:Compute
𝑁

∑ 𝑃𝐺𝑖
𝑖=1
 Step4: Check power balance equation,
𝑁

∑ 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = PD
𝑖=1
 The power balance equation is satisfied.
 Then the optimum solution is obtained, otherwise go to next step.

 Step 5: If∑𝑖=1 𝑃𝐺𝑖 < PD

Assign λ= λ+ ∆λ, increment λ then go to step (2).

If ∑𝑖=1 𝑃𝐺𝑖 > PD

Assign λ= λ -∆λ, increment λ then go to step (2).
𝑃
Where, ∆ λ=
∑𝑖= 1
2𝑎𝑖
∆P=change in demand (3)

 Case ii: Operating limits and production cost of generations are given

 Step 1: Computeλ using the equation,

𝑏𝑖
𝑃𝐷 + ∑𝑖=1 2𝑎𝑖
λ=
1
∑𝑖=1 2𝑎𝑖

 Step 2: Compute PGi corresponding to λ,

PGi =αi+βi λ+γi λ2

 𝜆−𝑏𝑖
𝐏𝐆𝐢 = i=1,2,......N
 Step 3: if Computed PG i satisfy the limits,
PG i,min≤ PG i ≤ PG i,max,i=0,1,2.....N
 Then the Optimum solution is obtained; otherwise go to the next step,

Flowchart for Economic Dispatch neglecting Losses

 Step4: if PG i violates the operating limits, then fix the generation at the respective limit.

PGi< PG i,min, fix PG i= PGi, min

PGi< PG i, max, fix PG i = PGi, max

 Step 5:Redistribute the remaining system load PD ,

PD= PDold - Sum of the fixed generations to the remaining units

 Step 6: Compute λnew and PD newand compute the remaining generations using
 𝜆𝑛𝑒𝑤 − 𝑏𝑖
𝐏𝐆𝐢 =
2𝑎𝑖
 Step7:Check whether the optimality condition is satisfied, i.e.,

𝑑𝐹𝑖(𝑃𝐺𝑖)
= 𝜆𝑛𝑒𝑤 for PG i, min ≤ PG i ≤ PG i, max

𝑑𝐹𝑖(𝑃𝐺𝑖)
≤ 𝜆𝑛𝑒𝑤 for PG i = PGi, max

𝑑𝐹𝑖(𝑃𝐺𝑖)
≥ 𝜆𝑛𝑒𝑤 for PG i = PGi, min

 If condition satisfied then stop, otherwise release the generation schedule fixed at
PG i,minor PG i,maxof those units are not satisfying optimality condition.

PDnew1 = PDnew + {sum of the fixed generators not satisfying optimality condition}
and go to step

DETERMINE PRIORITY LIST USING FULL LOAD AVERAGE PRODUCTION COST FOR
THE DATA GIVEN.
Loading Limits Fuel cost parameter
Unit No. Fuel cost
Min Max ai bi ci
1 100 400 0.006 7 600 1.1
2 50 300 0.01 8 400 1.2
3 150 500 0.008 6 500 1.0

Solution:
H1= 0.006 𝑃21 + 7 𝑃 1 + 600
H2 = 0.01 𝑃22 + 8 𝑃 2 + 400
H3 = 0.008 𝑃23 + 6 𝑃 3 + 500(3)

𝑯𝟏 (𝑷𝑮𝟏 )
FLAPC1 = K1 x 𝑷 = 𝑷𝑮𝟏,𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑮𝟏
1.1 [0.006 𝑥 400 + 7 𝑥 400 + 600]
= = 11.99 Rs. / MWhr(2)
0

𝑯𝟐 (𝑷𝑮𝟐 )
FLAPC2 = K2 x 𝑷 = 𝑷𝑮𝟐,𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑮𝟐
1.2 [0.01 𝑥 30 + 8 𝑥 300 + 400]
= 0 = 14.8 Rs. / MWhr(2)
3

𝑯𝟑 (𝑷𝑮𝟑 )
FLAPC3 = K3 x 𝑷 = 𝑷𝑮𝟑,𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑮𝟑
1.0 [0.008 𝑥 500 + 6 𝑥 500 + 500]
= = 11 Rs. / MWhr
0
 Priority Order: (Arrange FLAPC in ascending order)

Unit FLAPC Min (MW) Max (MW)

 3 11 150 500
1 11.99 100 400
2 14.8 50 300

 Unit Commitment:
Minimum MW Maximum MW
Combination
from Combination from Combination
3+1+2 300 1200
3+1 250 900
3 150 500

DETERMINE THE ECONOMIC GENERATION SCHEDULES OF THREE GENERATING UNITS

IN A POWER SYSTEM TO MEET THE SYSTEM LOAD OF 925 MW. THE OPERATING LIMIT
AND COST FUNCTIONS IS GIVEN BELOW:

Operating limits 250 MW ≤ PG1 ≤ 450 MW

200 MW ≤ PG2 ≤ 350 MW
125 MW ≤ PG3 ≤ 225 MW
Cost function is F1 (PG1) = 0.0045 P2G1 + 5.2 PG1 + 580
F2 (PG2) = 0.0056 P2G2 + 4.5 PG2 + 640
F3 (PG3) = 0.0079 P2G3 + 5.8 PG3 + 820

(2)

(3)
(4)
 UNIT V - COMPUTER CONTROL OF POWER SYSTEMS
STATE ESTIMATION:

State estimation is the process of assigning a value to an unknown system state variable
based on measurements from that system according to some criteria i.e., minimizing the sum
of the squares of the differences between the estimated and true values of a function.

OBJECTIVES OF AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL (AGC)

 To hold frequency at (or) very close to a specified nominal value

 To maintain the correct value of interchange power between control values
 To maintain each unit‟s generation at the most economic value

FUNCTIONS OF SCADA:

 Monitoring
 Supervisory control
 Data acquisition

STATES OF POWER SYSTEM:

 Normal State (Secure State)

 Alert State
 Emergency State
 Extremis State (Serious Emergency State)
 Restorative State

SOME EXAMPLES FOR CONTINGENCIES:

 Single credible contingency: Disconnection of generating unit, disconnection of

transmission line, disconnection of transformer.
 Critical single credible contingency has severe impact on power system
 Non-credible contingency: Three phase electrical faults, multiple generating unit
failures, double circuit transmission line failure, abnormal conditions caused by severe
weather conditions / lightning / storm / equipment malfunction.

THREE CRITERIA IN STATISTICAL STATE ESTIMATION:

 Weighted least square criterion

 Maximum likelihood criterion
 Minimum variance criterion
FOUR TYPES OF SCADA SYSTEMS AND ITS APPLICATION AREA:

Type 1: Small distribution systems, Small hydro stations, HVDC links.

Type 2:Medium sized power systems, power station HVDC link distribution systems
Type3:Regionalcontrol centre,distribution systems in large urban areas several
hydro power station with cascade control
Type4: National and Regional control centres distributed systems in large urban areas,
several hydro power station with cascade control

ENERGY CONTROL CENTRE (ECC):

Energy Control Centre (ECC) (or) System Control Centre (SCC):

 When power system increases in size – the number of substations, transformers, switchgear
and so on – their operation and interaction become more complex.
 So it becomes essential to monitor this information simultaneously for the total system
which is called as “Energy Control Centre”.
 System Control Centre: Energy Management (EM) is performed at control centre called
“System Control Centre”.
 The analog measurements of generator outputs must be used directly by the Automatic
Generation Control (AGC) program, whereas, all other data will be processed by the
state estimator before being used by the programs. (2)

Energy Control Centre

REAL TIME OPERATIONS ARE IN TWO ASPECTS:

(a) Three Level Control:

1. Turbine-governor to adjust generation to balance changing load - instantaneous control

 EE3602 - POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL / EEE / SANCET (3)

2. AGC (called Load Frequency Control (LFC) maintains frequency and net power interchange –
action repeated at 2 – 6 sec. interval.
3. Economic Dispatch Control (EDC) distributes the load among the units such that
fuel cost is minimum – executed at 5 – 10 minutes intervals.

(b) Primary Voltage Control:

1. Excitation controls regulate generator bus voltage

2. Transmission voltage control devices include SVC (Static VAR Compensators),
shunt capacitors, transformer taps, etc.,

Automatic Generation Control (AGC):

The objectives of AGC are:

 To hold frequency at (or) very close to a specified nominal value
 To maintain the correct value of interchange power between control values
 To maintain each unit‟s generation at the most economic value

Energy Control Centre (ECC) Functions:

(1) System Monitoring:

 An energy control centrefulfills the function of coordinating their response of the system
elements in both normal operationand emergency conditions.
 A more serious abnormality detected by the digital computermay cause suspension of normal
control functions.
 In emergencies such as loss of a major generator (or) excess power demands by a neighboring
utility on the tie lines, many alarms could be detectedand the system could enter an emergency
state.

(2) Data Acquisition and Control:

 It provides operator and computer control systems with status and measurement information
needed to supervise overall operations.
 Data acquisition and remote control is performed by computer systems called
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) System.
 A SCADA system consists of a master station and Remote Terminal Unit (RTU).

STATE ESTIMATION BY USING WEIGHTED LEAST SQUARE ESTIMATE (WLSE)

METHOD.

(1)
 (3)

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (EMS)

 Energy Management System (EMS)is the process of monitoring, coordinating and controlling
the generation, transmission and distribution of electrical energy.
 It is performed at centres called „System Control Centres (SCC)‟, by a computer system
called Energy Management System (EMS).

Major Functions of EMS:

1. System Load forecasting – Hourly energy, 1 to 7 days

2. Unit commitment – 1 to 7 days
3. Fuel scheduling to plants
4. Hydro-thermal scheduling - upto 7 days
5. MW interchange evaluation – with neighboring system
6. Transmission loss minimization
(3)
EMS consists of energy management, AGC, security control, SCADA,
load management.
 Energy Management System

LOAD MANAGEMENT:

 As the generator capacity has increased in prize and fuel shortage occurs on them,
So many utilities are operating only during peak loads. This is called as
“Load Management”.

Functions of Load Management:

1. Data acquisition
2. Monitoring, sectionalizing switches and create circuit configuration
3. Feeder switch control and preparing distribution map
4. Preparation of switching orders
5. Customer meter reading
6. Load management – control customer load
 )

Flow Chart

TYPICAL ENERGY CONTROL CENTRE FUNCTIONS.

Task of Energy Control Centre: Energy Control Centre can perform the following functions:
1. Load Forecasting: Load should be estimated in advance.

2. Power System Planning:

 for generation
 for transmission and distribution
 )

(should aim at excess capacity than load)

3. Unit Commitment: The constraints are – spinning reserve, minimum up-time,

minimum down-time, hydro constraints and fuel constraints.

4. Maintenance Scheduling: The planned maintenance outages of the generation equipment over
a given future period.

5. Security Monitoring: The on-line process using real-time data for analyzing the effects of
outages contingencies on the steady state performance of the system.

6. State Estimation: It is the process of estimating the state. When based on system monitoring
data, it produces best estimates of the power system state

7. Economic Dispatch: It is to distribute the load among the generating units so as to minimize
the total cost of the system.

8. LFC (Load Frequency Control): In interconnected systems with 2 or more independently

controlled areas, in addition to control of frequency, generation within each area has to be
controlled to maintain scheduled power interchange.

Energy Control Centre (ECC) Levels:

STATE TRANSITION DIAGRAM OF A POWER SYSTEM:

State Transition Diagram:

A power system may be operated in several different states. These are classified into five
operating states. They are:
1. Normal State (Secure State)
2. Alert State
3. Emergency State
4. Extremis State (Serious Emergency State)
5. Restorative State
 System States and Transition

Normal State (Secure State):

A system is said to be in normal stateif both load and operating constraints are satisfied.It
is one in which the total demand on the system is met by satisfying all the operating constraints. (i.e.,
equality (E) and Inequality Constraints).
Alert State:
A normal state of the system is said to be in alert state if one (or) more of the
postulatedcontingency states, consists of the constraint limits violated.

Emergency State:
The system is said to be in emergency state if one (or) more operating constraints are
violated, but the load constraint is satisfied.

Extremis State:
When the system is in emergency state, if no proper corrective action is taken in time, then
it goes to either serious emergency state (or) extremis state.

Restorative State:
From this state, the system may be brought back either to alert state (or) secure state.

Control Strategies:
 To achieve high power system security, the control room should have data collection system and
computerized power system analysis program software, called
“Energy Management System” (EMS).

Alert State:
 When severe disturbance occurs, the system ispush to emergency.
 Preventive control is needed to restore adequatespinning reserve, generation shifting, tie-
line rescheduling and voltage reduction.
Extremis State:
 In this state, control is to be done for the overall power system, by load shedding.
 Islanding power system and the controls mentioned in emergency period.

Restorative State:
 After rectified the problems in power system, restart the generator and run at
synchronous speed and parallel operation of two (or) more areas in the interconnected
system.

Power System Control Hierarchy

SCADA SYSTEM FOR POWER SYSTEM:

SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition):

It consists of a master station and RTU‟s linked by communication channel.
The hardware components can be classified into:
1. Process computer and associated hardware at theEnergy Control Centre.
2. RTUs and the associated hardware at the remote stations.
3. Communication equipment that links the RTUs and process computers at the
master station.

System Hardware Configuration:

 The supervisory control and data acquisition system allows a few operators to monitor the
generation and HV transmission system.

Digital Computer Control and Monitoring for Power System

 )

 Usually one computer, the on-line units, is monitoring and controlling the power system.
The back-up computer may be executing off-line batch programs such as
load forecasting (or) hydro-thermal allocation.
 The on-line computer periodically updates a disk memory shared between the two
computers.
 The information used by the on-line computer has a maximum age of update cycle
(typically 30 sec.)
 The microprocessors can transfer data in and out of computer memory without
interrupting the central processing unit. As a result of these precautions, for all critical
hardware functions, there is often a guaranteed 99.8% (or) more availability.
 The most critical functions have the fastest scan cycle. Typically, the following categories
are scanned every 2 seconds.
 All status points such as switchgear position, substation loads and voltages,
transformer tap positions and capacitor banks.
 Tie-line flows and interchanges schedules.
 Generator loads, voltage, operating limits and boiler capacity.
 Telemetry verification to detect failures and errors in the remote bilateral communication
links between the digital computer and remote equipment.

Components of SCADA:
 Sensors:Analog and digital sensors are used to interface the systems.
 Relays:Relays are used to sense the abnormal conditions and protect the system.
 Remote Terminal Units (RTU):RTU‟s are microprocessors controlled electronic devices
which are used to collect various datas and transmit to SCADA system.
 Master Unit: Master Unit acts as a central processor computer.
 Communication Links: It is used to linkRTU‟s and SCADA system.
Satellite communication, microwave communication, fibre optic communication may be
used for communication purpose.

Types of SCADA Systems and Area of Applications:

(2)
Master Station:
Remote Terminal Units (RTU):

Functions of SCADA:
 Data Acquisition
 Information Display
 Remote terminal unit processing
 Economic modeling
 Remote start / stop
 Load shedding

HIERARCHICAL LEVELS USED IN EMS:

 System control centre.

 Area control centre.
 Remote terminal unit (RTU)

VARIOUS CONTROLS TO ENSURE SECURED OPERATION OF A POWER SYSTEM:

 Corrective action required to improve the load bus voltages

 Corrective action required to eliminate the overloads
 Load scheduling.