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Class
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Toppers Handwritten sheet & Special Exam

tips
 Preface
Dear Students,

Welcome to "Desire Sample Paper Chemistry CBSE Class 12 for Board Exams
2024". This book has been meticulously designed to cater to the needs of
Class 12 students preparing for their CBSE Chemistry board exams in 2024.

In this ever-evolving academic landscape, it is crucial to stay ahead with the

right preparation materials. Understanding this, our team of experienced
educators and subject matter experts has compiled this comprehensive
collection of sample papers. These papers are crafted in strict adherence to the
latest CBSE guidelines and syllabus, ensuring you get the most relevant and
up-to-date preparation material.

Our objective is not just to help you succeed in your exams but to ignite a
passion for chemistry. Each sample paper is structured to enhance your
understanding of key concepts, improve problem-solving skills, and boost your
confidence. We've included a variety of question types, from straightforward
to challenging, to give you a well-rounded preparation experience.

Remember, success in exams is not just about hard work; it's also about smart
work. We hope that this book serves as a valuable tool in your journey
towards academic excellence and helps you achieve your desired results.

Wishing you all the best in your preparations and exams.

Sincerely,

Editorial Board
Desire Examlife E-Media publishers
 Copyright
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 Table of
CONTENTS
S.No Content Page Number

1 Syllabus 1

2 Mind Map 8

3 Revision Notes 18

4 Insights and Question 86

5 CBSE Sample Paper 102

6 Marking Scheme 110

7 Solved Sample papers 117

8 Unsolved Sample Paper 181

9 Topper Sheet 224

10 Tips and Tricks 239

 3. Detection of Nitrogen in the given organic compound.
SYLLABUS
4. Detection of Halogen in the given organic compound.
Note: The above practicals may be carried out in an experiential manner rather than recording observations.
Prescribed Books:
1. Chemistry Part – I, Class-XI, Published by NCERT.
2. Chemistry Part – II, Class-XI, Published by NCERT.

CLASS XII (2023-24) (THEORY)

Time : 3 Hours 70 Marks

S.No. Title No. of Marks

Periods
1 Solutions 10 7
2 Electrochemistry 12 9
3 Chemical Kinetics 10 7
4 d -and f -Block Elements 12 7
5 Coordination Compounds 12 7
6 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes 10 6
7 Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers 10 6
8 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids 10 8
9 Amines 10 6
10 Biomolecules 12 7
Total 70

Unit II: Solutions 10 Periods

Types of solutions, expression of concentration of solutions of solids in liquids, solubility of gases in

liquids, solid solutions, Raoult's law, colligative properties - relative lowering of vapour pressure,
elevation of boiling point, depression of freezing point, osmotic pressure, determination of molecular
masses using colligative properties, abnormal molecular mass, Van't Hoff factor.

Unit III: Electrochemistry 12 Periods

Redox reactions, EMF of a cell, standard electrode potential, Nernst equation and its application to
chemical cells, Relation between Gibbs energy change and EMF of a cell, conductance in electrolytic
solutions, specific and molar conductivity, variations of conductivity with concentration, Kohlrausch's
Law, electrolysis and law of electrolysis (elementary idea), dry cell-electrolytic cells and Galvanic cells,
lead accumulator, fuel cells, corrosion.

1
Unit IV: Chemical Kinetics 10 Periods

Rate of a reaction (Average and instantaneous), factors affecting rate of reaction: concentration,
temperature, catalyst; order and molecularity of a reaction, rate law and specific rate constant,
integrated rate equations and half-life (only for zero and first order reactions), concept of collision
theory (elementary idea, no mathematical treatment), activation energy, Arrhenius equation.

Unit VIII: d and f Block Elements 12 Periods

General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence and characteristics of transition metals,

general trends in properties of the first row transition metals – metallic character, ionization enthalpy,
oxidation states, ionic radii, colour, catalytic property, magnetic properties, interstitial compounds,
alloy formation, preparation and properties of K2Cr2O7 and KMnO4.

Lanthanoids - Electronic configuration, oxidation states, chemical reactivity and lanthanoid

contraction and its consequences.

Actinoids - Electronic configuration, oxidation states and comparison with lanthanoids.

Unit IX: Coordination Compounds 12 Periods

Coordination compounds - Introduction, ligands, coordination number, colour, magnetic properties

and shapes, IUPAC nomenclature of mononuclear coordination compounds. Bonding, Werner's
theory, VBT, and CFT; structure and stereoisomerism, importance of coordination compounds (in
qualitative analysis, extraction of metals and biological system).

Unit X: Haloalkanes and Haloarenes. 10 Periods

Haloalkanes: Nomenclature, nature of C–X bond, physical and chemical properties, optical rotation
mechanism of substitution reactions.

Haloarenes: Nature of C–X bond, substitution reactions (Directive influence of halogen in

monosubstituted compounds only).

Uses and environmental effects of - dichloromethane, trichloromethane, tetrachloromethane,

iodoform, freons, DDT.

Unit XI: Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers 10 Periods

Alcohols: Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties (of primary
alcohols only), identification of primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols, mechanism of dehydration,
uses with special reference to methanol and ethanol.

Phenols: Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties, acidic nature of
phenol, electrophillic substitution reactions, uses of phenols.

Ethers: Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties, uses.

2
 Unit XII: Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids 10 Periods

Aldehydes and Ketones: Nomenclature, nature of carbonyl group, methods of preparation, physical
and chemical properties, mechanism of nucleophilic addition, reactivity of alpha hydrogen in
aldehydes, uses.

Carboxylic Acids: Nomenclature, acidic nature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical
properties; uses.

Unit XIII: Amines 10 Periods

Amines: Nomenclature, classification, structure, methods of preparation, physical and chemical

properties, uses, identification of primary, secondary and tertiary amines.

Diazonium salts: Preparation, chemical reactions and importance in synthetic organic chemistry.

Unit XIV: Biomolecules 12 Periods

Carbohydrates - Classification (aldoses and ketoses), monosaccahrides (glucose and fructose), D-L
configuration oligosaccharides (sucrose, lactose, maltose), polysaccharides (starch, cellulose,
glycogen); Importance of carbohydrates.

Proteins -Elementary idea of - amino acids, peptide bond, polypeptides, proteins, structure of proteins
- primary, secondary, tertiary structure and quaternary structures (qualitative idea only), denaturation
of proteins; enzymes. Hormones - Elementary idea excluding structure.

Vitamins - Classification and functions.

Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA.

PRACTICALS

Evaluation Scheme for Examination Marks

Volumetric Analysis 08

Salt Analysis 08

Content Based Experiment 06

Project Work 04

Class record and viva 04

Total 30

PRACTICAL SYLLABUS 60Periods

Micro-chemical methods are available for several of the practical experiments. Wherever
possible, such techniques should be used.

3
A. Surface Chemistry
(a) Preparation of one lyophilic and one lyophobic sol

Lyophilic sol - starch, egg albumin and gum

Lyophobic sol - aluminium hydroxide, ferric hydroxide, arsenous sulphide.
(b) Dialysis of sol-prepared in (a) above.
(c) Study of the role of emulsifying agents in stabilizing the emulsion of different oils.

B. Chemical Kinetics
(a) Effect of concentration and temperature on the rate of reaction between Sodium Thiosulphate and
Hydrochloric acid.
(b) Study of reaction rates of any one of the following:
(i) Reaction of Iodide ion with Hydrogen Peroxide at room temperature using different
concentration of Iodide ions.
(ii) Reaction between Potassium Iodate, (KIO3) and Sodium Sulphite: (Na2SO3) using starch solution
as indicator (clock reaction).

C. Thermochemistry
Any one of the following experiments
i) Enthalpy of dissolution of Copper Sulphate or Potassium Nitrate.
ii) Enthalpy of neutralization of strong acid (HCI) and strong base (NaOH).
iii) Determination of enthaply change during interaction (Hydrogen bond formation) between Acetone
and Chloroform.

D. Electrochemistry

Variation of cell potential in Zn/Zn2+|| Cu2+/Cu with change in concentration of electrolytes (CuSO4 or
ZnSO4) at room temperature.

E. Chromatography
i) Separation of pigments from extracts of leaves and flowers by paper chromatography and
determination of Rf values.
ii) Separation of constituents present in an inorganic mixture containing two cations only (constituents
having large difference in Rf values to be provided).

F. Preparation of Inorganic Compounds

Preparation of double salt of Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate or Potash Alum. Preparation
of Potassium Ferric Oxalate.

G. Preparation of Organic Compounds

Preparation of any one of the following compounds
i) Acetanilide ii) Di -benzalAcetone iii) p-Nitroacetanilide iv) Aniline yellow or 2 - Naphthol Anilinedye.

H. Tests for the functional groups present in organic compounds:

Unsaturation, alcoholic, phenolic, aldehydic, ketonic, carboxylic and amino (Primary) groups.

4
 I. Characteristic tests of carbohydrates, fats and proteins in pure samples and their detection in
given foodstuffs.
J. Determination of concentration/ molarity of KMnO4 solution by titrating it against a standard
solution of:
i) Oxalic acid,
ii) Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate
(Students will be required to prepare standard solutions by weighing themselves). K.
Qualitative analysis
Determination of one cation and one anion in a given salt.
Cation : Pb2+, Cu2+ As3+, Aℓ3+, Fe3+, Mn2+, Zn2+, Cu2+, Ni2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Mg2+, NH4+
Anions: (CO3)2-, S2-, (SO3)2-, (NO2)-, (SO4)2-, Cℓ-, Br-, I-, PO3-4, (C2O4)2-, CH3COO-,NO3-
(Note: Insoluble salts excluded)

PROJECT
Scientific investigations involving laboratory testing and collecting information from other sources A
few suggested Projects.

• Study of the presence of oxalate ions in guava fruit at different stages of ripening.
• Study of quantity of casein present in different samples of milk.
• Preparation of soybean milk and its comparison with the natural milk with respect to curd formation,
effect of temperature, etc.
• Study of the effect of Potassium Bisulphate as food preservative under various conditions (temperature,
concentration, time, etc.)
• Study of digestion of starch by salivary amylase and effect of pH and temperature on it.
• Comparative study of the rate of fermentation of following materials: wheat flour, gram flour, potato
juice, carrot juice, etc.
• Extraction of essential oils present in Saunf (aniseed), Ajwain (carum), Illaichi (cardamom).
• Study of common food adulterants in fat, oil, butter, sugar, turmeric power, chilli powder and pepper.
Note: Any other investigatory project, which involves about 10 periods of work, can be chosen with the
approval of the teacher.

Practical Examination for Visually Impaired Students of Classes XI and XII Evaluation Scheme

Time Allowed: Two hours Max. Marks:30

Identification/Familiarity with the apparatus 5 marks

Written test (based on given/prescribed practicals) 10 marks

Practical Record 5 marks

Viva 10 marks

Total 30 marks

5
 General Guidelines
• The practical examination will be of two hour duration.
• A separate list of ten experiments is included here.
• The written examination in practicals for these students will be conducted at the time of practical
examination of all other students.
• The written test will be of 30 minutes duration.
• The question paper given to the students should be legibly typed. It should contain a total of 15
practical skill based very short answer type questions. A student would be required to answer any 10
questions.
• A writer may be allowed to such students as per CBSE examination rules.
• All questions included in the question papers should be related to the listed practicals. Every question
should require about two minutes to be answered.
• These students are also required to maintain a practical file. A student is expected to record at least
five of the listed experiments as per the specific instructions for each subject. These practicals should
be duly checked and signed by the internal examiner.
• The format of writing any experiment in the practical file should include aim, apparatus required,
simple theory, procedure, related practical skills, precautions etc.
• Questions may be generated jointly by the external/internal examiners and used for assessment.
• The viva questions may include questions based on basic theory/principle/concept,
apparatus/materials/ chemicals required, procedure, precautions, sources of error etc.

A. Items for Identification/Familiarity of the apparatus for assessment in practical (All experiments)

Beaker, glass rod, tripod stand, wire gauze, Bunsen burner, Whatman filter paper, gas jar, capillary
tube, pestle and mortar, test tubes, tongs, test tube holder, test tube stand, burette, pipette, conical
flask, standard flask, clamp stand, funnel, filter paper
Hands-on Assessment
• Identification/familiarity with the apparatus
• Odour detection in qualitative analysis

B. List of Practicals
The experiments have been divided into two sections: Section A and Section B. The experiments
mentioned in Section B are mandatory.

SECTION- A

A Surface Chemistry
(1) Preparation of one lyophilic and one lyophobic
sol Lyophilic sol - starch, egg albumin and gum
(2) Preparation of one lyophobic sol Lyophobic sol
– Ferric hydroxide B Chromatography
(1) Separation of pigments from extracts of leaves and flowers by paper chromatography and
determination of Rf values (distance values may be provided).
C Tests for the functional groups present in organic compounds:
(1) Alcoholic and Carboxylic groups.

6
 (2) Aldehydic and Ketonic
D Characteristic tests of carbohydrates and proteins in the given foodstuffs. E
Preparation of Inorganic Compounds- Potash Alum

SECTION-B (Mandatory)
F Quantitative analysis
(1) (a) Preparation of the standard solution of Oxalic acid of a given volume
(b) Determination of molarity of KMnO4 solution by titrating it against a standard solution of
Oxalic acid.
(2) The above exercise [F 1 (a) and (b)] to be conducted using Ferrous ammonium sulphate (Mohr's
salt)

G Qualitative analysis:
(1) Determination of one cation and one anion in a given salt.
Cation –NH4+
Anions – CO32-, S2-, SO32-, Cl-, CH3COO-
(Note: Insoluble salts excluded)
Note: The above practicals may be carried out in an experiential manner rather than recording
observations.
Prescribed Books:
1. Chemistry Part -I, Class-XII, Published by NCERT.
2. Chemistry Part -II, Class-XII, Published by NCERT.

CHEMISTRY (Code No. 043) QUESTION PAPER DESIGN CLASSES –XI and XII (2023-24)
S Domains Total Marks %
1 Remembering and Understanding: 28 40
Exhibit memory of previously learned material by recalling facts, terms,
basic concepts and answers. Demonstrate understanding of facts and
ideas by organizing, comparing, translating, interpreting, giving
descriptions and stating main ideas.
2 Applying: 21 30
Solve problems to new situations by applying acquired knowledge, facts,
techniques and rules in a different way.
3 Analysing, Evaluating and Creating: 21 30
Examine and break information into parts by identifying motives or causes.
Make inferences and find evidence to support generalizations. Present and
defend opinions by making judgments about information, validity of ideas
or quality of work based on a set of criteria.
Compile information together in a different way by combining elements in
a new pattern or proposing alternative solutions.

1. No chapter wise weightage. Care to be taken to cover all the chapters.

2. Suitable internal variations may be made for generating various templates. Choice(s):

• There will be no overall choice in the question paper.

• However, 33% internal choices will be given in all the sections.

7
Mind Maps!
Solution

8
Mind Maps!
Electrochemistry

9
Mind Maps!
Chemical Kinametics

10
Mind Maps!
d and f block

11
Mind Maps!
Haloalkane and
Haloarenes

12
Mind Maps!
Coordination
compounds

13
Mind Maps!
Alcohol, Phenol
and Ether

14
Mind Maps!
Aldehyde, Ketone
and Carboxylic acid

15
Mind Maps!
Amines

16
Mind Maps!
Biomolecule

17
 CBSE Class-12 Chemistry Quick Revision Notes
1 Solutions
Chapter-02:

• Solutions:
Solutions are the homogeneous mixtures of two or more than two components.
• Binary solution:
A solution having two components is called a binary solution.
• Components of a binary solution
It includes solute and solvent.
a) When the solvent is in solid state, solution is called solid solution.
b) When the solvent is in liquid state, solution is called liquid solution.
c) When the solvent is in gaseous state, solution is called gaseous solution.
• Concentration:
It is the amount of solute in given amount of solution.
• Mass by volume percentage (w/v):
Mass of the solute dissolved in 100 mL of solution.
• Molality (m) is the number of moles of solute present in 1kg of solvent.
Number of moles of solute
Molality =
Mass of solvent in kilograms
• Molarity (M) is the number of moles of solute present in 1L of solution.
Number of moles of solute
Molality =
Volume of solution in litres
• Normality is the number of gram equivalent of solute dissolved per litre of solution.
Number of gram equivalent of solute
Molality =
Volume of solution in litres
• Solubility:
It is the maximum amount that can be dissolved in a specified amount of solvent at a
specified temperature.
• Saturated solution:
It is a solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at the same temperature and
pressure.
• In a nearly saturated solution if dissolution process is an endothermic process, solubility
increases with increase in temperature.
• In a nearly saturated solution if dissolution process is an exothermic process, solubility
decreases with increase in temperature.
• Henry’s Law:

18
 It states “at a constant temperature the solubility of gas in a liquid is directly
proportional to the pressure of gas”. In other words, “the partial pressure of gas in
vapour phase is proportional to the mole fraction of the gas in the solution”.
P = KH x
• When a non-volatile solute is dissolved in a volatile solvent, the vapour pressure of
solution is less than that of pure solvent.
• Raoult’s law:
It states that “for a solution of volatile liquids the partial vapour pressure of each
component in the solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction”.
p1 = p 01 X 1 ; p2 = p 0 2 X 2
• Using Dalton’s law of partial pressure the total pressure of solution is calculated.
ptotal = p 01 + ( p2 − p 01 ) X 2
• Comparison of Raoult’ law and Henry’s law:
It is observed that the partial pressure of volatile component or gas is directly
proportional to its mole fraction in solution. In case of Henry’s Law the proportionality
constant is KH and it is different from p10 which is partial pressure of pure component.
Raoult’s Law becomes a special case of Henry’s Law when KH becomes equal to p10 in
Henry’s law.
• Classification of liquid –liquid solutions:
It can be classified into ideal and non-ideal solutions on basis of Raoult’s Law.
• Ideal solutions:
a) The solutions that obey Raoult’s Law over the entire range of concentrations are
known as ideal solutions.
b) ∆ mix H = 0 and ∆ mixV = 0
c) The intermolecular attractive forces between solute molecules and solvent molecules
are nearly equal to those present between solute and solvent molecules i.e. A-A and
B-B interactions are nearly equal to those between A-B.
• Non-ideal solutions:
a) When a solution does not obey Raoult’s Law over the entire range of concentration,
then it is called non-ideal solution.
b) ∆ mix H ≠ 0 and ∆ mixV ≠ 0
c) The intermolecular attractive forces between solute molecules and solvent molecules
are not equal to those present between solute and solvent molecules i.e. A-A and B-B
interactions are not equal to those between A-B
• Types of non- ideal solutions:
There are two types of non-ideal solutions namely,
a) Non ideal solution showing positive deviation
b) Non ideal solution showing negative deviation
• Non ideal solution showing positive deviation
a) The vapour pressure of a solution is higher than that predicted by Raoult’s Law.

19
 b) The intermolecular attractive forces between solute-solvent molecules are weaker
than those between solute-solute and solvent-solvent molecules i.e., A-B < A-A and B-
B interactions.
• Non ideal solution showing negative deviation
a) The vapour pressure of a solution is lower than that predicted by Raoult’s Law.
b) The intermolecular attractive forces between solute-solvent molecules are stronger
than those between solute-solute and solvent-solvent molecules i.e. A-B > A-A and B-
B interactions.
• Azeotopes:
These are binary mixtures having same composition in liquid and vapour phase and boil
at constant temperature. Liquids forming azeotrope cannot be separated by fractional
distillation.
• Types of azeotropes:
There are two types of azeotropes namely,
a) Minimum boiling azeotrope
b) Maximum boiling azeotrope
• The solutions which show a large positive deviation from Raoult’s law form minimum
boiling azeotrope at a specific composition.
• The solutions that show large negative deviation from Raoult’s law form maximum
boiling azeotrope at a specific composition.
• Colligative properties:
The properties of solution which depends on only the number of solute particles but not
on the nature of solute are called colligative properties.
• Types of colligative properties:
There are four colligative properties namely,
a) Relative lowering of vapour pressure
b) Elevation of boiling point
c) Depression of freezing point
d) Osmotic pressure
• Relative lowering of vapour pressure:
The difference in the vapour pressure of pure solvent p10 and solution p1 represents
lowering in vapour pressure ( p10 − p1 ) .
• Relative lowering of vapour pressure:
Dividing lowering in vapour pressure by vapour pressure of pure solvent is called
 p10 − p1 
relative lowering of vapour pressure  0 
 p1 
• Relative lowering of vapour pressure is directly proportional to mole fraction of solute.
Hence it is a colligative property.

20
  p0 − p 
• Elevation of boiling point:  1 0 1  = X 2
 p1 
The difference in boiling points of solution Tb and pure solvent Tb0 is called elevation in
boiling point ∆T = Tb − Tb0
• For a dilute solution elevation of boiling point is directly proportional to molal
concentration of the solute in solution. Hence it is a colligative property.
k x 1000 x w 2
∆Tb = b
M 2 x w1
• Depression of freezing point:
The lowering of vapour pressure of solution causes a lowering of freezing point
compared to that of pure solvent. The difference in freezing point of the pure solvent T f0
and solution T f is called the depression in freezing point.
∆T = T f0 − T f
• For a dilute solution depression in freezing point is a colligative property because it is
directly proportional to molal concentration of solute.
k f x 1000 x w 2
∆T f =
M 2 x w1
• Osmosis:
The phenomenon of flow of solvent molecules through a semi permeable membrane
from pure solvent to solution is called osmosis.
• Osmotic pressure:
The excess pressure that must be applied to solution to prevent the passage of solvent
into solution through a semipermeable membrane is called osmotic pressure.
• Osmotic pressure is a colligative property as it depends on the number of solute
particles and not on their identity.
• For a dilute solution, osmotic pressure ( π ) is directly proportional to the molarity (C) of
the solution i.e. π = CRT
• Osmotic pressure can also be used to determine the molar mass of solute using the
w RT
equation M 2 = 2
πV
• Isotonic solution:
Two solutions having same osmotic pressure at a given temperature are called isotonic
solution.
• Hypertonic solution:
If a solution has more osmotic pressure than other solution it is called hypertonic
solution.
• Hypotonic solution:
If a solution has less osmotic pressure than other solution it is called hypotonic solution.

21
• Reverse osmosis:
The process of movement of solvent through a semipermeable membrane from the
solution to the pure solvent by applying excess pressure on the solution side is called
reverse osmosis.
• Colligative properties help in calculation of molar mass of solutes.
• Abnormal molar mass:
Molar mass that is either lower or higher than expected or normal molar mass is called
as abnormal molar mass.
• Van’t Hoff factor:
Van’t Hoff factor (i) accounts for the extent of dissociation or association.
Normal molar mass
i=
Abnormal molar mass
Observed collogative property
=
Calculated collogative property
Total number of moles of particles after association / dissociation
=
Total number of moles of particles before association / dissociation
• Value of i is less than unity in case solute undergo association and the value of i is greater
than unity in case solute undergo dissociation.
• Inclusion of van’t Hoff factor modifies the equations for colligative properties as:
p10 − p` n
0
= i. 2
p1 n1
kb x 1000 x w 2
∆Tb = i.
M 2 x w1
k f x 1000 x w 2
∆T f = i.
M 2 x w1
n2 RT
π = i.
V

22
 CBSE Class-12 Chemistry Quick Revision Notes
Chapter-02: Electrochemistry

• Oxidation:
It is defined as a loss of electrons while reduction is defined as a gain of electrons.
• In a redox reaction, both oxidation and reduction reaction takes place simultaneously.
• Direct redox reaction:
In a direct redox reaction, both oxidation and reduction reactions take place in the same
vessel. Chemical energy is converted to heat energy in a direct redox reaction.
• Indirect redox reaction:
In indirect redox reactions, oxidation and reduction take place in different vessels.
• In an indirect redox reaction, chemical energy is converted into electrical energy. The
device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy is known as an
electrochemical cell.
• In an electrochemical cell:
a) The half-cell in which oxidation takes place is known as oxidation half-cell
b) The half-cell in which reduction takes place is known as reduction half-cell.
c) Oxidation takes place at anode which is negatively charged and reduction takes
place at cathode which is positively charged.
d) Transfer of electrons takes place from anode to cathode while electric current
flows in the opposite direction.
e) An electrode is made by dipping the metal plate into the electrolytic solution of its
soluble salt.
f) A salt bridge is a U shaped tube containing an inert electrolyte in agar-agar and
gelatine.
• Salt bridge:
A salt bridge maintains electrical neutrality and allows the flow of electric current by
completing the electrical circuit.
• Representation of an electrochemical cell:
a) Anode is written on the left while the cathode is written on the right.
b) Anode represents the oxidation half-cell and is written as:
Metal/Metal ion (Concentration)
c) Cathode represents the reduction half-cell and is written as:
Metal ion (Concentration)/Metal
d) Salt bridge is indicated by placing double vertical lines between the anode and
the cathode
e) Electrode potential is the potential difference that develops between the
electrode and its electrolyte. The separation of charges at the equilibrium state

23
 results in the potential difference between the metal and the solution of its ions. It
is the measure of tendency of an electrode in the half cell to lose or gain electrons.
• Standard electrode potential:
When the concentration of all the species involved in a half cell is unity, then the
electrode potential is known as standard electrode potential. It is denoted as EΘ.
• According to the present convention, standard reduction potentials are now called
standard electrode potential.
• Types of electrode potential:
There are 2 types of electrode potentials namely,
a) Oxidation potential
b) Reduction potential
• Oxidation potential:
It is the tendency of an electrode to lose electrons or get oxidized.
• Reduction potential:
It is the tendency of an electrode to gain electrons or get reduced.
• Oxidation potential is the reverse of reduction potential.
• The electrode having a higher reduction potential have higher tendency to gain electrons
and so it acts as a cathode whereas the electrode having a lower reduction potential acts
as an anode.
• The standard electrode potential of an electrode cannot be measured in isolation.
• According to convention, the Standard Hydrogen Electrode is taken as a reference
electrode and it is assigned a zero potential at all temperatures.
• Reference electrode:
Standard calomel electrode can also be used as a reference electrode.
• SHE:
Standard hydrogen electrode consists of a platinum wire sealed in a glass tube and
carrying a platinum foil at one end. The electrode is placed in a beaker containing an
aqueous solution of an acid having 1 Molar concentration of hydrogen ions. Hydrogen
gas at 1 bar pressure is continuously bubbled through the solution at 298 K. The
oxidation or reduction takes place at the Platinum foil. The standard hydrogen electrode
can act as both anode and cathode.
• If the standard hydrogen electrode acts as an anode:
H 2 ( g ) → 2 H + ( aq ) + 2e −
• If the standard hydrogen electrode acts as a cathode:
2 H + (aq ) + 2e → H 2 ( g )
• In the electrochemical series, various elements are arranged as per their standard
reduction potential values.
• A substance with higher reduction potential value means that it has a higher tendency to
get reduced. So, it acts as a good oxidising agent.

24
• A substance with lower reduction potential value means that it has a higher tendency to
get oxidised. So, it acts as a good reducing agent.
• The electrode with higher reduction potential acts as a cathode while the electrode with
a lower reduction potential acts as an anode.
• The potential difference between the 2 electrodes of a galvanic cell is called cell potential
and is measured in Volts.
• The cell potential is the difference between the reduction potential of cathode and
anode.
E cell = E cathode – E anode
• Cell potential is called the electromotive force of the cell (EMF) when no current is
drawn through the cell.
• Nernst studied the variation of electrode potential of an electrode with temperature and
concentration of electrolyte.
• Nernst formulated a relationship between standard electrode potential Eө and electrode
potential E.
2.303RT 1
E = E0 − log
nF [M n+ ]
0.059 1
E = E0 − log + ( At 298k)
n [M n ]
• Electrode potential increases with increase in the concentration of the electrolyte and
decrease in temperature.
• Nernst equation when applied to a cell, it helps in calculating the cell potential.
2.303RT [ Anode ion]
Ecell = Ecell 0 − log
nF [Cathode ion]
• At equilibrium, cell potential Ecell becomes zero.
• Relationship between equilibrium constant Kc and standard cell potential Eө cell :
0.059
Ecell 0 = log K c ( At 298 K )
n
• Work done by an electrochemical cell is equal to the decrease in Gibbs energy
∆G 0 = − nFE 0 cell
• The substances which allow the passage of electricity through them are known as
conductors.
• Every conducting material offers some obstruction to the flow of electricity which is
called resistance. It is denoted by R and is measured in ohm.
• The resistance of any object is directly proportional to its length l and inversely
proportional to its area of cross section A.
l
R=ρ
A
Where ρ is called specific resistance or resistivity.

25
• The SI unit of specific resistivity is ohm metre.
• The inverse of resistance is known as conductance, G
• Unit of conductance is ohm-1 or mho. It is also expressed in Siemens denoted by S.
• The inverse of resistivity is known as conductivity. It is represented by the symbol κ .
• The SI unit of conductivity is Sm-1. But it is also expressed in Scm-1.
• Conductivity = Conductance × Cell constant
• For measuring the resistance of an ionic solution, there are 2 problems:
a) Firstly, passing direct current changes the composition of the solution
b) Secondly, a solution cannot be connected to the bridge like a metallic wire or a
solid conductor.
• Conductivity cell:
The problem of measuring the resistance of an ionic solution can be resolved by using a
source of alternating current and the second problem is resolved by using a specially
designed vessel called conductivity cell.
• A conductivity cell consists of 2 Pt electrodes coated with Pt black. They have area of
cross section A and are separated by a distance ‘l’. Resistance of such a column of
solution is given by the equation:
l 1 l
R=ρ =
A k A
l
Where is called cell constant and is denoted by the symbol G *
A
• Molar conductivity of a solution:
It is defined as the conducting power of all the ions produced by dissolving 1 mole of an
electrolyte in solution.
k x 1000
Molar conductivity ∧ m =
M
Where κ = Conductivity and M is the molarity Unit of Molar conductivity is Scm2 mol-1
• Equivalent conductivity:
It is the conductivity of all the ions produced by dissolving one gram equivalent of an
electrolyte in solution. Unit of equivalent conductivity is S cm2 (g equiv) -1
k x 1000
Equivalent conductivity ∧ e =
N
• Kohlrausch’s Law of independent migration of ions:
According to this law, molar conductivity of an electrolyte, at infinite dilution, can be
expressed as the sum of individual contributions from its individual ions.
• If the limiting molar conductivity of the cations is denoted by λ+0 and that of the anions
by λ−0 , then the limiting molar conductivity of electrolyte is:
Molar conductivity, ∧ 0m = v+ λ+0 + v− λ−0
Where v+ and v- are the number of cations and anions per formula of electrolyte
• Degree of dissociation:

26
 It is ratio of molar conductivity at a specific concentration ‘c’ to the molar conductivity at
infinite dilution. It is denoted by α .
∧ cm
a=
∧ 0m
• Dissociation constant:
ca 2
ka = Where Ka is acid dissociation constant, ‘c’ is concentration of electrolyte, α is
1− a
degree of ionization.
• Faraday constant:
It is equal to charge on 1 mol of electrons. It is equal to 96487 C mol-1 or approximately
equal to 96500 C mol-1.
• Faraday’s first law of electrolysis:
The amount of substance deposited during electrolysis is directly proportional to
quantity of electricity passed.
• Faraday’s second law of electrolysis:
If same charge is passed through different electrolytes, the mass of substance deposited
will be proportional to their equivalent weights.
• Products of electrolysis:
The products of electrolysis depend upon
a) The nature of electrolyte being electrolyzed and the nature of electrodes. If
electrode is inert like platinum or gold, they do not take part in chemical reaction
i.e. they neither lose nor gain electrons. If the electrodes are reactive then they
will take part in chemical reaction and products will be different as compared to
inert electrodes.
b) The electrode potentials of oxidizing and reducing species. Some of the
electrochemical processes although feasible but slow in their rates at lower
voltage, these require extra voltage, i.e. over voltage at which these processes will
take place. The products of electrolysis also differ in molten state and aqueous
solution of electrolyte.
• Primary cells:
A primary cell is a cell in which electrical energy is produced by the reaction occurring in
the cell, e.g. Daniel cell, dry cell, mercury cell. It cannot be recharged.
• Dry Cell:
At anode Zn( s ) → Zn 2+ (aq) + 2e −
At cathode MnO2 ( s ) + NH 4+ ( aq ) + e − → MnO (OH ) + NH 3
The net reaction:
Zn + NH 4+ ( aq ) + MnO2 ( s ) → Zn 2 + + MnO (OH ) + NH 3
• Mercury Cell.
The electrolyte is a paste of KOH and ZnO.

27
 At Anode: Zn( Hg ) + 2OH − → ZnO ( s ) + H 2O + 2e −
At cathode: HgO ( s ) + H 2O + 2e − → Hg (l ) + 2OH −
The net reaction:
Zn( Hg ) + HgO ( s ) → ZnO ( s ) + Hg (l )
• Secondary cells:
Those cells which are used for storing electricity, e.g., lead storage battery, nickel –
cadmium cell. They can be recharged.
• Lead storage battery:
Anode: Pb( s ) + SO42− ( aq ) → PbSO4 ( s ) + 2e −
Cathode: PbO2 ( s ) + SO42− ( aq ) + 4 H + ( aq ) + 2e − → PbSO4 ( s ) + 2 H 2O (l )
The overall cell reaction consisting of cathode and anode reactions is:
Pb( s ) + PbO2 ( s ) + 2 H 2 SO4 (aq) → 2 PbSO4 ( s ) + 2 H 2O(l )
On recharging the battery, the reaction is reversed.
• Nickel cadmium cell:
It is another type of secondary cell which has longer life than lead storage cell but more
expensive to manufacture.
The overall reaction during discharge is
Cd ( s ) + 2 Ni (OH )3 ( s ) → CdO( s ) + 2 Ni (OH )2 ( s ) + H 2O (l )
• Fuel cells:
At Anode: 2 H 2 ( g ) + 4OH − ( aq ) → 4 H 2O (l ) + 4e −
At cathode: O2 ( g ) + 2 H 2O (l ) + 4e − → 4OH − ( aq )
Overall reaction:
2 H 2 ( g ) + O2 ( g ) → 2 H 2O(l )
• Corrosion:
Oxidation: Fe( s ) → Fe 2+ (aq) + 2e −
Reduction: O2 ( g ) + 4 H + (aq ) + 4e − → 2 H 2O (l )
• Galvanization:
It is a process of coating zinc over iron so as to protect it from rusting.
• Cathodic protection:
Instead of coating more reactive metal on iron, the use of such metal is made as
sacrificial anode.

28
 CBSE Class-12 Chemistry Quick Revision Notes
Chapter-03: Chemical Kinetics

• Chemical kinetics:
It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of reaction rates and their
mechanisms.
• Rate of reaction:
It is the change in concentration of reactant (or product) in unit time.
• The unit of rate of reaction is mol L-1s-1.
• A+B→C+D
− d [ A]
Rate of disappearance of A =
dt

where d[A] is small change in conc. of ‘A’ and dt is small interval of time
−d[ B]
Rate of disappearance of B =
dt
Where d[B] is small change in conc. of ‘B’ and dt is small interval of time
+ d [C ]
Rate of appearance of C =
dt
Where d[C] is small change in conc. of ‘C’ and dt is small interval of time
+ d[ D]
Rate of appearance of D =
dt
Where d[D] is small change in conc. of ‘D’ and dt is small interval of time

− d [ A] − d [ B ] + d [C ] + d [ D ]
Rate = = = =
dt dt dt dt

• Rate law or rate equation:

It is the expression which relates the rate of reaction with concentration of the reactants.
The constant of proportionality ‘k’ is known as rate constant.
• Average rate:
It is the rate of reaction measured over a long time interval.
∆x
Average rate =
∆t
where is Δx change in concentration and Δt is large interval of time.
• Instantaneous rate:
It is the rate of reaction when the average rate is taken over a particular moment of time.
dx
Instantaneous rate = .
dt
where dx is small change in conc. and dt is the smallest interval of time.

29
 It is the expression which relates the rate of reaction with concentration of the reactants.
• Rate constant:
When the concentration of reactants is unity, then the rate of reaction is known as rate
constant. It is also called specific reaction rate.
• The constant of proportionality ‘k’ is known as rate constant.
• Molecularity of a reaction:
The total number of atoms, ions or molecules of the reactants involved in the reaction is
termed as its molecularity. It is always in whole number and is never more than three. It
cannot be zero.
• Order of a reaction:
The sum of the exponents (power) of the concentration of reactants in the rate law is
termed as order of the reaction. It can be in fraction. It can be zero also.
• If rate law expression for a reaction is
Rate = k [A]x [B]y
Then its order of reaction = x + y
• Order cannot be determined with a given balanced chemical equation. It can be
experimentally determined.
• Integrated rate law for zero order reaction:
R→P
dx
= k [ R ]0
dt
[ R ] − [ R]
k= 0
t
• If we plot a graph between concentration of R vs time t, the graph is a straight line with
slope equal to -k and intercept is equal to [Ro].
• Half- life of a reaction:
The time taken for a reaction, when half of the starting material has reacted is called
half- life of a reaction.
• For zero order reaction, the half-life time is
[R ]
t1/2 = 0
2k
• For first order reaction, the half-life time is
0.693
t1/ 2 =
k
where ‘k’ is rate constant
It is independent of initial concentration for first order reaction.
• Rate law for first order reaction:
R P
2.303 [R ]
k= log 0
t [ R]

30
 where ‘k’ is rate constant or specific reaction rate, [Ro] is initial molar conc., [R] is final
molar conc. after time ‘t’.
2.303 a
k= log
t a−x
where ‘a’ is initial conc. reacted in time ‘t’ final conc., after time ‘t’ is (a – x).
• If we plot a graph between ln[R] with time, we get a straight line whose slope = - k and
intercept ln[Ro].
• To calculate rate constant for first order gas phase reaction of the type
A (g) B(g) + C(g)
2.303 p1
k= log
t (2 pi − pt )
Where pi is initial pressure of A, pt is total pressure of gaseous mixture containing A , B,
C
pt= pA+ pB+ pC
• Pseudo first order reaction:
The reaction which is bimolecular but order is one is called pseudo first order reaction.
This happens when one of the reactants is in large excess.
Example - Acidic hydrolysis of ester (ethyl acetate).
+
CH 3COOC2 H 5 + H 2O →
H
CH 3COOH + C2 H 5OH
• Activation energy (Ea):
It is extra energy which must be possessed by reactant molecules so that collision
between reactant molecules is effective and leads to the formation of product molecules.
• Arrhenius equation of reaction rate:
It gives the relation between rate of reaction and temperature.
k = Ae − Ea / RT
ln k = ln A − Ea / RT
Ea
log k = log A −
2.303RT
where k = rate constant, A = frequency factor, Ea = energy of activation R = gas constant,
T = temperature in Kelvin,
k2 Ea  T2 − T1 
log =  
k1 2.303R  T1T2 
• Probability factor or Steric factor
− Ea
Rate = PZ AB .e RT
− Ea
Where ZAB represents the collision frequency of reactants, A and B, e represents the
RT

fraction of molecules with energies equal to or greater than Ea and P is called the
probability or steric factor.
• Mechanism of reaction:

31
 It is the sequence of elementary processes leading to the overall stoichiometry of a
chemical reaction.
• Activated complex:
It is an unstable intermediate formed between reacting molecules. Since, it is highly
unstable and it readily changes into product.
• Rate determining step:
It is the slowest step in the reaction mechanism.
• The number of collisions per second per unit volume of the reaction mixture is known as
collision frequency (Z).

32
 CBSE Class-12 Chemistry Quick Revision Notes
Chapter-04: The D and F-Block Elements

• The d -Block elements:

a) The elements lying in the middle of periodic table belonging to groups 3 to 12 are
known as d – block elements.
b) Their general electronic configuration is (n – 1)d1-10 ns1-2 where (n – 1) stands for
penultimate (last but one) shell.
• Transition element:
a) A transition element is defined as the one which has incompletely filled d orbitals in
its ground state or in any one of its oxidation states.
b) Zinc, cadmium, mercury are not regarded as transition metals due to completely
filled d – orbital.
• The f-Block elements:
The elements constituting the f -block are those in which the 4 f and 5 f orbitals are
progressively filled in the latter two long periods.
• Lanthanoids:
The 14 elements immediately following lanthanum, i.e., Cerium (58) to Lutetium (71)
are called lanthanoids. They belong to first inner transition series. Lanthanum (57) has
similar properties. Therefore, it is studied along with lanthanoids.
• Actinoids:
The 14 elements immediately following actinium (89), with atomic numbers 90
(Thorium) to 103 (Lawrencium) are called actinoids. They belong to second inner
transition series. Actinium (89) has similar properties. Therefore, it is studied along with
actinoids.
• Four transition series:
a) 3d – transition series. The transition elements with atomic number 21(Sc) to 30(Zn) and
having incomplete 3d orbitals is called the first transition series.
b) 4d – transition series. It consists of elements with atomic number 39(Y) to 48 (Cd) and
having incomplete 4d orbitals. It is called second transition series.
c) 5d – transition series. It consists of elements with atomic number 57(La), 72(Hf) to
80(Hg) having incomplete 5d orbitals. It is called third transition series.
d) 6d – transition series. It consists of elements with atomic number 89(Ac), 104(Rf) to
112(Uub) having incomplete 6d orbitals. It is called fourth transition series.
• General Characteristics of transition elements:
a) Metallic character:
All transition elements are metallic in nature, i.e. they have strong metallic bonds.
This is because of presence of unpaired electrons. This gives rise to properties like
high density, high enthalpies of atomization, and high melting and boiling points.
b) Atomic radii:

33
 The atomic radii decrease from Sc to Cr because the effective nuclear charge
increases. The atomic size of Fe, Co, Ni is almost same because the attraction due to
increase in nuclear charge is cancelled by the repulsion because of increase in
shielding effect. Cu and Zn have bigger size because the shielding effect increases and
electron electron repulsions repulsion increases.
c) Lanthanoid Contraction:
The steady decrease in the atomic and ionic radii of the transition metals as the
atomic number increases. This is because of filling of 4f orbitals before the 5d
orbitals. This contraction is size is quite regular. This is called lanthanoid contraction.
It is because of lanthanoid contraction that the atomic radii of the second row of
transition elements are almost similar to those of the third row of transition
elements.
d) Ionisation enthalpy:
There is slight and irregular variation in ionization energies of transition metals due
to irregular variation of atomic size. The I.E. of 5d transition series is higher than 3d
and 4d transition series because of Lanthanoid Contraction.
e) Oxidation state:
Transition metals show variable oxidation states due to tendency of (n-1)d as well as
ns electrons to take part in bond formation.
f) Magnetic properties:
Most of transition metals are paramagnetic in nature due to presence of unpaired
electrons. It increase s from Sc to Cr and then decreases because number of unpaired
and then decrease because number of unpaired electrons increases from Sc to Cr and
then decreases.
g) Catalytic properties:
Most of transition metals are used as catalyst because of (i) presence of incomplete
or empty d – orbitals, (ii) large surface area, (iii) varuable oxidation state, (iv) ability
to form complexes, e.g., Fe, Ni, V2O3, Pt, Mo, Co and used as catalyst.
h) Formation of coloured compounds:
They form coloured ions due to presence of incompletely filled d – orbitals and
unpaired electrons, they can undergo d – d transition by absorbing colour from
visible region and radiating complementary colour.
i) Formation of complexes:
Transition metals form complexes due to (i) presence of vacant d – orbitals of
suitable energy (ii) smaller size (iii) higher charge on cations.
j) Interstitial compounds:
Transition metals have voids or interstitials in which C, H, N, B etc. can fit into
resulting in formation of interstitial compounds. They are non – stoichiometric, i.e.,
their composition is not fixed, e.g., steel. They are harder and less malleable and
ductile.
k) Alloys formation:

34
 They form alloys due to similar ionic size. Metals can replace each other in crystal
lattice, e.g., brass, bronze, steel etc.
• Preparation of Potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7):
It is prepared by fusion of chromate ore (FeCr2O4) with sodium carbonate in excess of
air.
4 FeCr2O4 + 8 Na2CO3 + 7O2 → 8 Na2CrO4 + 2 Fe2O3 + 8CO2
2 Na CrO + H 2 SO4 → Na2Cr2O7 + H 2O + Na2 SO4
2 4
Sodium Chromate Sodium Dichromate

Na2Cr2O7 + 2 KCl → K 2Cr2O7 + 2 NaCl

• Effect of pH on chromate and dichromate ions:
The chromates and dichromates are inter-convertible in aqueous solution depending
upon pH of the solution. The oxidation state of chromium in chromate and dichromate is
the same.
2CrO42− + 2 H + → Cr2O72− + H 2O
Cr2O72− + 2OH − → 2CrO42− + H 2O
• Potassium dichromate acts as a strong oxidizing agent in acidic medium:
Cr2O72 − + 14 H + + 6e − → 2Cr 3+ + 7 H 2O
• Preparation of Potassium permanganate (KMnO4):
a) Potassium permanganate is prepared by fusion of MnO4 with alkali metal hydroxide
(KOH) in presence of O2 or oxidising agent like KNO3. It produces dark green K2MnO4
which undergoes oxidation as well as reduction in neutral or acidic solution to give
permanganate.
2 MnO2 + 4 KOH + O2 → 2 K 2 MnO4 + 2 H 2O
4 H + + 3MnO42 − → 2 MnO4− + MnO2 + 2 H 2O
b) Commercially, it is prepared by the alkaline oxidative fusion of MnO2 followed by the
electrolytic oxidation of manganate (Vl).
MnO2 →
fused with KOH in the presence of O 2 or KNO3
MnO42− ( manganate ions)
MnO42− 
electrolytic oxidation in alkaline medium
→ MnO4− ( Purple)
Green

c) In laboratory, Mn²+ salt can be oxidized by peroxodisulphate ion to permanganate

ion.
In acidic medium: MnO4− + 8 H + + 5e − → Mn 2 + + 4 H 2O
In neutral or faintly basic medium: MnO4− + 3e − + 2 H 2O → MnO2 + 4OH −
• Properties of Lanthanoids:
a) +3 oxidation state is most common along with +2 and +4.
b) Except Promethium, they are non – radioactive.
c) The magnetic properties of lanthanoids are less complex than actinoids.
• Properties of Actinoids:
a) Actinoids also show higher oxidation states such as +4, +5, +6 and +7.
b) They are radioactive.

35
 c) The magnetic properties of the actinoids are more complex than those of the
lanthanoids.
d) They are more reactive.
• Mischmetall
a) It is a well-known alloy which consists of a lanthanoid metal (~ 95%) and iron (~
5%) and traces of S, C, Ca and Al.
b) A good deal of mischmetall is used in Mg-based alloy to produce bullets, shell and
lighter flint.

36
 CBSE Class-12 Chemistry Quick Revision Notes
Chapter-05: Co-ordination Compounds

• Co-ordination compounds:
a) A coordination compound contains a central metal atom or ion surrounded by
number of oppositely charged ions or neutral molecules. These ions or molecules re
bonded to the metal atom or ion by a coordinate bond.
b) Example: K4[Fe(CN)6]
c) They do not dissociate into simple ions when dissolved in water.
• Double salt
a) When two salts in stoichiometric ratio are crystallised together from their saturated
solution they are called double salts
b) Example:FeSO4.(NH4)2SO4.6H2O (Mohr’s salt)
c) They dissociate into simple ions when dissolved in water.
• Coordination entity:
a) A coordination entity constitutes a central metal atom or ion bonded to a fixed
number of ions or molecules.
b) Example: In K4[Fe(CN)6], [Fe(CN)6]4- represents coordination entity.
• Central atom or ion:
a) In a coordination entity, the atom/ion to which a fixed number of ions/groups are
bound in a definite geometrical arrangement around it, is called the central atom or
ion.
b) Example: In K4[Fe(CN)6], Fe²+ is the central metal ion.
• Ligands:
a) A molecule, ion or group that is bonded to the metal atom or ion in a complex or
coordination compound by a coordinate bond is called ligand.
b) It may be neutral, positively or negatively charged.
c) Examples: H2O, CN-, NO+ etc.
• Donor atom:
a) An atom of the ligand attached directly to the metal is called the donor atom.
b) Example: In the complex K4[Fe(CN)6], CN is a donor atom.
• Coordination number:
a) The coordination number (CN) of a metal ion in a complex can be defined as the
number of ligand donor atoms to which the metal is directly bonded.
b) Example: In the complex K4[Fe(CN)6], the coordination number of Fe is 6.
• Coordination sphere:
a) The central atom/ion and the ligands attached to it are enclosed in square bracket
and are collectively termed as the coordination sphere.
b) Example: In the complex K4[Fe(CN)6], [Fe(CN)6]4- is the coordination sphere.
• Counter ions:
a) The ions present outside the coordination sphere are called counter ions.
b) Example: In the complex K4[Fe(CN)6], K+ is the counter ion.
• Coordination polyhedron:
a) The spatial arrangement of the ligand atoms which are directly attached to the
central atom/ ion defines a coordination polyhedron about the central atom.

37
 b) The most common coordination polyhedra are octahedral, square planar and
tetrahedral.
c) Examples: [PtCl4]2- is square planar, Ni(CO)4 is tetrahedral while [Cu(NH3)6]3+ is
octahedral.
• Charge on the complex ion:
The charge on the complex ion is equal to the algebraic sum of the charges on all the
ligands coordinated to the central metal ion.
• Denticity:
The number of ligating (linking) atoms present in ligand is called denticity.
• Unidentate ligands:
a) The ligands whose only one donor atom is bonded to metal atom are called
unidentate ligands.
b) Examples: H2O, NH3, CO, CN-
• Didentate ligands:
a) The ligands which contain two donor atoms or ions through which they are bonded
to the metal ion.
b) Examples: Ethylene diamine (H2NCH2CH2NH2) has two nitrogen atoms, oxalate ion

has two oxygen atoms which can bind with the metal atom.
• Polydentate ligand:
a) When several donor atoms are present in a single ligand, the ligand is called
polydentate ligand.
b) Examples: In N(CH2CH2NH2)3, the ligand is said to be polydentate and
Ethylenediaminetetraacetate ion (EDTA4–) is an important hexadentate ligand. It can
bind through two nitrogen and four oxygen atoms to a central metal ion.
• Chelate:
a) An inorganic metal complex in which there is a close ring of atoms caused by
attachment of a ligand to a metal atom at two points.
b) An example is the complex ion formed between ethylene diamine and cupric ion,
[Cu(NH2CH2NH2)2]2+.
• Ambidentate ligand:
a) Ligands which can ligate (link) through two different atoms present in it are called
ambidentate ligand.
b) Example: NO2-and SCN-. Here, NO2- can link through N as well as O while SCN- can link
through S as well as N atom.
• Werner’s coordination theory:
a) Werner was able to explain the nature of bonding in complexes.
b) The postulates of Werner’s theory are:
i) Metal shows two different kinds of valencies: primary valence and secondary
valence.
ii) The ions/ groups bound by secondary linkages to the metal have
characteristic spatial arrangements corresponding to different coordination
numbers.
iii) The most common geometrical shapes in coordination compounds are
octahedral, square planar and tetrahedral.

38
• Primary valence
a) This valence is normally ionisable.
b) It is equal to positive charge on central metal atom.
c) These valencies are satisfied by negatively charged ions.
d) Example: In CrCl3, the primary valency is three. It is equal to oxidation state of
central metal ion.
• Secondary valence
a) This valence is non – ionisable.
b) The secondary valency equals the number of ligand atoms coordinated to the metal.
It is also called coordination number of the metal.
c) It is commonly satisfied by neutral and negatively charged, sometimes by positively
charged ligands.
• Oxidation number of central atom:
The oxidation number of the central atom in a complex is defined as the charge it would
carry if all the ligands are removed along with the electron pairs that are shared with the
central atom.
• Homoleptic complexes:
Those complexes in which metal or ion is coordinate bonded to only one kind of donor
atoms. For example: [Co(NH3)6]3+
• Heteroleptic complexes:
Those complexes in which metal or ion is coordinate bonded to more than one kind of
donor atoms. For example: [CoCl2(NH3)4]+, [Co(NH3)5Br]2+
• Isomers:
Two or more compounds which have same chemical formula but different arrangement
of atoms are called isomers.
• Types of isomerism:
a) Structural isomerism
i. Linkage isomerism
ii. Solvate isomerism or hydrate isomerism
iii. Ionisation isomerism
iv. Coordination isomerism
b) Stereoisomerism
i. Geometrical isomerism
ii. Optical isomerism
• Structural isomerism:
a) It arises due to the difference in structures of coordination compounds.
b) Structural isomerism, or constitutional isomerism, is a form of isomerism in
which molecules with the same molecular formula have atoms bonded together
in different orders.
• Ionisation isomerism:
a) It arises when the counter ion in a complex salt is itself a potential ligand and can
displace a ligand which can then become the counter ion.
b) Example: [Co(NH3)5Br] SO4 and [Co(NH3)5 SO4] Br
• Solvate isomerism:
a) It is isomerism in which solvent is involved as ligand.
b) If solvent is water it is called hydrate isomerism, e.g., [Cr(H2O)6]Cl3 and
[CrCl2(H2O)4] Cl2. 2H2O.

39
• Linkage isomerism:
a) It arises in a coordination compound containing ambidentate ligand.
b) In the isomerism, a ligand can form linkage with metal through different atoms.
c) Example: [Co(NH3)5ONO]Cl2 and [Co(NH3)5NO2]Cl2.
• Coordination isomerism:
a) This type of isomerism arises from the interchange of ligands between cationic
and anionic entities of different metal ions present in a complex.
b) Example: [Co(NH3)6][Cr(C2O4)3] and [Cr(NH3)6][Co(C2O4)3].
• Stereoisomerism:
This type of isomerism arises because of different spatial arrangement.
• Geometrical isomerism:
It arises in heteroleptic complexes due to different possible geometrical arrangements of
ligands.
• Optical isomerism:
Optical isomers are those isomers which are non-superimposable mirror images.
• Valence bond theory:
a) According to this theory, the metal atom or ion under the influence of ligands can use
its (n-1)d, ns, np or ns, np, nd orbitals for hybridisation to yield a set of equivalent
orbitals of definite geometry such as octahedral, tetrahedral, and square planar.
b) These hybridised orbitals are allowed to overlap with ligand orbitals that can donate
electron pairs for bonding.

Coordination Type of hybridisation Shape of hybrid

number
4 sp3 Tetrahedral

4 dsp2 Square planar

5 sp3d Trigonal bipyramidal

6 sp3d2 (nd orbitals are involved Octahedral

– outer orbital complex or high
spin or spin free complex)

6 d2sp3(n-1) d orbitals are Octahedral

involved –inner orbital or low
spin or spin paired complex)

• Magnetic properties of coordination compounds:

A coordination compound is paramagnetic in nature if it has unpaired electrons and
diamagnetic if all the electrons in the coordination compound are paired.

Magnetic moment where n is number of unpaired electrons.

• Crystal Field Theory:

40
 a) It assumes the ligands to be point charges and there is electrostatic force of
attraction between ligands and metal atom or ion.
b) It is theoretical assumption.
• Crystal field splitting in octahedral coordination complexes:

• Crystal field splitting in tetrahedral coordination complexes:

• For the same metal, the same ligands and metal-ligand distances, the difference in

energy between eg and t2g level is

• Metal carbonyls:
a) Metal carbonyls are homoleptic complexes in which carbon monoxide (CO) acts as
the ligand.
b) Example: Ni(CO)4
c) The metal-carbon bond in metal carbonyls possess both s and p character.
d) The M–C σ bond is formed by the donation of lone pair of electrons from the carbonyl
carbon into a vacant orbital of the metal.
e) The M–C π bond is formed by the donation of a pair of electrons from a filled d
orbital of metal into the vacant antibonding π * orbital of carbon monoxide.
f) The metal to ligand bonding creates a synergic effect which strengthens the bond
between CO and the metal.

41
 CBSE Class-12 Chemistry Quick Revision Notes
Chapter-06: Haloalkanes and Haloarenes

• Nature of C-X bond in alkyl halides:

X is more electronegative than carbon. So, the C-X bond is polarized with C having a
partial positive charge and X having a partial negative charge.
• Preparation of haloalkanes:
Px2 / Hx , anhyd .ZnCl2
Re d p/X 2 where X 2 = Br2 , I 2
a) Alcohol →
PCl5 / SOCl2
Haloalkanes
Hx ( Mark addition)
Or
HBr in the presence of
b) Alkenes 
→ Haloalkanes
peroxide (anti mark addition)

c) Hydrogen 
Cl2 /UV light or heat Free radical halogenation
→ Haloalkanes
d) Halogen Exchange Method:
R − X + Nal → R − I + NaX (Finkelstein reaction)
R-Br+AgF → R-F+AgBr (Swarts reaction)
• Preparation of haloarenes:
a) By elecrophilic substitution reaction:

b) Sandmeyer’s reaction:

42
 c) Gattermann reaction:

d) From Diazonium Chloride:

e) Balz – Schiemann reaction:

• Physical properties of haloalkanes:

a) Solubility
i. Although haloalkanes are polar in nature, yet they are practically very slightly
soluble in water.
ii. In order for a haloalkane to dissolve in water, energy is required to overcome
the attractions between the haloalkane molecules and break the hydrogen
bonds between water molecules.
iii. However Haloalkanes are not able to form hydrogen bonds with water and
therefore, less energy is released when new attractions are set up between
the haloalkane and the water molecules because these are not as strong as the
original hydrogen bonds in water molecules.
iv. As a result, solubility of haloalkanes in water is low.
b) Density
i. Simple fluoro and chloroalkanes are lighter than water while bromides and
polychloro devrivatives are heavier than water.
ii. With the increase in number of carbon atoms, the densities go on increasing.
With the increase in number of halogen atoms, the densities go on increasing.
The densities increase in the order: Fluoride < chloride < bromide < iodide
iii. The density also increases with increasing number and atomic mass of the
halogen.
c) Boiling Points
i. Molecules of organic halogen compounds are generally polar.

43
 ii. Due to the polarity as well as higher molecular mass as compared to the
parent hydrocarbon, the intermolecular forces of attraction (dipole – dipole
and van der Waals) between the molecules are stronger in halogen
derivatives of alkanes.
iii. As a result melting and boiling points of chlorides, bromides and iodides are
considerably higher than those of the parent hydrocarbon of comparable
molecular mass.
iv. For the same alkyl group the boiling points of alkyl chlorides, bromides and
iodides follow the order RI > RBr > RCl > RF where R is an alkyl group. This is
because with the increase in the size of the halogen, the magnitude of van der
Waals force increase.
v. In general, the boiling points of chloro, bromo and iodo compounds increase
with increase in the number of halogen atoms.
vi. For the same halogen atom, the boiling points of haloalkanes increase with
increase in the size of alkyl groups.
vii. For isomeric alkyl halides, the boiling points decrease with branching. This is
because branching of the chain makes the molecule more compact and,
therefore, decrease the surface area. Due to decrease in surface area, the
magnitude of van der Waals forces of attraction decreases and consequently,
the boiling points of the branched chain compound is less than those of the
straight chain compounds.
• Physical Properties of Haloarenes:
a. These are generally colourless liquids or crystalline solids.
b. These are heavier than water.
c. Melting and boiling points of haloarenes
i. Melting and boiling points of haloarenes are nearly the same as those of alkyl halides
containing the same number of carbon atoms.
ii. The boiling points of monohalogen derivatives of benzene are in the order: iodo >
bromo > chloro > fluoro
iii. For the same halogen atom, the melting and boiling points increase as the size of the
aryl group increases.
iv. The melting point of para isomer is quite higher than that of ortho or meta isomers.
This is due to the fast that is has symmetrical structure and therefore, its molecules can
easily pack loosely in the crystal lattice. As a result intermolecular forces of attraction
are stronger and therefore, greater energy is required to break its lattice and it melts at
higher temperature.
• Chemical properties of haloalkanes:
Nucleophilic substitution reaction:

44
 Mechanism of Nucleophilic Substitution Reaction:
SN1 Mechanism
a) First order reaction.
b) Rate = k [RX] [Nu]
c) Racemic mixture
d) One step reaction
e) Order: CH3X < 10 < 20 < 30
SN2 Mechanism
a) Second order reaction
b) Rate = k [RX]
c) Inversion of configuration
d) Two step reaction
e) Order: CH3X > 10 > 20 > 30

R − X + aq.KOH → R − OH + KX
R -X+NH 3 → R − NH 2 + HX
R − X + KCN → R − CN + KX
R − X + AgCN → R − NC + KX
• Elimination reaction: Dehydrohalogentaion( β - elimination):
When a haloalkane with β-hydrogen atom is heated with alcoholic solution of potassium
hydroxide, there is elimination of hydrogen atom from β-carbon and a halogen atom
from the α-carbon atom. As a result, an alkene is formed as a product. Zaitsev rule (also
pronounced as Saytzeff) is followed.It states that “In dehydrohalogenation reactions, the
preferred product is that alkene which has the greater number of alkyl groups attached
to the doubly bonded carbon atoms.”
• Reaction with metals:
a) Reaction with Magnesium
R − X + Mg 
dry ether
→ RMgX
b) Wurtz reaction
R − X + 2 Na + X − R → R − R + 2 NaX
• Chemical properties of haloarenes:
a) Dow’s Process

b) With halogens

45
c) With conc. nitric and sulphuric acid

d) On heating with conc. sulphuric acid

e) With methyl chloride

f) With acetyl chloride

46
g) Fittig reaction:
Ar − X + 2 Na + X − Ar → Ar − Ar + 2 NaX
h) Wurtz – fittig reaction:
R − X + 2 Na + X − Ar → R − Ar + 2 NaX
i) Other conversions:
R − X + KCN → R − CN + KX
R − CN 
Na ,C2 H 5OH or LiAH 4 or Ni/H 2
→ R − CH 2 NH 2 
HONO
→ RCH 2OH
+
R − CN 
H 3O
→ R − COOH 
NH 3
→ R − CONH 2
R − COOH 
LiAlH 4
→ RCH 2OH
R − COOH 
PCl5 or PCl3 or SOCl2
→ R − COCl
R − X + Mg 
Dry Ether
→ RMgX
RMgX + CO2 → RCOOH
RMgX + HCHO → Primary alcohol
RMgX+RCHO → Secondary alcohol
O
||
RMgX+R C R → Tertiary alcohol

47
 CBSE Class-12 Chemistry Quick Revision Notes
Chapter-07: Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers

• Structure of alcohols:

• Preparation of alcohols:
a) From alkene
Acid catalysed hydration
(H 2 O , H + )
Mark, Addition
Or
Hydroboration - oxidation
B2 H 6 , H 2O2 / OH −
Mark, addition
Alkene → Alcohol
Product is anti mark

b) From esters
Esters 
H 2 catalyst
→ Alcohol
c) From aldehydes and ketones
H 2 / Pd
or
NaBH 4
Or
LiAlH 4
Or
Alcoho l ←
 Aldehyde and ketone
Grignard ' s reagent

d) From carboxylic acids

Alcoho l ←
LiAlH 4 H 2 O
Carboxylic acids
• Structure of phenols:

• Preparation of phenols:
a) From benzene

+

Oleum
→ 
NaOH / H
→

48
 b) From chlorobenzene


NaOH at 623K,320 atm.pres
→ →
HCl

c) From cumene

+
→
H 2 O,H

O2
→
d) From aniline

→
NaNO 2 ,HCl

H 2 O,warm
→

• Physical properties of alcohols and phenols:

a) Boiling points
Boiling points of alcohols and phenols are higher in comparison to other classes of
compounds. This is because the –OH group in alcohols and phenols is involved in
intermolecular hydrogen bonding.

The boiling points of alcohols and phenols increase with increase in the number of
carbon atoms. This is because of increase in van der Waals forces with increase in
surface area.
In alcohols, the boiling points decrease with increase of branching in carbon chain.
This is because of decrease in van der Waals forces with decrease in surface area.
b) Solubility

49
 Solubility of alcohols and phenols are soluble in water due to their ability to form
hydrogen bonds with water molecules. The solubility of alcohols decreases with
increase in size of alkyl/aryl (hydrophobic) groups.
• Chemical properties of alcohols:
I. Reactions involving cleavage of O–H bond: Alcohols react as nucleophiles:
a) Reaction with metals

2 R − O − H + 2 Na → 2 R − O − Na + H 2
Sodium alkoxide

b) Esterification reaction
H+
RO − H + R '− COOH ⇔ ROCOR '+ H 2O
Alcohol

H+
RO − H + ( R ' CO2 )O ⇔ ROCOR '+ R ' COOH
Alcohol

RO − H + R ' COCl →

Pyridine
R − OCOR '+ HCl
Alcohol

II. Reactions of alcohols involving cleavage of carbon – oxygen (C–O) bond:

a) Reaction with hydrogen halides
conc . HCl + ZnCl2 / Lucas reagent
ROH + HX  → RX + H 2O
b) Reaction with phosphorus trihalides
3ROH + PX 3 → 3R − X + H 3 PO3 ( X = Cl , Br )
c) Dehydration reaction
Pr otic acids(conc.H 2 SO4 orH 3 PO4 )
Or
Alcohol → C = C + H 2O
Catalysts ( anhyd . ZnCl2 or alumina)

d) Oxidation reaction
Alcohol 
Acidified potassium permanganat
→ Carboxylic acid
CU ,573 k
Or
CrO3
Or
i) Primary Alcohol 
→ Aldehyde
PCC

CU ,573 k
Or
ii) Secondary Alcohol 
→ Ketone CrO3

CU ,573 k
Or
iii) Tertiary Alcohol 
→ AlkeneKMnO4

• Chemical properties of phenols:

I. Reactions involving cleavage of O–H bond: Alcohols react as nucleophiles:
a) Reaction with metals

50
b) Esterification reaction
H+
Ar − OH + R '− COOH ⇔ Ar − OCOR '+ H 2O
Phenol

H+
Ar − OH + ( R ' CO) 2 O ⇔ Ar − OCOR '+ R ' COOH
Phenol

Ar − OH + R ' COCl →

Pyridine
ArOCOR '+ HCl
Phenol

II. Other chemical reactions of phenols:

III. Acidic nature of phenol and alcohol:

a) Phenol > H2O > Primary alcohol > Secondary alcohol > Tertiary alcohol
The acidic character of alcohols is due to the polar nature of O–H bond. Alkyl group is
an electron-releasing group (–CH3, –C2H5) or it has electron releasing inductive effect
(+I effect). Due to +I effect of alkyl groups, the electron density on oxygen increases.
This decreases the polarity of O-H bond. And hence the acid strength decreases.

51
b) Phenol is more acidic than alcohol:
In phenol, the hydroxyl group is directly attached to the sp2 hybridised carbon of
benzene ring which acts as an electron withdrawing group whereas in alcohols, the
hydroxyl group is attached to the alkyl group which have electron releasing inductive
effect. In phenol, the hydroxyl group is directly attached to the sp2 hybridised carbon
of benzene ring whereas in alcohols, the hydroxyl group is attached to the sp3
hybridised carbon of the alkyl group. The sp2 hybridised carbon has higher
electronegativity than sp3 hybridised carbon. Thus, the polarity of O–H bond of
phenols is higher than those of alcohols. Hence, the ionisation of phenols is higher
than that of alcohols.
The ionisation of an alcohol and a phenol takes place as follows:

In alkoxide ion, the negative charge is localised on oxygen while in phenoxide ion, the
charge is delocalised.

The delocalisation of negative charge makes phenoxide ion more stable and favours the
ionisation of phenol. Although there is also charge delocalisation in phenol, its resonance
structures have charge separation due to which the phenol molecule is less stable than
phenoxide ion.

52
 c) In substituted phenols, the presence of electron withdrawing groups such as nitro
group enhances the acidic strength of phenol. On the other hand, electron releasing
groups, such as alkyl groups, in general, decreases the acid strength. It is because
electron withdrawing groups lead to effective delocalisation of negative charge in
phenoxide ion.
• Differentiate between organic compounds:
a) Alcohols and phenols
Phenol on reaction with neutral FeCl3 gives purple colour whereas alcohols do not
give purple colour.
6C6 H 5OH + Fe3+ → [ Fe(OC6 H 5 )6 ]3− + 6 H +
Purple colour

b) Primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols

Lucas reagent test:
conc . HCl + ZnCl2 / Lucas reagent
ROH + HCl  → RCl + H 2O
If it is a primary alcohol, no turbidity appears at room temperature. Turbidity
appears only on heating. If it is a secondary alcohol, turbidity appears in 5 minutes. If
it is a tertiary alcohol, turbidity appears immediately.
c) Methanol and ethanol
Iodoform test: Ethanol when reacted with (I2 and NaOH) or NaOI gives yellow ppt of
iodoform since it has the presence of CH3-CH (OH)- group.
C2 H 5OH + 4 I 2 + 6 NaOH → CHI 3 + 5 NaI + 5 H 2O + HCOONa
Yellow ppt

CH 3OH + I 2 + NaOH → No yellow ppt

• Structure of ethers:

• Preparation of ethers:
a) From alcohols
Alcohol →
H 2 SO4 or H3 PO4 at413K
Ethers

53
 b) From alkyl halide and sodium alkoxide
Ethers ←  Alkyl halide and sodium alkoxide
Williamson ' s synthesis

Here, the alkyl halide should be primary and alkoxide should be tertiary. In case of
aromatic ether, the aromatic part should be with phenoxide ion.
• Physical properties of ethers:
a) Miscibility:
Miscibility of ethers with water resembles those of alcohols of the same molecular mass.
This is due to the fact that just like alcohols, oxygen of ether can also form hydrogen
bonds with water molecule.

b) Boiling points:
Ethers have much lower boiling points than alcohols. This is due to the presence of
hydrogen bonding in alcohols. Hydrogen bonding is absent in ethers.
R R
| |
R − O− H − O− H − O− H − O−
| |
H R

• Chemical properties of ethers:

a) Cleavage of C–O bond in ethers:
R-O-R’ + HX → R-X + R’OH
Excess
The order of reactivity of hydrogen halides is as follows: HI > HBr > HCl
Alkyl halide formed is always the lower alkyl group. But if a tertiary alkyl group is
present, the alkyl halide is always tertiary. In case of phenolic ethers, the cleavage occurs
with the formation of phenol and alkyl halide.
b) Electrophilic substitution reaction in aromatic ethers:

The electrophilic substitution reaction of aromatic ether involves the following reaction:

54
• Other conversion reactions:
a) Phenol to salicyldehyde

b) Phenol to benzene diazonium chloride

55
 CBSE Class-12 Chemistry Quick Revision Notes
Chapter-08: Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic acid

• Aldehydes
Aldehydes are the organic compounds in which carbonyl group is attached to one
hydrogen atom and one alkyl or aryl group.

where R can be an alkyl or aryl group

• Preparation of aldehydes:
a) By oxidation of alcohols:
Oxidation of primary alcohols in presence of oxidizing agent like K2Cr2O7/H2SO4,
KMnO4, CrO3 gives aldehydes.
H
|
RCH 2OH 
→R −C = O Oxidation
Aldehyde
10 Alcohol

b) By dehydrogenation of alcohols:
When the vapours of primary alcohol passed through heated copper at 573 K, it
forms aldehyde.
RCH 2OH  Cu 573k
→ RCHO
Aldehyde
10 Alcohol

c) By hydration of alkynes:
Ethyne on hydration with HgSO4/dil.H2SO4 at 333 K forms acetaldehyde.

2+ +
HC ≡ CH + H − OH 
Hg / H /333 k
→ CH 2 = C − H 
Isomerisation
→ CH 3 − C − H
Ethyne | ||
OH O
Ethanal

d) By Rosenmund reduction:
Hydrogenation of acyl chloride over palladium on barium sulphate gives aldehyde.

e) By reduction of nitriles:
(i) Stephen Reaction: Reduction of nitriles in presence of stannous chloride in
presence of HCl gives imine which on hydrolysis gives corresponding aldehyde.
+

RCN + SnCl2 + HCl → RCH = NH 

H3 O
→ RCHO
(ii) Nitriles are selectively reduced by DIBAL-H (Diisobutylaluminium hydride) to
aldehydes.
AlH ( i − Bu )2 / H 2O
RCN  → R − CHO

56
 AlH ( i − Bu ) 2 / H 2O
CH 3 − CH = CH − CH 2CH 2 − CN  → CH 3 − CH = CH − CH 2CH 2 − CHO
f) By reduction of ester:
Esters are reduced to aldehydes in presence of DIBAL-H (Diisobutylaluminium
hydride)
O O
|| ||
DIBAL − H / H 2O
CH 3 (CH 2 )9 − C− OC2 H 5  → CH 3 (CH 2 )9 − C− H
g) From Hydrocarbons:
(i)By oxidation of methyl benzene:
Etard Reaction: Chromyl chloride (CrO2Cl2) oxidizes methyl group to a chromium
complex, which on hydrolysis gives corresponding benzaldehyde.

+
+ CrO 2 Cl 2 →
CS2

H 3O
→

Using chromium oxide(CrO3): Toluene or substituted toluene is converted to

benzaldehyde in presence of chromic oxide in acetic anhydride.

(ii) By side chain chlorination followed by hydrolysis:

Halogenation of toluene: Side chain halogenation of toluene gives benzal chloride
which on hydrolysis gives Benzaldehyde.

(iii) Gatterman –Koch reaction:

Benzene or its derivatives on treatment with carbon monoxide and HCl in presence
of anhydrous aluminium chloride or cuprous chloride (CuCl) gives benzaldehyde or
substituted benzaldehydes.

• Ketones:
Ketones are the organic compounds in which carbonyl group is attached to two alkyl
group or aryl group or both alkyl and aryl group.

57
 where R, R’ may be alkyl or aryl.
• Preparation of ketones:
a) By oxidation of alcohols:
Oxidation of secondary alcohols in presence of oxidizing agent like K2Cr2O7/H2SO4,
KMnO4, CrO3 gives ketones.
R' R'
| Oxidation |
R −0 C − OH → R − C = O
K 2Cr2O7 / H 2 SO4
2 Alcohol Ketone

b) By dehydrogenation of alcohols:
When the vapours of a secondary alcohol are passed over heated copper at 573 K,
dehydrogenation takes place and a ketone is formed.
R − CH − R ' 
Cu /573 k
→ R − C− R '
| ||
OH O

c) By hydration of alkynes:
Alkynes on hydration with HgSO4/dil.H2SO4 at 333 K form ketones.
2+ +
CH 3 − C ≡ CH + H − OH 
Hg / H 333 k
→ CH 3 − C = CH 2 
Isomerisation
→ CH 3 − C − CH 3
| ||
OH O
Pr opanone

d) From acyl chloride:

Acyl chloride on treatment with dialkyl cadmium (prepared by reaction of cadmium
chloride with Grignard reagent) gives ketone.
2 R − Mg − X + CdCl2 → R2Cd + 2Mg ( X )Cl
2 R '− C − Cl + R2Cd → 2 R '− C − R + CdCl2
|| ||
O O

e) From nitriles:
Nitriles on treatment with Grignard reagent followed by hydrolysis give ketones.

f) By Friedel Crafts acylation reaction:

Benzene or substituted benzene on treatment with acid chloride in presence of
anhydrous aluminium chloride forms ketone.

58
 g) Preparation of aldehydes and ketones by ozonolysis of alkenes:

• Reactions of aldehydes and ketones:

a) Aldehydes are generally more reactive than ketones in nucleophilic addition
reactions due to steric and electronic reasons (or inductive effect).
b) Electronic Effect:
Relative reactivities of aldehydes and ketones in nucleophilic addition reactions is
due the positive charge on carbonyl carbon. Greater positive charge means greater
reactivity. Electron releasing power of two alkyl groups in ketones is more than one
in aldehyde. Therefore positive charge is reduced in ketones as compared to
aldehydes. Thus ketones are less reactive than aldehydes.
c) Stearic Effect:
As the number and size of alkyl group increase, the hindrance to the attack of
nucleophile also increases and reactivity decreases. In aldehydes there is one alkyl
group and one hydrogen atom, whereas in ketones there are two alkyl groups (same
or different).
• Nucleophilic addition reactions of aldehydes and ketones:
(a)Addition of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) to form cyanohydrins

(b)Addition of sodium hydrogensulphite (NaHSO3) to form bisulphate addition

compound

59
 (c)Addition of Grignard reagent (RMgX) to form alcohol

(d)Addition of alcohol:
(i) Aldehydes on addition of monohydric alcohol in presence of dry HCl forms hemiacetal
and acetal.

(ii)Ketones do not react with monohydric alcohols. Ketones react with ethylene glycol
under similar conditions to form cyclic products known as ethylene glycol ketals.

(e)Addition of ammonia and its derivatives:

• Reduction of aldehydes and ketones:

(a) Reduction to alcohols:
Aldehydes and ketones on catalytic hydrogenation in presence of Ni, Pt or Pd by using
lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4) or sodium borohydride (NaBH4 ) forms primary and
secondary alcohols respectively.
H 2 / Ni , Pt or Pd
Or
LiAlH 4
Or

/
\
C = O → /\CH − OH
NaBH 4

60
 (b) Reduction to hydrocarbons:
(i) Clemmensen reduction: Carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones is reduced to CH2
group on treatment with zinc amalgam and concentrated hydrochloric acid.
Zn − Hg / HCl
/ C = O → / CH 2 + H 2 O
\ \

(ii) Wolff-Kishner reduction: Carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones is reduced to CH2
group on treatment with hydrazine followed by heating with sodium or potassium
hydroxide in high boiling solvent such as ethylene glycol.
NH 2 NH 2 / − H 2O
/ C = O → / C = NNH 2  → /\CH 2 + N 2
\ \ KOH / ethylene glycol/Heat

• Oxidation of aldehydes and ketones:

(i) Aldehydes are oxidized to acids in presence of mild oxidising agents HNO3, K2Cr2O7,
KMnO4.
R − CHO  [O ]
→ R − COOH
(ii) Ketones are oxidized under drastic conditions i.e. with powerful oxidising agents like
HNO3, K2Cr2O7/H2SO4, KMnO4/H2SO4 at higher temperature.
1 2 3
R − CH 2 − C − CH 2 − R ' 
[O ]
→ R − COOH + R '− CH 2COOH + R − CH 2COOH + R '− COOH
|| ( By cleavage of C1 − C2 bond ) ( By cleavage of C2 −C3bond )
O
In case of unsymmetrical ketones cleavage occurs in such a way that keto group stays
with smaller alkyl group. This is known as Popoff’s rule.
(iii)Haloform reaction: Aldehydes and ketones having at least one methyl group linked
to the carbonyl carbon atom i.e. methyl ketones are oxidised by sodium hypohalite to
sodium salts of corresponding carboxylic acids having one carbon atom less than that of
carbonyl compound. The methyl group is converted to haloform.
O O
|| ||
R − C − CH 3 
NaOX
→ R − C − ONa + CHX 3 ( X = Cl , Br ,1)
• Reactions of aldehydes and ketones due to α -hydrogen:
(i) Aldol condensation: Aldehydes and ketones having at least one α -hydrogen
undergo a self condensation in the presence of dilute alkali as catalyst to form α -
hydroxy aldehydes (aldol) or α -hydroxy ketones (ketol), respectively.
dil . NaOH
∆ / − H 2O
2CH 3 − CHO ⇔ CH 3 − CH − CH 2 − CHO  → CH 3 − CH = CH − CHO
Ethanal | But − 2 − enal
OH ( Aldol condensation product)
3-Hydroxybutanal(Aldol)

CH3 CH3
Ba ( OH )2 | |
∆ / − H 2O
2CH 3 − CO − CH 3 ⇔ CH 3 − C − CH 2CO − CH 3  → CH 3 − C = CH − CO − CH 3
Pr opanone | 4 − Methylpent − 3en − 2 − one
OH ( Aldol condensation product)
4-Hydroxy-4-methylpentan-2-one(ketol)

(ii) Cross aldol condensation: Aldol condensation between two different aldehydes and
ketones is called aldol condensation. If both of them contain α -hydrogen atoms, it gives
a mixture of four products.

61
• Canizzaro reaction:
Aldehydes which do not have an α -hydrogen atom undergo self-oxidation and
reduction (disproportionation) reaction on treatment with concentrated alkali to form
alcohol and salt of acid.

• Test to distinguish aldehydes and ketones:

1) Tollen’s test: When an aldehyde is heated with Tollen’s reagent it forms silver mirror.
Tollen’s reagent is ammoniacal solution of AgNO3
RCHO + 2[ Ag ( NH 3 ) 2 ]+ + 3OH − → RCOO − + 2 Ag + 2 H 2O + 4 NH 3
Ketones do not form silver mirror and hence do not give this test.
2) Fehling’s test: When an aldehyde is heated with Fehling’s reagent it forms reddish
brown precipitates of cuprous oxide. Fehling’s reagent: Fehling solution A (aqueous
solution of CuSO4) + Fehling solution B (alkaline solution of sodium potassium
tartarate)
R − CHO + 2Cu 2+ + 5OH − → RCOO − + Cu2O + 3H 2O
Re d − Brown ppt

Ketones do not give this test.

• Carboxylic Acids:
Carboxylic acids are the compounds containing the carboxylfunctional group (-COOH).

62
• Preparation of carboxylic acid:
(i) From alcohols: Primary alcohols are readily oxidised to carboxylic acids with
common oxidising agents such as potassium permanganate (KMnO4) in neutral, acidic or
alkaline media or by potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) and chromium trioxide (CrO3) in
acidic media.
+

a) RCH 2OH 

alkaline KMnO 4 / H 3 O
→ RCOOH
CrO3 − H 2 SO4
b) RCH 2OH  → RCOOH
(ii) From aldehydes: Oxidation of aldehydes in presence of mild oxidizing agents like
Tollen’s reagent (ammoniacal solution of AgNO3) or Fehling reagent (Fehling solution A
(aqueous solution of CuSO4) + Fehling solution B (aqueous solution of sodium potassium
tartarate)) forms carboxylic acids.
a) RCHOH + 2[ Ag ( NH 3 ) 2 ]+ + 3OH − → RCOO − + 2 Ag + 2 H 2O + 4 N
b) R − CHO + 2Cu 2+ + 5OH − → RCOO − + Cu2O + 3H 2O
(iii)From alkyl benzenes: Aromatic carboxylic acids can be prepared by vigorous
oxidation of alkyl benzenes with chromic acid or acidic or alkaline potassium
permanganate.

(iv)From alkenes: Suitably substituted alkenes are oxidised to carboxylic acids on

oxidation with acidic potassium permanganate or acidic potassium dichromate.
+
a) R − CH = CH − R 
kMnO4 / H
→ 2 R − COOH
+
b) R − CH = CH − R1 
kMnO4 / H
→ R − COOH + R1 − COOH
(v)From Nitriles: Nitriles on hydrolysis in presence of dilute acids or bases forms amide
which on further hydrolysis gives carboxylic acid.
O
||
H + or OH − /H 2 O +
H or OH /∆ −
R − CN → R − C − NH 2  → RCOOH
(vi) From Grignard reagent: Grignard reagents react with carbon dioxide (dry ice) to
form salts of carboxylic acids which on hydrolysis forms carboxylic acids.

63
 (vii) From acyl halides and anhydrides: Acid chlorides when hydrolysed with water give
carboxylic acids .On basic hydrolysis carboxylate ions are formed which on further
acidification forms corresponding carboxylic acids. Anhydrides on hydrolysis forms
corresponding acid(s)

(viii)From esters: Acidic hydrolysis of esters gives directly carboxylic acids while basic
hydrolysis gives carboxylates, which on acidification give corresponding carboxylic
acids.
H 3O +
R − COO − R ' ⇔ R − COOH + R '− OH
NaOH
R − COO − R ' ⇔ R − COO+ − Na + R '− OH
↓ H 3O
R −COOH

• Physical properties of carboxylic acids:

(i)Solubility: As the size of alky group increases solubility of carboxylic acid decreases
because non-polar part of the acid increases
(ii)Boiling points: Carboxylic acids are higher boiling liquids than aldehydes, ketones
and even alcohols of comparable molecular masses. This is due to extensive association
of carboxylic acid molecules through intermolecular hydrogen bonding.

• Acidity of carboxylic acids:

Carboxylic acids are more acidic than phenols. The strength of acid depends on extent of
ionization which in turn depends on stability of anion formed.
(i)Effect of electron donating substituents on the acidity of carboxylic acids: Electron
donating substituent decreases stability of carboxylate ion by intensifying the negative
charge and hence decreases acidity of carboxylic acids.

64
 (ii)Effect of electron withdrawing substituent on the acidity of carboxylic acids: Electron
withdrawing group increases the stability of carboxylate ion by delocalizing negative
charge and hence, increases acidity of carboxylic acid. The effect of the following groups
in increasing acidity order is Ph < I < Br < Cl < F < CN < NO2 < CF3
(a)Effect of number of electron withdrawing groups: As the number of electron
withdrawing groups increases –I effect increases, increasing the acid strength
(b)Effect of position of electron withdrawing group: As the distance between electron
withdrawing group and carboxylic group increases, electron withdrawing influence
decreases.
• Reaction of carboxylic acids:
Reactions involving cleavage of C-OH bond:
Carboxylic acids on heating with mineral acids such as H2SO4 or with P2O5 give
corresponding anhydride.
(i) Anhydride formation:

(ii) Esterification: Carboxylic acids are esterified with alcohols in the presence of a
mineral acid such as concentrated H2SO4 or HCl gas as a catalyst.
H+
RCOOH + R ' OH ⇔ RCOOR '+ H 2O
(iii) Carboxylic acids react with PCl5, PCl3 and SOCl2 to form acyl chlorides.
a) RCOOH + PCl5 → RCOCl + PCl3 + HCl
b) 3RCOOH + PCl3 → 3RCOCl + H 3 PO3
c) RCOOH + SOCl2 → RCOCl + SO2 + HCl
(iv) Reaction with ammonia (NH3): Carboxylic acids react with ammonia to give
ammonium salt which on further heating at high temperature gives amides.
− +
∆ / − H 2O
a) CH 3COOH + NH 3 ⇔ CH 3CO O N H 4  → CH 3CONH 2
Ammonium acetate Acetamide

b)
Reactions involving COOH group:
(i)Reduction: Carboxylic acids are reduced to alcohols in presence of LiAlH4 or B2H6.
R − COOH 
LiAlH 4 / ether or B2 H 6 / H 3O
→ R − CH 2OH
(ii)Decarboxylation : Sodium or potassium salts of carboxylic acids on heating with soda
lime (NaOH + CaO in ratio of 3:1) gives hydrocarbons which contain one carbon less than
the parent acid.

65
 R − COONa 
NaOH &CaO / Heat
→ R − H + Na2CO3
(c)Reactions involving substitution reaction in hydrocarbon part:
(i) Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky reaction: Carboxylic acids having an α -hydrogen are
halogenated at the α -position on treatment with chlorine or bromine in the presence of
small amount of red phosphorus to give α -halocarboxylic acids)
R − CH 2 − COOH →
X 2 /Re d phosphorus/H 2O
R − CH − COOH
|
X
X =Cl , Br
α − Halocarboxylic acid

(ii)Ring substitution in aromatic acids: Aromatic carboxylic acids undergo electrophilic

substitution reactions. Carboxyl group in benzoic acid is electron withdrawing group
and is meta directing.

a)

b)

66
 CBSE Class-09 Chemistry Quick Revision Notes
Chapter-09: Amines

• Amines
Amines are regarded as derivatives of ammonia in which one, two or all three hydrogen
atoms are replaced by alkyl or aryl group.
• Classification of amines:

• Preparation of amines:
(i)By reduction of nitro compounds: Nitro compounds can be catalytically reduced by
passing hydrogen gas in presence of Raney Ni, finely divided Pt or Pd as catalyst at room
temperature.
a) R − NO2 + 3H 2 
Ni , Pt or pd
→ R − NH 2 + 2 H 2O
b) Ar − NO2 + 3H 2 
Ni , Pt or pd
→ Ar − NH 2 + 2 H 2O
Nitro compounds can also be reduced with active metals such as Fe, Sn, Zn etc. with
conc. HCl.
a) R − NO2 + 3H 2 
Sn / HCl or Fe/HCl
→ R − NH 2 + 2 H 2O
b) Ar − NO2 + 3H 2 
Sn / HCl or Fe/HCl
→ Ar − NH 2 + 2 H 2O
(ii)By Hoffmann’s method (Ammonolysis of alkyl halides): Reaction of alkyl halides with
an ethanolic solution of ammonia in a sealed tube at 373 K forms a mixture of primary,
secondary and tertiary amine and finally quarternary ammonium salt. Process of
cleavage of C-X bond by ammonia is called ammonolysis.

67
 + −
RNH 2 
RX
→ R2 NH 
RX
→ R3 N 
RX
→ R4 N X
(10 ) (20 ) (30 ) Quaternary
ammonium salt

• The free amine can be obtained from the ammonium salt by treatment with a strong
base:
a) NH 3 + RX → RNH 3 + X − 
NaOH
→ RNH 2 + H 2O + Na + X −
(10 a min e )

b) RNH 2 + RX → R2 NH 2 + X − 
NaOH
→ R2 NH + H 2O + Na + X −
( 2 a min e)
0

c) R2 NH + RX → R3 NH + X − 
NaOH
→ R3 N + H 2O + Na + X −
(30 a min e )

• Order of reactivity of halides is: RI> RBr> RCl

• Larger the size of halogen atom easier is the cleavage of R-X bond
• Limitations of Hoffmann’s method:
Method gives mixture of amines which are difficult to separate in a laboratory.
• Methods to get only one product by Hoffmann’s method:
(i)When ammonia is taken in excess primary amine is formed as main product
(ii)When alkyl halide is used in excess quarternary ammonium salt is formed as main
product.
Method is not suitable for preparation of aryl amines because aryl amines are relatively
less reactive than alkyl halides towards nucleophilic substitution reactions.
(iii) By reduction of nitriles: Nitriles can be reduced to amines using H2 / Ni , LiAlH4 or
Na(Hg) / C2H5 OH
H 2 / Ni
Or
Na ( Hg )/ C2 H 5OH
Or
R − C ≡ N 
→ R − CH 2 − NH 2
LiAlH 4

(iii)By reduction of amides: Amides are reduced to corresponding amines by LiAlH4

O
||
R − C − NH 2 
LiAlH 4 / H 2O
→ R − CH 2 − NH 2
(iv) By Gabriel phthalimide synthesis: Gabriel synthesis is used for the preparation of
primary amines. When phthalimide is treated with ethanolic potassium hydroxide, it
forms potassium salt of phthalimide which on heating further with alkyl halide followed
by alkaline hydrolysis produces the corresponding primary amine.

68
 Aromatic primary amines cannot be prepared by this method because aryl halides do
not undergo nucleophilic substitution with potassium phthalimide.
(v) By Hoffmann bromamide degradation reaction: Primary amines can be prepared
from amides by treatment with Br2 and KOH. Amine contains one carbon atom less than
the parent amide.
O
||
R − C − NH 2 + Br2 + 4 NaOH → R − NH 2 + Na2CO3 + 2 NaBr + 2 H 2O
• Physical properties of amines:
(i)Solubility: Lower aliphatic amine is soluble in water because they can form hydrogen
bonding with water. Solubility decreases with increases in molar mass of amines due to
increase in size of hydrophobic group
(ii)Boiling points: Among the isomeric amines primary and secondary amines have high
boiling point because they can form hydrogen bonding. Tertiary amine cannot form
hydrogen bonding due to the absence of hydrogen atom available for hydrogen bond
formation. Hence order of boiling of isomeric amines is Primary>Secondary> Tertiary
• Chemical properties of amines:
(a)Basic character of amines:
Amines have an unshared pair of electrons on nitrogen atom due to which they behave
as Lewis base. Basic character of amines can be better understood in terms of their Kb
and pKb values
+ −
R − NH 2 + H 2O ⇔ R − N H 3 + O H
+ −
[ R − N H 3 ][O H ]
K=
[ R − NH 2 ][ H 2O ]
+ −
[ R − N H 3 ][O H ]
Or K [ H 2O ] =
[ R − NH 2 ]
+ −
[ R − N H 3 ][O H ]
Kb =
[ R − NH 2 ]

69
 pKb = − log Kb
Greater Kb value or smaller pKb indicates base is strong.
(b)Comparison of basic strength of aliphatic amines and ammonia: Aliphatic amines are
stronger bases than ammonia due to +I effect of alkyl groups leading to high electron
density on the nitrogen atom.
(c) Comparison of basic strength of primary, secondary and tertiary amines
(i)The order of basicity of amines in the gaseous phase follows the expected order on the
basis of +I effect: tertiary amine > secondary amine > primary amine > NH3
(ii)In aqueous solution it is observed that tertiary amines are less basic than either
primary or secondary amines. This can be explained on basis of following factors:
(a) Solvation effect: Greater is the stability of the substituted ammonium cation
formed, stronger is the corresponding amine as a base. Tertiary ammonium ion is
less hydrated than secondary ammonium ion which is less hydrated than primary
amine. Thus tertiary amines have fewer tendencies to form ammonium ion and
consequently are least basic.
On the basis of solvation effect order of basicity of aliphatic amines should be
primary amine>secondary amine>tertiary amine.
(b) Steric factor: As the crowding of alkyl group increases from primary to tertiary
amine hinderance to hydrogen bonding increases which eventually decreases the
basic strength. Thus there is a subtle interplay of the inductive effect, solvation
effect and steric hinderance of the alkyl group which decides the basic strength of
alkyl amines in the aqueous state.
When the alkyl group is small like CH3 there is no steric hindrance to hydrogen
bonding. In this case order of basicity in aqueous medium is
(CH 3 )2 NH > CH 3 NH 2 > (CH 3 )3 N > NH 3
When alkyl group is ethyl group order of basicity in aqueous medium is
(C2 H 5 )2 NH > (C2 H 5 )3 N > C2 H 5 NH 2 > NH 3
(c) Comparison of basic strength of aryl amines and alkylamines:
Generally aryl amines are considerably less basic than alkyl amines .Taking an
example of aniline and ethylamine it is observed that ethyl amine is more basic
than aniline. In aniline –NH2 group is directly attached to benzene ring. Hence
unshared pair of electron on nitrogen is less available for protonation because of
resonance. Below mentioned are resonating structures of aniline.

70
 In the above resonating structures there is a positive charge on nitrogen atom
making the lone pair less available for protonation. Hence aniline is less basic
than ethyl amine which has no resonating structures. Less basicity of aniline can
also be explained by comparing the relative stability of aniline and anilinium ion
obtained by accepting a proton. Greater the number of resonating structures,
greater is the stability of that species.
Aniline is resonance hybrid of five resonating structures whereas anilinium ion
has only two resonating structures.

Thus aniline has less tendency to accept a proton to form anilinium ion.
(d) Effect of substituent on basic character of amines:
Electron donating or electron releasing group/groups (EDG) increases basic
strength while electron withdrawing (EWG) decreases basic strength.

• Reactions of amines:
(a) Acylation Reaction: Aliphatic and aromatic primary and secondary amines (which
contain replaceable hydrogen atoms) react with acid chlorides, anhydrides and
esters to form substituted amide. Process of introducing an acyl group (R-CO-)
into the molecule is called acylation. The reaction is carried out in the presence of
a stronger base than the amine, like pyridine, which removes HCl formed and
shifts the equilibrium to the product side.
R − NH 2 + RCOCl Base
→ RNHCOR + HCl
Acid chloride Substituted amide
O O
|| ||
R '− NH 2 + R − C − O − C − R 
Base
→ R ' NHCOR + RCOOH
Acid anhydride Substituted amide

R2 NH + RCOCl 
→ R2 NCOR + HCl
Base

Since tertiary amine do not contain replaceable hydrogen atom they do not
undergo acylation reaction.

71
 (b) Carbylamine reaction: Only aliphatic and aromatic primary amines on heating
with chloroform and ethanolic potassium hydroxide form isocyanides or
carbylamines.
R − NH 2 + CHCl3 + 3KOH 
Heat
→ R − NC + 3KCl + 3H 2O
Secondary and tertiary amines do not give the above test.
(c) Reaction of primary amine with nitrous acid:
(i)Primary aliphatic amine on reaction with nitrous acid (HNO2) forms aliphatic
diazonium salt which decomposes to form alcohol and evolve nitrogen.
+ −
NaNO2 + HCl
R − NH 2 + HNO2  →[ R − N 2 Cl ] 
H 2O
→ ROH + N 2 + HCl
(ii)Primary aromatic amines react with nitrous acid (HNO2) in cold (273-278 K)
to form diazonium salt.
+ −
NaNO2 + 2 HCl / 273− 278 K
C6 H 5 − NH 2  → C6 H 5 − N 2 Cl + NaCl + 2 H 2O
Aniline Benzenediazonium
chloride

(d) Reaction with benzene sulphonyl chloride: Hinsberg’s reagent-Benzenesulphonyl

chloride (C6H5SO2Cl) reacts with primary and secondary amines to form
sulphonamides.

The hydrogen attached to nitrogen in sulphonamide formed by primary amine is

strongly acidic due to the presence of strong electron withdrawing sulphonyl
group. Hence, it is soluble in alkali.

Since sulphonamide formed by secondary amine does not contain any hydrogen
atom attached to nitrogen atom, so it is not acidic. Hence it is insoluble in alkali.

• Ring substitution in aromatic amine:

Aniline is more reactive than benzeneand undergoes electrophilic substitution reaction
preferably at ortho and para position.

72
(i) Bromination: Aniline reacts with bromine water at room temperature to give a white
precipitate of 2, 4, 6-tribromoaniline

In order to stop reaction at monosubstitution activating effect of –NH2 group is reduced

by acetylation. This prevents di and tri substituted products. Acetyl group is removed by
hydrolysis.

(ii) Nitration:
(a)Under strongly acidic medium aniline gets protonated to form anilinium ion, which is
deactivating group and is meta directing. Hence minitroaniline is also formed in 47 %
along with ortho and para products.

Aromatic amines cannot be nitrated directly because HNO3 being a strong oxidising
agent oxidises it forming black mass.
(b) Nitration by protecting the –NH2 group by acetylation reaction with acetic
anhydride:

(iii) Sulphonation: Aniline reacts with conc. H2SO4 to form anilinium hydrogensulphate
which on heating with sulphuric acid at 453-473K produces p-aminobenzene sulphonic
acid, commonly known as sulphanilic acid, as the major product.

73
• Reactions of benzene diazonium chloride:
(a) Reactions involving displacement of nitrogen:

(b) Reactions involving retention of diazo group, coupling reactions: Diazonium ion
acts as an electrophile because there is a positive charge on terminal nitrogen.
Therefore benzene diazonium chloride couples with electron rich compounds like
phenol and aniline to give azo compounds. Azo compounds contain –N=N- bond
and reaction is coupling reaction.

74
 CBSE Class-12 Chemistry Quick Revision Notes
Chapter-10: Biomolecules

• Carbohydrates:
Polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy ketones or compounds on hydrolysis give
carbohydrates.
• Classification of carbohydrates:
Monosaccharides
a) Simplest carbohydrates
b) It cannot be hydrolysed into simpler compounds
c) Examples - Glucose, mannose
Oligosaccharides
a) Carbohydrates which gives 2 to 10 monosaccharide units on hydrolysis
b) Examples - Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose
Polysaccharides
a) Carbohydrates which on hydrolysis give large number of monosaccharide units.
b) Examples - Cellulose, starch
• Anomers:
Pair of optical isomers which differ in configuration only around C1 atom are called anomers.
Examples - α -D-glucopyranose and β -D-glucopyranose.
• Epimers:
Pair of optical isomers which differ in configurationaround any other C atom other than C1
atom are called epimers. E.g. D-glucose and D- mannose are C2 epimers.

• Preparation of glucose (also called dextrose, grape sugar):

a) From sucrose
+
C12 H 22O11 + H 2O →
H
C6 H12O6 + C6 H12O6
Sucrose Glu cos e Fructose

b) From starch
+
H /393 k ;2 −3 atm
(C12 H 22O5 )n + H 2O  → nC6 H12O6
Sucrose Glu cos e
Or
Cellulose

• Structure of glucose
CHO − (CHOH ) 4 − CH 2OH

• Structure elucidation of glucose:

75
a) D – glucose with HI

b) D – glucose with HCN

c) D – glucose with NH2OH

d) D- glucose with Fehling’s reagent

e) D – glucose with Tollen’s reagent

f) D – glucose with nitric acid

CHO − (CHOH ) 4 − CH 2OH →

Oxidtion
COOH − (CHOH ) 4 − COOH ←  COOH − (CHOH ) 4 − CH 2OH
Oxidation

Saccharic acid Gluconic acid

g) D – glucose with (CH3CO)2O and ZnCl2

Glucose →
5( CH 3CO ) 2 O / ZnCl2
CHO − (CHOCOCH 3 ) 4 − CH 2OCOCH 3 + 5CH 3COOH → shows the presence of 5 -OH groups
Penta acetyl glucose

h) D – glucose with bromine water

CHO − (CHOH ) 4 − CH 2OH 
Br2 water
→ COOH − (CHOH ) 4 − CH 2OH
Gluconic acid

i) Glucose with phenyl hydrazine to form osazone

76
 Glucose and fructose gives the same osazone because the reaction takes place at C1 and
C2 only.
• Other Reactions of Glucose (Presence of ring structure)

Glucose does not give Schiff’s test and does not react with sodium bisulphite and NH3.
Pentaacetyl glucose does not react with hydroxyl amine. This shows the absence of –CHO
group and hence the presence of ring structure.
• Cyclic structure of glucose:

• Haworth representation of glucose:

• Cyclic structure of fructose:

77
• Haworth representation of fructose

• Glycosidic linkage:
The oxide linkage formed by the loss of a water molecule when two monosaccharides are
joined together through oxygen atom is called glycosidic linkage.
• Sucrose (invert sugar):
a) Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar because the two monosaccharide units are held together
by a glycosidic linkage between C1 of α -glucose and C2 of β - fructose. Since the
reducing groups of glucose and fructose are involved in glycosidic bond formation,
sucrose is a non-reducing sugar.

b) Sucrose is dextrorotatory but on hydrolysis it gives dextrorotatory & laevorotatory and

the mixture is laevorotatory.
+
C12 H 22O11 + H 2O →
H
C6 H12O6 + C6 H12O6
Sucrose D − glu cos e D − fructose
[α ]D =+66.50 [α ]D =+52.50 [α ]D =−92.40

• Haworth Projection of Sucrose:

78
• Maltose:
a) Maltose is composed of two α-D-glucose units in which C1 of one glucose (I) is linked to
C4 of another glucose unit (II).
b) The free aldehyde group can be produced at C1 of second glucose in solution and it shows
reducing properties so it is a reducing sugar.
Maltose H 2O
→ Glucose + Glucose
C1α C 4α

• Haworth projection of maltose:

• Lactose (Milk sugar):

It is composed of β-D-galactose and β-D-glucose. The linkage is between C1 of galactose and
C4 of glucose. Hence it is also a reducing sugar.

• Haworth projection of lactose:

79
• Starch:
It is a polymer of α -glucose and consists of two components — Amylose and
Amylopectin.
• Amylose:
a) It is a water soluble component
b) It is a long unbranched chain polymer
c) It contains 200 – 1000 α -D-(+)- glucose units held by α - glycosidic linkages
involving C1 – C4 glycosidic linkage
d) It constitutes about 15-20% of starch
• Amylopectin
a) It is a water insoluble component
b) It is branched chain polymer
c) It forms chain by C1 – C4 glycosidic linkage whereas branching occurs by C1 – C6
glycosidic linkage
d) It constitutes about 80-85% of starch
• Cellulose:
a) It occurs exclusively in plants.
b) It is a straight chain polysaccharide composed only of β -D-glucose units which are
joined by glycosidic linkage between C1 of one glucose unit and C4 of the next
glucose unit.
• Glycogen:
a) The carbohydrates are stored in animal body as glycogen.
b) It is also known as animal starch because its structure is similar to Amylopectin.
c) It is present in liver, muscles and brain.
d) When the body needs glucose, enzymes break the glycogen down to glucose.
• Amino acids:
Amino acids contain amino (–NH2) and carboxyl (–COOH) functional groups.
R − CH − COOH
|
NH 2

Where R – Any side chain

Most naturally occurring amino acids have L – Config.

80
• Types of amino acids:
a) Essential amino acids
The amino acids which cannot be synthesised in the body and must be obtained through
diet, are known as essential amino acids. Examples: Valine, Leucine
b) Non-essential amino acids
The amino acids, which can be synthesised in the body, are known as non-essential
amino acids. Examples: Glycine, Alanine
• Zwitter ion form of amino acids:
a) Amino acids behave like salts rather than simple amines or carboxylic acids. This
behaviour is due to the presence of both acidic (carboxyl group) and basic (amino group)
groups in the same molecule. In aqueous solution, the carboxyl group can lose a proton
and amino group can accept a proton, giving rise to a dipolar ion known as zwitter ion.
This is neutral but contains both positive and negative charges.
b) In zwitter ionic form, amino acids show amphoteric behaviour as they react both with
acids and bases.
O O
|| ||
R − CH − C − O − H ⇔ R − CH − C − O −
| |
+
: NH NH3
2
( Zwitter ion)

• Isoelectronic point:
The pH at which the dipolar ion exists as neutral ion and does not migrate to either electrode
cathode or anode is called isoelectronic point.
• Proteins:
Proteins are the polymers of α -amino acids and they are connected to each other by
peptide bond or peptide linkage. A polypeptide with more than hundred amino acid residues,
having molecular mass higher than 10,000u is called a protein.
• Peptide linkage:
Peptide linkage is an amide linkage formed by condensation reaction between –COOH group
of one amino acid and –NH2 group of another amino acid.

O
||
H 2 N − CH − COOH + H 2 N − CH − COOH → H 2 N − CH − C − NH − CH − COOH
| | | |
R1 R2 R1 R2

Peptide link age

• Primary structure of proteins:
The sequence of amino acids is said to be the primary structure of a protein.

81
• Secondary structure of proteins: It refers to the shape in which long polypeptide chain can
exist. Two different types of structures:
α – Helix:
a) It was given by Linus Pauling in 1951
b) It exists when R- group is large.
c) Right handed screw with the NH group of each amino acid residue H – bonded to – C
= O of adjacent turn of the helix.
d) Also known as 3.613 helix since each turn of the helix hasapproximately 3.6 amino
acids and a 13 – membered ring is formed by H – bonding.
e) C = O and N – H group of the peptide bonds are trans to each other.
f) Ramchandran angles ( Φ and Ψ ) - Φ angle which Cα makes with N – H and Ψ angle
which Cα makes with C = O.
β – pleated sheet:
a) It exists when R group is small.
b) In this conformation, all peptide chains are stretched out to nearly maximum
extension and then laid side by side which are held together by hydrogen bonds.
• Tertiary structure of proteins:
It represents the overall folding of the polypeptide chain i.e., further folding of the 2°
structure.
• Types of bonding which stabilize the 3° structure:
a) Disulphide bridge (-S – S-)

b) H – bonding – (C = O … H – N)

c) Salt bridge (COO– … +NH3)

d) Hydrophobic interactions

e) van der Waals forces

• Two shapes of proteins:
Fibrous proteins
a) When the polypeptide chains run parallel and are held together by hydrogen and
disulphide bonds, then fibre– like structure is formed.
b) These proteins are generally insoluble in water
c) Examples: keratin (present in hair, wool, silk) and myosin (present in muscles), etc
Globular proteins
a) This structure results when the chains of polypeptides coil around to give a spherical
shape.
b) These are usually soluble in water.
c) Examples: Insulin and albumins

82
• Quaternary structure of proteins:
a) Some of the proteins are composed of two or more polypeptide chains referred to as sub-
units.
b) The spatial arrangement of these subunits with respect to each other is known as
quaternary structure of proteins.
• Denaturation of proteins:
a) The loss of biological activity of proteins when a protein in its native form, is subjected to
physical change like change in temperature or chemical change like change in pH. This is
called denaturation of protein.
b) Example: coagulation of egg white on boiling, curdling of milk.
• Nucleoside:
a) Base + sugar

• Nucleotide:
a) Base + sugar + phosphate group

• Nucleic acids (or polynucletides):

a) Long chain polymers of nucleotides.
b) Nucleotides are joined by phosphodiester linkage between 5’ and 3’ C atoms of a pentose
sugar.
• Two types of nucleic acids:
DNA
a) It has a double stranded α -helix structure in which two strands are coiled spirally in
opposite directions.
b) Sugar present is β –D–2-deoxyribose
c) Bases:
i) Purine bases: Adenine (A) and Guanine (G)
ii) Pyrimidine bases: Thymine (T) and cytosine (C)
d) It occurs mainly in the nucleus of the cell.

83
 e) It is responsible for transmission for heredity character.
RNA
a) It has a single stranded α -helix structure.
b) Sugar present is β –D–ribose
c) Bases:
i) Purine bases: Adenine (A) and Guanine (G)
ii) Pyrimidine bases: Uracil (U) and cytosine (C)
d) It occurs mainly in the cytoplasm of the cell.
e) It helps in protein synthesis.
• Double helix structure of DNA:
a) It is composed of two right handed helical polynucleotide chains coiled spirally in
opposite directions around the same central axis.
b) Two strands are anti-parallel i.e., their phosphodiester linkage runs in opposite
directions.
c) Bases are stacked inside the helix in planes ⊥ to the helical axis.
d) Two strands are held together by H – bonds (A = T, G ≡ C).
e) The two strands are complementary to each other because the hydrogen bonds are
formed between specific pairs of bases.
f) Adenine forms hydrogen bonds with thymine whereas cytosine forms hydrogen bonds
with guanine.
g) Diameter of double helix is 2 nm.
h) Double helix repeats at intervals of 3.4 nm. (One complete turn)
i) Total amount of purine (A + G) = Total amount of pyramidine (C + T)
• Vitamins:
Vitamins are organic compounds required in the diet in small amounts to perform specific
biological functions for normal maintenance of optimum growth and health of the organism.
• Classification of vitamins:
Vitamins are classified into two groups depending upon their solubility in water or fat.
a) Water soluble vitamins
i) These vitamins are soluble in water.
ii) Water soluble vitamins must be supplied regularly in diet because they are readily
excreted in urine and cannot be stored (except vitamin B12) in our body.
iii) Example: Vitamin C, B group vitamins.
b) Fat soluble vitamins
i) These vitamins are soluble in fat and oils but insoluble in water.
ii) They are stored in liver and adipose (fat storing) tissues.
iii) Example: Vitamin A, D, E and K

84
• Important vitamins, their sources and their deficiency diseases:

Name of vitamins Sources Deficiency diseases

Vitamin A Fish liver oil, carrots, xe r o p h t h a l m i a

butter and milk (hardening of cornea of
eye)
Night blindness
Vitamin B1 Yeast, milk, green Beri beri (loss of appetite,
(Thiamine) vegetables and cereals retarded growth)
Vitamin B2 Milk, egg white, liver, Cheilosis (fissuring at
(Riboflavin) kidney corners of mouth and
lips), digestive disorders
and burning sensation
of the skin.
Vitamin B6 Yeast, milk, egg yolk, Convulsions
(Pyridoxine) cereals and grams
Vitamin B12 Meat, fish, egg and Pernicious anaemia
curd (RBC deficient in
haemoglobin)
Vitamin C Citrus fruits, amla and Scurvy (bleeding gums)
(Ascorbic acid) green leafy vegetables
Vitamin D Exposure to sunlight, Rickets (bone deformities
fish and egg yolk in children) and
osteomalacia
(soft bones and
joint pain in adults)
Vitamin E Vegetable oils like wheat Increased fragility of
germ oil, sunflower oil, RBCs and muscular
etc. weakness
Vitamin K Green leafy vegetables Increased blood clotting
time

85
 Important Insights

Solutions
Topic Based Questions:

I. Question: Define the different types of solutions and give two examples for each type.

II. Question: How do you calculate the molarity and molality of a solution? Give an example to
illustrate the calculation of each.

III. Question: Describe Henry's Law and explain its significance in predicting the solubility of gases
in liquids.

IV. Question: State Raoult's Law and explain its application in determining the vapor pressure of
solutions.

V. Question: How does the relative lowering of vapor pressure help in determining the molecular
weight of a solute?

VI. Question: Derive the formula for the elevation of boiling point and explain how it can be used
to calculate the molar mass of a dissolved substance.

VII. Question: What is the principle behind the depression of the freezing point in a solution? How
is it used in molecular mass determination?

VIII. Question: Explain the concept of osmotic pressure and how it can be used to find the
molecular weight of a solute.

IX. Question: Discuss the concept of abnormal molecular mass and explain how Van't Hoff factor
is used to account for this deviation.

X. Question: How are colligative properties used to determine the molecular masses of solutes in
solutions? Give an example.

Note: From easiest to tricky questions all will be based on these topics
so make sure to have knowledge in deep
86
 Electrochemistry
Topic Based Questions:

I. Question: Define a redox reaction. Give an example and explain how oxidation and reduction
occur in it.

II. Question: Describe how the electromotive force (EMF) of an electrochemical cell is
determined.

III. Question: Explain the concept of standard electrode potential. How is it measured?

IV. Question: Derive the Nernst equation and explain its significance in predicting the cell
potential under non-standard conditions.

V. Question: Show the relationship between Gibbs energy change and EMF of a cell. How can
the spontaneity of a redox reaction be predicted using this relationship?

VI. Question: Discuss the factors affecting the conductance of electrolytic solutions.

VII. Question: Define specific and molar conductivity. How do they vary with the concentration
of the electrolyte?

VIII. Question: State Kohlrausch's Law of Independent Migration of Ions. How is it useful in
determining the molar conductivity of weak electrolytes?

IX. Question: Explain the process of electrolysis. State and apply Faraday’s laws of electrolysis.

X. Question: Distinguish between electrolytic cells and galvanic cells in terms of their
construction and functionality. Give examples of each.

87
 Chemical Kinetics
Topic Based Questions:

I. Question: Explain the difference between the average and instantaneous rates of a chemical
reaction.

II. Question: How does the concentration of reactants affect the rate of a chemical reaction?

III. Question: Discuss the effect of temperature on the rate of a reaction. How is this explained
by the collision theory?

IV. Question: What is a catalyst, and how does it affect the rate of a chemical reaction?

V. Question: Define the order and molecularity of a reaction. How are they determined?

VI. Question: Write the rate law expression for a first-order reaction and derive the equation
for its half-life.

VII. Question: How is the Arrhenius equation used to calculate the activation energy of a
reaction?

VIII. Question: Explain, with an example, how the concept of collision theory applies to the
rate of a chemical reaction.

IX. Question: Derive the integrated rate equation for a zero-order reaction.

X. Question: Discuss the significance of activation energy in a chemical reaction. How does it
relate to the rate constant?

88
 d-f block elements
Topic Based Questions:
I. Question: Describe the general electronic configuration of d-block elements. How does this
configuration influence their chemical behavior?

II. Question: Discuss the trends in metallic character and ionization enthalpy of the first row
transition metals.

III. Question: Explain the variability in oxidation states of transition metals with suitable
examples.

IV. Question: How does the ionic radii vary across the first row of transition metals? What factors
contribute to this variation?

V. Question: Discuss the causes of color in d-block elements and provide examples where this is
observed.

VI. Question: Explain the role of d-block elements as catalysts in industrial processes, giving
specific examples.

VII. Question: Describe the magnetic properties of transition metals and relate them to their
electronic configurations.

VIII. Question: Discuss the formation and properties of interstitial compounds by transition
metals.

IX. Question: Provide a detailed account of the preparation and properties of Potassium
Dichromate (K2Cr2O7) and Potassium Permanganate (KMnO4).

X. Question: Contrast the electronic configurations, oxidation states, and general reactivity of
lanthanoids and actinoids.

XI. Question: Discuss lanthanoid contraction and its consequences on the chemical and physical
properties of elements.

XII. Question: Describe the general trends in properties of actinoids and compare them with the
lanthanoids.

XIII. Question: Explain the significance of f-orbital filling in the lanthanoids and actinoids. How
does it affect their chemistry?

XIV. Question: Discuss the applications of lanthanoids in various industries and technologies.

XV. Question: Describe the challenges in handling and using actinoids, particularly in the context
of their radioactivity and synthetic production. 89
Coordination Compounds
Topic Based Questions:
I. Question: Define coordination compounds and explain the roles of the central atom/ion and
ligands in these compounds.

II. Question: Describe the concept of coordination number in coordination compounds. Give
examples to illustrate different coordination numbers.

III. Question: Discuss the various types of ligands with examples. How do the electronic and
steric properties of ligands affect the structure of coordination compounds?

IV. Question: Explain the IUPAC nomenclature rules for naming mononuclear coordination
compounds with suitable examples.

V. Question: Describe Werner's theory of coordination compounds. How did this theory
contribute to the understanding of coordination chemistry?

VI. Question: Compare and contrast Valence Bond Theory (VBT) and Crystal Field Theory (CFT) in
explaining the bonding in coordination compounds.

VII. Question: Discuss the magnetic properties of coordination compounds and how they are
influenced by the electronic configuration of the central metal ion.

VIII. Question: Explain the geometrical isomerism in coordination compounds with examples.

IX. Question: Describe the importance of coordination compounds in qualitative analysis and
metal extraction.

X. Question: Discuss the role of coordination compounds in biological systems, giving specific
examples.

90
 Haloalkanes & Haloarenes
Topic Based Questions:

I. Question: Define and differentiate between:

a) Haloalkanes and haloarenes.
b) Primary, secondary, and tertiary haloalkanes.
c) SN1 and SN2 mechanisms of substitution reactions in haloalkanes.

II. Question: Explain the nature of the carbon-halogen (C-X) bond in:
a) Haloalkanes.
b) Haloarenes.
Discuss how this bond influences the physical and chemical properties of these compounds.

III. Question: Discuss the factors affecting the rate of nucleophilic substitution reactions in
haloalkanes.

IV. Question: Describe the mechanism of the elimination reaction in haloalkanes and distinguish
between E1 and E2 mechanisms.

V. Question: Explain how the following reactions occur:

a) Dehydrohalogenation of haloalkanes.
b) Nucleophilic substitution in haloarenes.

VI. Question: Discuss the directive influence of halogen in monosubstituted haloarenes with
respect to electrophilic substitution reactions.

VII. Question: Describe the methods of preparation of:

a) Haloalkanes.
b) Haloarenes.
Include examples for each method.

VIII. Question: Explain the major environmental impacts of:

a) Dichloromethane.
b) Trichloromethane.
c) Tetrachloromethane.
d) Freons and DDT.

91
XI. Question: Discuss the various types of isomerism exhibited by haloalkanes and haloarenes.
Provide examples for each type.

XII. Question: Explain the concept of Grignard reagents. Describe how they are prepared and their
role in organic synthesis.

XIII. Question: Describe the reaction mechanisms of:

a) Nucleophilic substitution reactions in haloalkanes with inversion of configuration.
b) Electrophilic substitution reactions in haloarenes.

XIV. Question: Discuss the stability of carbocations in the context of SN1 reactions. How does the
nature of the alkyl group and the halogen affect this stability?

XV. Question: Explain the role of solvents in nucleophilic substitution reactions of haloalkanes.
Discuss the difference between polar protic and polar aprotic solvents in these reactions.

XVI. Question: Analyze the reactivity of different halogens (F, Cl, Br, I) in haloalkanes and
haloarenes. Discuss the trends and reasons behind them.

XVII. Question: Explain the concept of hydrolysis of haloalkanes and haloarenes. Describe the
factors that influence the rate of hydrolysis.

XVIII. Question: Discuss the mechanism of the Finkelstein reaction. How is it used in the synthesis
of haloalkanes?

XIX. Question: Explain the concept and significance of allylic and benzylic halogenation in organic
synthesis.

XX. Question: Discuss the toxic effects of halogenated compounds on the environment and
human health. What measures are taken to mitigate these effects?

92
 Alcohols, Phenols & Ethers
Topic Based Questions:
Alcohols

I. Question: Define alcohols. Classify them into primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols with
examples.

II. Question: Describe the methods of preparation of alcohols. Discuss:

a) Hydration of alkenes.
b) Reduction of carbonyl compounds.

III. Question: Explain the physical and chemical properties of alcohols. Focus on:
a) Boiling points and solubility.
b) Reactions involving the -OH group.

IV. Question: Discuss the mechanism of dehydration of alcohols. How does the structure of alcohol
affect this reaction?

V. Question: Explain the uses of methanol and ethanol in various industries.

Phenols

VI. Question: Define phenols. Describe their acidic nature compared to alcohols and water.

VII. Question: Discuss the methods of preparation of phenols, emphasizing:

a) From haloarenes.
b) Cumene process.

VIII. Question: Explain the electrophilic substitution reactions of phenols, focusing on:
a) Nitration.
b) Halogenation.

IX. Question: Describe the uses of phenols in industry and medicine.

93
Ethers

X. Question: Define ethers and explain their method of preparation, especially via the Williamson
synthesis.

XI. Question: Discuss the physical properties of ethers, including boiling points and solubility.

XII. Question: Explain the chemical reactions of ethers, particularly their cleavage by acids.

XIII. Question: Describe the uses of ethers in industry and as anesthetics.

Challenger Questions:

94
 Aldehydes, Ketones &
Carboxylic Acids
Topic Based Questions:

I. Question: Define aldehydes and ketones. Explain their methods of preparation, focusing on:
a) Oxidation of alcohols.
b) Hydration of alkynes.

II. Question: Discuss the physical properties of aldehydes and ketones, especially boiling
points and solubility.

III. Question: Explain the mechanism of nucleophilic addition reactions in aldehydes and
ketones.

IV. Question: Describe the Aldol condensation and Cannizzaro reaction, providing examples
and conditions for each.

V. Question: Discuss the reactivity of alpha hydrogen in aldehydes and ketones, focusing on:
a) Haloform reaction.
b) Aldol condensation.

VI. Question: Explain the uses of aldehydes and ketones in various industries and daily life.

VII. Question: Explain how the Tollens’ test and Fehling's solution can be used to distinguish
aldehydes from ketones.

VIII. Question: Describe the mechanism of aldol condensation in aldehydes. What conditions
are required for this reaction?

95
IX. Question: Discuss the factors that affect the reactivity of aldehydes in nucleophilic
addition reactions.

X. Question: Explain the concept of steric hindrance in aldehydes and its effect on their
chemical reactions.

XI. Question: Describe the use of aldehydes in the fragrance and flavor industry, giving
specific examples.

XII. Question: Explain the oxidation reactions of aldehydes. How are these reactions used to
differentiate aldehydes from ketones?

XIII. Question: Discuss the importance of aldehydes in biological systems and

pharmaceuticals.

XIV. Question: Explain the reaction mechanism of aldehydes with Grignard reagents to form
alcohols.

XV. Question: Describe the formation of acetals and hemiacetals from aldehydes. What is the
significance of these reactions?

XVI. Question: Discuss the role of aldehydes in polymer industries, particularly in the
synthesis of certain plastics.

XVII. Question: Explain the formation of ketones from secondary alcohols. What are the key
differences in this process compared to the formation of aldehydes from primary alcohols?

XVIII. Question: Describe the chemical properties of ketones, focusing on their reactions with
nucleophiles.

XIX. Question: Explain how ketones can be differentiated from aldehydes using common
laboratory tests.

XX. Question: Discuss the Baeyer-Villiger oxidation of ketones. What products are formed in
this reaction?

XXI. Question: Explain the role of ketones in organic synthesis, particularly in the formation of
carbon-carbon bonds.

XXII. Question: Describe the use of ketones in the production of polymers and resins.

96
XXIII. Question: Discuss the biological significance of ketones, particularly in human metabolism.

XXIV. Question: Explain the mechanism of the haloform reaction with ketones.

XXV. Question: Describe the industrial applications of ketones, particularly in solvent and
adhesive industries.

XXVI. Question: Discuss the environmental impacts and safety concerns associated with the use
of ketones in industry.

XXVII. Question: Define carboxylic acids. Describe their methods of preparation, with emphasis
on:
a) Oxidation of primary alcohols and aldehydes.
b) Grignard reagent reaction with carbon dioxide.

XXVIII. Question: Discuss the acidic nature of carboxylic acids and factors affecting their acidity.

XXIX. Question: Explain the chemical reactions of carboxylic acids, focusing on:
a) Esterification.
b) Acid chloride formation.

XXX. Question: Describe the uses of carboxylic acids in industry and pharmaceuticals.

Challenger Questions:
Challenging Question 1:
A certain aldehyde A reacts with a Grignard reagent to form an alcohol B, which on oxidation
gives a ketone C. This ketone C, on reaction with the same Grignard reagent followed by
hydrolysis, yields a tertiary alcohol D. Deduce the structures of A, B, C, and D, and describe the
reactions involved at each step.

Challenging Question 2:
A mixture of a ketone and an aldehyde is subjected to the Clemmensen reduction process. The
product mixture contains two hydrocarbons, one of which is found to be an alkene. Determine
the possible structures of the original ketone and aldehyde. Explain the reasoning behind your
deductions and the mechanism of the Clemmensen reduction process for each compound.

Challenging Question 3:
An unknown carboxylic acid is subjected to a series of reactions:

First, it undergoes esterification with methanol in the presence of a catalyst.

The resulting ester is then treated with a Grignard reagent to form a tertiary alcohol.
Finally, this alcohol, when oxidized, yields a ketone that has the same number of carbon atoms
as the original carboxylic acid.
Using these clues, determine the structure of the original carboxylic acid and outline each step
in the reaction sequence, including the structures of all intermediates.

97
 Amines
Topic Based Questions:
I. Question: Define amines. Classify them based on their structure and give examples of each type.

II. Question: Describe the methods of preparation of amines, focusing on:

a) Reduction of nitro compounds.
b) Ammonolysis of alkyl halides.

III. Question: Discuss the physical properties of amines, such as boiling point, solubility, and odor.

IV. Question: Explain the basic nature of amines. How does the alkyl group affect their basicity?

V. Question: Describe the reactions of amines, focusing on:

a) Acylation.
b) Carbylamine reaction.

VI. Question: Discuss the electrophilic substitution reactions of aromatic amines, particularly
nitration and sulphonation.

VII. Question: Explain the importance of amines in pharmaceuticals and dyes industry.

VIII. Question: Discuss the methods for the separation of a mixture of primary, secondary, and
tertiary amines.

IX. Question: Explain the Hinsberg test and how it is used to distinguish between primary, secondary,
and tertiary amines.

X. Question: Discuss the environmental and health impacts of amines, particularly in relation to their
use in industry.

Diazonium Salts

XI. Question: Describe the preparation of diazonium salts from primary aromatic amines.

98
XII. Question: Discuss the chemical reactions of diazonium salts, focusing on:
a) Sandmeyer reaction.
b) Coupling reactions.

XIII. Question: Explain the importance of diazonium salts in synthetic organic chemistry,
particularly in dye-making.

Challenging Questions
Challenging Question 1:
An aromatic amine undergoes diazotization followed by coupling with an aniline derivative to
yield a brightly colored azo compound. Determine the structure of the initial amine and the
aniline derivative if the azo compound is found to be para-red. Explain the reasoning behind your
deduction and the reactions involved.

Challenging Question 2:
A mixture of two amines, one primary and one secondary, reacts with nitrous acid to produce
one diazonium salt and one alcohol. Identify the structures of the two original amines, explaining
the reaction mechanisms and how the products help in the identification.

Challenging Question 3:
Design a synthetic route to create N-ethyl-N-methylaniline starting from benzene. Include all
necessary reagents and intermediate steps in your synthesis, and explain the choice of your
synthetic strategy.

99
 BIOMOLECULES
Topic Based Questions:

Carbohydrates

I. Question: Define carbohydrates and classify them into monosaccharides, disaccharides, and
polysaccharides with examples.

II. Question: Describe the structure and properties of glucose. Explain its importance in living
organisms.

III. Question: Discuss the structure of fructose and compare it with glucose.

IV. Question: Explain the formation of a glycosidic bond with an example. Discuss the structure and
function of sucrose.

V. Question: Describe the structure and role of polysaccharides, focusing on starch, cellulose, and
glycogen in living organisms.

Proteins

VI. Question: Define proteins. Describe their primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary
structures.

VII. Question: Explain the role of amino acids in protein synthesis. Describe the peptide bond
formation between amino acids.

VIII. Question: Discuss the significance of enzymes in biochemical reactions. How do enzymes
function?

IX. Question: Explain the process of denaturation of proteins. What factors can cause
denaturation?

X. Question: Describe the importance of proteins in the human body and their role in various
biological processes.

100
Nucleic Acids

XI. Question: Describe the structure and function of DNA. How does it differ from RNA?

XII. Question: Explain the role of nucleotides in the structure of nucleic acids.

XIII. Question: Discuss the process of replication in DNA. How is it different from the
transcription process in RNA?

XIV. Question: Explain the significance of the double-helix model of DNA.

XV. Question: Describe the role of RNA in protein synthesis.

Vitamins

XVI. Question: Classify vitamins based on their solubility. Discuss the functions and sources of
Vitamin C and Vitamin D.

XVII. Question: Explain the concept of vitamin deficiency and its impact on human health.

Challenging Questions
Challenging Question 1:
Given a sequence of DNA, design a corresponding RNA sequence and a peptide chain that would
be synthesized from it. Explain the transcription and translation processes involved.

Challenging Question 2:
A polysaccharide is hydrolyzed to yield a mixture of glucose and fructose in a 1:1 ratio. Identify
the polysaccharide and explain the hydrolysis process, including the type of glycosidic bonds
involved.

Challenging Question 3:
Design a diet plan for a specific health condition (e.g., diabetes, osteoporosis) that focuses on the
inclusion and exclusion of specific types of carbohydrates, proteins, and vitamins. Justify your
choices based on the biochemical properties and functions of these biomolecules.

101
 SAMPLE PAPER (2023 -24)
CHEMISTRY THEORY (043)
M ax. M arks:70 Time: 3 hours
General Instructions:
Read the following instructions carefully.

(a) There are 33 questions in this question paper with internal choice.
(b) SECTION A consists of 16 multiple -choice questions carrying 1 mark each.
(c) SECTION B consists of 5 short answer questions carrying 2 marks each.
(d) SECTION C consists of 7 short answer questions carrying 3 marks each.
(e) SECTION D consists of 2 case - based questions carrying 4 marks each.
(f) SECTION E consists of 3 long answer questions carrying 5 marks each.
(g) All questions are compulsory.
(h) Use of log tables and calculators is not allowed.

SECTION A
The following questions are multiple -choice questions with one correct answer. Each question carries 1
mark. There is no internal choice in this section.

1. Which of the following solutions will have the highest conductivity at 298 K?
(a) 0.01 M HCl solution (b) 0.1 M HCl solution
(c) 0.01 M CH 3COOH solution (d) 0.1 M CH 3COOH solution

2.

Identify A and B:
(a) A = 1-phenylethanal , B = acetophenone (b) A = Benzophenone B = formaldehyde
(c) A= Benzaldehyde , B = Acetophenone (d) A = Benzophenone , B = Acetophenone
3. The vitamins which can be stored in our body are:
(a) Vitamin A, B, D and E (d) Vitamin A, C, D and K
(c) Vitamin A, B, C and D (d) Vitamin A, D, E and K
4. What is IUPAC name of the ketone A, which undergoes iodoform reaction to give
CH 3 CH= C(CH 3)COONa and yellow precipitate of CHI 3 ?
(a) 3-Methylpent-3-en-2one (b) 3-Methylbut-2-en- one
(c) 2, 3-Dimethylethanone (d) 3-Methylpent-4-one
5. Which of the following is not correct?
(a) In haloarenes, the electron pairs on halogen atom are in conjugation with π-electrons of the ring.
(b) The carbon-magnesium bond is covalent and non-polar in nature.
(c) During SN1 reaction, the carbocation formed in the slow step being sp2 hybridised is planar.
(d) Out of CH 2= CH-Cl and C6H 5CH 2Cl, C6H 5CH 2Cl is more reactive towards SN1 reaction

102
6. Match the properties with the elements of 3d series:
(i) lowest enthalpy of atomisation (p) Sc
(ii) shows maximum number of oxidation states (q) Mn
(iii) transition metal that does not form coloured compounds (r) Zn
(s) Ti
(a) (i) (r), (ii) (q), (iii) (p) (b) (i) (r), (ii) (s), (iii) (p)
(c) (i) (p), (ii) (q), (iii) (r) (d) (i) (s), (ii) (r), (iii) (p)
7. Which of the following statement is true?
(a) molecularity of reaction can be zero or a fraction.
(b) molecularity has no meaning for complex reactions.
(c) molecularity of a reaction is an experimental quantity
(d) reactions with the molecularity three are very rare but are fast.
8. In which of the following solvents, the C4H 8NH 3+X– is soluble;
(a) ether (b) acetone (c) water (d) bromine water
9. Which of the following observation is shown by 2 -phenyl ethanol with Lucas Reagent?
(a) Turbidity will be observed within five minutes
(b) No turbidity will be observed
(c) Turbidity will be observed immediately
(d) Turbidity will be observed at room temperature but will disappear after five minutes.
10. If the initial concentration of substance A is 1.5 M and after 120 seconds the concentration of
substance A is 0.75 M, the rate constant for the reaction if it follows zero - order kinetics is:
(a) 0.00625 molL-1s-1 (b) 0.00625 s-1 (c) 0.00578 molL-1s-1 (d) 0.00578 s-1
11. Anisole undergoes bromination with bromine in ethanoic acid even in the absence of iron (III)
bromide catalyst
(a) Due to the activation of benzene ring by the methoxy group.
(b) Due to the de-activation of benzene ring by the methoxy group.
(c) Due to the increase in electron density at ortho and para positions
(d) Due to the formation of stable carbocation.
12. The trend of which property is represented by the following graph?

(a) ionization enthalpy (b) atomic radii

(c) enthalpy of atomization (d) melting point

103
For Visually Challenged Learners

12. Which of the following is not considered a transition element?

(a) Scandium (b) Silver (c) Vanadium (d) Zinc
13. Given below are two statements labelled as Assertion (A) and Reason (R)
Assertion (A): Alcohols react both as nucleophiles and electrophiles.
Reason (R): The bond between C–O is broken when alcohols react as nucleophiles.
Select the most appropriate answer from the options given below:
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.
14. Given below are two statements labelled as Assertion (A) and Reason (R)
Assertion (A): Strong oxidising agents oxidise toluene and its derivatives to benzoic acids.
Reason (R): It is possible to stop the oxidation of toluene at the aldehyde stage with suitable
reagents.
Select the most appropriate answer from the options given below:
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.
15. Given below are two statements labelled as Assertion (A) and Reason (R)
Assertion (A): Enzymes are very specific for a particular reaction and for a particular substrate.
Reason (R): Enzymes are biocatalysts.
Select the most appropriate answer from the options given below:
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.
16. Given below are two statements labelled as Assertion (A) and Reason (R)
Assertion (A): During electrolysis of aqueous copper sulphate solution using copper electrodes
hydrogen gas is released at the cathode.
Reason (R): The electrode potential of Cu2+ /Cu is greater than that of H +/H 2
Select the most appropriate answer from the options given below:
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.

104
 SECTION B
This section contains 5 questions with internal choice in one question. The following questions are
very short answer type and carry 2 marks each.

17. a. Radioactive decay follows first - order kinetics. The initial amount of two radioactive
elements X and Y is 1 gm each. What will be the ratio of X and Y after two days if their half-
lives are 12 hours and 16 hours respectively?
b. The hypothetical reaction P + Q R is half order w.r.t ‘P’ and zero order w.r.t ‘Q’. What
is the unit of rate constant for this reaction?

18. A 5% solution of Na2SO4.10H 2O (MW = 3 22) is isotonic with 2% solution of non- electrolytic, non
volatile substance X. Find out the molecular weight of X.

19. (a) Arrange the isomeric dichlorobenzene in the increasing order of their boiling point and melting
points.

(b) Explain why the electrophilic substitution reactions in haloarenes occur slowly and require
more drastic conditions as compared to those in benzene.
20. (a) Out of p-tolualdehyde and p-nitrobenzaldehyde, which one is more reactive towards
nucleophilic addition reactions, why?

(b) Write the structure of the product formed when acetone reacts with 2,4 DNP reagent.
OR

Convert the following:

(a) Benzene to m-nitrobenzaldehyde

(b) Bromobenzene to benzoic acid

21. (a) DNA fingerprinting is used to determine paternity of an individual. Which property of DNA
helps in the procedure?
(b) What structural change will occur when a native protein is subjected to change in pH?

SECTION C
This section contains 7 questions with internal choice in one question. The following questions are
short answer type and carry 3 marks each.

22. (a) Write the formula for the following coordination compound

Bis(ethane-1,2-diamine) dihydroxidochromium(III) chloride

(b) Does ionization isomer for the following compound exist? Justify your answer.

Hg[Co(SCN) 4]

(c) Is the central metal atom in coordination complexes a Lewis acid or a Lewis base? Explain.

23. (a) Can we construct an electrochemical cell with two half-cells composed of ZnSO 4 solution and
zinc electrodes? Explain your answer.

(b) Calculate the λ0m for Cl- ion from the data given below:

Λ0m MgCl2 = 258.6 Scm2mol–1 and λ0m Mg2+ = 106 Scm2mol–1

(c) The cell constant of a conductivity cell is 0.146 cm -1. What is the conductivity of 0.01 M solution
of an electrolyte at 298 K, if the resistance of the cell is 1000 ohm?

105
24. Write the name of the reaction, structure and IUPAC name of the product formed when (any 2):

(a) phenol reacts with CHCl3 in the presence of NaOH followed by hydrolysis.
(b) CH 3CH2CH(CH 3)CH(CH 3)ONa reacts with C2H 5Br
(c) CH 3CH2CN reacts with stannous chloride in the presence of hydrochloric acid followed by
hydrolysis
25. You are given four organic compounds “A”, “B”, “C” and “D”. The compounds “A”, “B” and “C”
form an orange- red precipitate with 2,4 DNP reagent. Compounds “A” and “B” reduce Tollen’s
reagent while compounds “C” and “D” do not. Both “B” and “C” give a yellow precipitate when
heated with iodine in the presence of NaOH. Compound “D” gives brisk effervescence with sodium
bicarbonate solution. Identify “A”, “B”, “C” and “D” given the number of carbon atoms in three of
these carbon compounds is three while one has two carbon atoms. Give an explanation for y our
answer.
26. When sucrose is hydrolysed the optical rotation values are measured using a polarimeter and are
given in the following table:

S.No. Time (hours) Specific Rotation

1 0 + 66.5o
2 ∞ -39.9o

(a) Account for the two specific rotation values.

(b) What is the specific name given to sucrose based on the above observation?
(c) One of the products formed during the hydrolysis of sucrose is a glucose, that reacts with
hydroxylamine to give compound A. Identify compound A.

27. An organic compound A with the molecular formula (+)C 4H 9Br undergoes hydrolysis to form (+)
C4H 9OH. Give the structure of A and write the mechanism of the reaction.
28. The rate constants of a reaction at 200K and 500K are 0.02s–1 and 0.20s–1 respectively. Calculate the
value of Ea (Given 2.303R = 19.15 JK -1mol-1)

SECTION D
The following questions are case -based questions. Each question has an internal choice and carries
4 (1+1+2) marks each. Read the passage carefully and answer the questions that follow.
29. Crystal field splitting by various ligands
Metal complexes show different colours due to d-d transitions. The complex absorbs light of specific
wavelength to promote the electron from t2g to eg level. The colour of the complex is due to the
transmitted light, which is complementary of the colour absorbed.
The wave number of light absorbed by different complexes of Cr ion are given below:

Complex Wavenumber of light absorbed (cm-1) Energy of light absorbed(kJ/mol)

[CrA6]3- 13640 163

[CrB6]3+ 17830 213
[CrC6]3+ 21680 259
[CrD6]3- 26280 314

106
 Answer the following questions:

(a) Out of the ligands “A”, “B”, “C” and “D”, which ligand causes maximum crystal field splitting?
Why?
OR

Which of the two, “A” or “D” will be a weak field ligand? Why?

(b) Which of the complexes will be violet in colour? [CrA 6]3- or [CrB6]3+ and why? (Given: If 560 -
570 nm of light is absorbed, the colour of the complex observed is violet.)

(c) If the ligands attached to Cr3+ ion in the complexes given in the table above are water, cyanide
ion, chloride ion, and ammonia (not in this order)

Identify the ligand, write the formula and IUPAC name of the following:
(i) [CrA 6]3- (ii) [CrC6]3+
30. The lead-acid battery represents the oldest rechargeable battery technology. Lead acid batteries can
be found in a wide variety of applications including small-scale power storage such as UPS systems,
ignition power sources for automobiles, along with large, grid-scale power systems. The spongy
lead act as the anode and lead dioxide as the cathode. Aqueous sulphuric acid is used as an
electrolyte. The half-reactions during discharging of lead storage cells are:

Anode: Pb(s)  SO 4 (aq)  PbSO 4 (s)  2e 

2 

Cathode: PbO 2(s) 4H (aq)  SO24 (aq)  2ePbSO4 (s)  2H2 O
There is no safe way of disposal and these batteries end - up in landfills. Lead and sulphuric
acid are extremely hazardous and pollute soil, water as well as air. Irrespective of the
environmental challenges it poses, lead-acid batteries have remained an important source of
energy.
Designing green and sustainable battery systems as alternatives to conventional means
remains relevant. Fuel cells are seen as the future source of energy. Hydrogen is considered a
green fuel. Problem with fuel cells at present is the storage of hydrogen. Currently, ammonia
and methanol are being used as a source of hydrogen for fuel cell. These are obtained
industrially, so add to the environmental issues.
If the problem of storage of hydrogen is overcome, is it still a “green fuel?” Despite being the
most abundant element in the Universe, hydrogen does not exist on its own so needs to be
extracted from the water using electrolysis or separated from carbon fossil fuels. Both of
these processes require a significant amount of energy which is currently more than that
gained from the hydrogen itself. In addition, this extraction typically requires the use of fossil
fuels. More research is being conducted in this field to solve these problems. Despite the
problem of no good means to extract Hydrogen, it is a uniquely abundant and renewable
source of energy, perfect for our future zero-carbon needs.
Answer the following questions:
(a) How many coulombs have been transferred from anode to cathode in order to consume one
mole of sulphuric acid during the discharging of lead storage cell?
(b) How much work can be extracted by using lead storage cell if each cell delivers about
2.0 V of voltage? (1 F = 96500 C)
(c) Do you agree with the statement – “Hydrogen is a green fuel.” Give your comments for and
against this statement and justify your views.
OR

107
 Imagine you are a member of an agency funding scientific research. Which of the following
projects will you fund and why?
(i) safe recycling of lead batteries
(ii) extraction of hydrogen

SECTION E
The following questions are long answer type and carry 5 marks each. All questions have an
internal choice.

31. Attempt any five of the following:

(a) Which of the following ions will have a magnetic moment value of 1.73 BM.
Sc3+, Ti3+, Ti2+, Cu2+, Zn2+
(b) In order to protect iron from corrosion, which one will you prefer as a sacrificial electrode, Ni or
Zn? Why? (Given standard electrode potentials of Ni, Fe and Zn are -0.25 V, -0.44 V and -0.76 V
respectively.)
(c) The second ionization enthalpies of chromium and manganese are 1592 and 1509 kJ/mol
respectively. Explain the lower value of Mn.

(d) Give two similarities in the properties of Sc and Zn.

(e) What is actinoid contraction? What causes actinoid contraction?
(f) What is the oxidation state of chromium in chromate ion and dichromate ion?

(g) Write the ionic equation for reaction of KI with acidified KMnO 4.
32. (a) What is the effect of temperature on the solubility of glucose in water?
(b) Ibrahim collected a 10mL each of fresh water and ocean water. He observed that one sample
labeled “P” froze at 0 oC while the other “Q” at -1.3oC. Ibrahim forgot which of the two, “P” or
“Q” was ocean water. Help him identify which container contains ocean water, giving
rationalization for your answer.

(c) Calculate Van't Hoff factor for an aqueous solution of K 3 [Fe(CN)6] if the degree of dissociation
(α) is 0.852. What will be boiling point of this solution if its concentration is 1 molal? (Kb=0.52 K
kg/mol)
OR

(a) What type of deviation from Roult’s Law is expected when phenol and aniline are mixed with
each other? What change in the net volume of the mixture is expected? Graphically represent
the deviation.
(b) The vapour pressure of pure water at a certain temperature is 23.80 mm Hg. If 1 mole of a non-
volatile non- electrolytic solute is dissolved in 100g water, Calculate the resultant vapour
pressure of the solution.

33. An organic compound with molecular formula C7H7NO2 exists in three isomeric forms, the
isomer ‘A’ has the highest melting point of the three. ‘A’ on reduction gives compound ‘B’ with
molecular formula C7H9N. ‘B’ on treatment with NaNO2/HCl at 0-5 0C to form compound ‘C’.
On treating C with H3PO2 ,it gets converted to D with formula C7H8 , which on further reaction
with CrO2Cl2 followed by hydrolysis forms ‘E’ C7H6O . Write the structure of compounds A to
E . Write the chemical equations involved.
OR

108
 (a) Account for the following:
(i) N-ethylbenzenesulphonyl amide is soluble in alkali .
(ii) Reduction of nitrobenzene using Fe and HCl is preferred over Sn and HCl.
(b) Arrange the following in:
(i) decreasing order of pKb values
C6H5NH2, C6H5NHCH3, C6H5CH2NH2, CH3NH2, NH3
(ii) increasing order of solubility in water
C2H5Cl, C2H5NH2, C2H5OH
(iii) decreasing boiling point
CH3COOH, C2H5OH, CH3NH2, CH3OCH3

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109
 SAMPLE PAPER (2023 -24)
CHEMISTRY THEORY (043)
MARKING SCHEME
SECTION A

1. (b) 0.1 M HCl solution, conductivity is higher for strong electrolyte, conductivity decreases with
dilution
2. (c) A= Benzaldehyde , B= Acetophenone. This is an example of crossed Aldol condensation.
3. (d) Vitamin A,D, E and K These are fat soluble vitamins
4. (a) 3-Methylpent-3-en-2-one
5. (b) The carbon-magnesium bond is covalent and non-polar in nature .
6. (a) (i) (r) , (ii) (q), (iii) (p)
Zinc has no unpaired electrons in 3d or 4s orbitals, so enthalpy of atomization is low
Mn = 3d54s2 shows +2,+3,+4,+5,+6 and+7 oxidation state , maximum number in 3d series
7. (b) molecularity has no meaning for complex reactions.
8. (c) water
9. (b) no turbidity will be observed, given compound is a primary alcohol
10. (a) 0.00625 molL-1s-1 for zero order k = [Ro] –[R] / t = 1.5 -0.75 /120
11. (a) Due to the activation of benzene ring by the methoxy group.
12. (b) atomic radii
for visually challenged learners

12. (d) Zinc

13. (c) A is true but R is false
14. (b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A
15. (b) Both A and R are true and R is not the correct explanation of A.
16. (d) A is false but R is true.
Cu will deposit at cathode
SECTION B

17. (a) for first order reaction

half life of X = 12 hours

2 days = 48 hours means 4 half lives , amount of X left = 1/16 of initial value

half life of Y = 16 hours ( ½)

2 days = 48 hours means 3 half lives, amount left = 1/8 of initial value

Ratio of X:Y = 1:2 ( ½)

(b) b. mol1/2L-1/2s-1 as Rate = k [P]1/2 (1)

18. π1 = π2 (1/2)
iC1RT = C2RT (1/2)

110
 3 5 2
 (1/2)
322 M
2  322
M (1/2)
3 5

M = 42.9 g
19. (a) m-dicholrobenzene < o-dicholrobenzene < p-dicholrobenze (1/2)
symmetrical structure and close packing in para isomer
ortho has a stronger dipole dipole interaction as compared to meta (1/2)
(b) the halogen atom because of its –I effect has some tendency to withdraw electrons from the
benzene ring. As a result, the ring gets somewhat deactivated as compared to benzene and hence
the electrophilic substitution reactions in haloarenes occur slowly and require more drastic
conditions as compared to those in benzene. (1)
20. (a) p-nitrobenzaldehyde is more reactive towards the nucleophilic addition reaction than p-
tolualdehyde as Nitro group is electron withdrawing in nature . Presence of nitro group decrease
electron density, hence facilitates the attack of nucleophile . Presence of -CH 3 leads to +I effect as -
CH 3 is electron releasing group. (1)

(b)

( (1)
OR
(a)

(1)
(b)

(1)
21. (a) Replication
A sequence of bases on DNA is unique for a person and is the genetic material transferred to the
individual from the parent which helps in the determination of paternity. (1)

111
 (b) During denaturation secondary and tertiary structures are destroyed but the primary structure
remains intact. (1)

SECTION C

22. (a) [Cr(en)2(OH)2]Cl or [Cr(H 2NCH 2CH 2NH 2)2(OH)2]Cl (1)

(b) No, ionization isomers are possible by exchange of ligand with counter ion only and not by
exchange of central metal ion. (1)
(c) The central atom is electron pair acceptor so it is a Lewis acid. (1)
23. (a) Yes, if the concentration of ZnSO4 in the two half cell is different , the electrode potential will be
different making the cell possible. (1)
(b) Λ0m (MgCl2) = λ0m ( Mg2+) + 2 λ0m ( Cl-)
258.6 = 106 + 2 λ0m ( Cl-)
λ0m ( Cl-) = 76.3 Scm2mol–1 (1)
(c) cell constant G* = k x R
k= G*/R = 0.146/ 1000 = 1.46 x 10 -4 Scm-1. (1)
24. (a) Reimer Tiemann , (1/2)
OH
CHO
2-Hydroxybenzaldehyde (1/2+1/2)

(b) Williamson synthesis, CH 3CH 2CH(CH 3)CH(CH 3)O C2H 5

2- Ethoxy-3 -methylpentane (1/2+1/2+1/2)
(c) Stephen reaction, CH 3CH2CHO, Propanal (1/2+1/2 +1/2)
25. A, B and C contain carbonyl group as they give positive 2,4 DNP test
A and B are aldehydes as aldehydes reduce Tollen’s reagent
C is a ketone, as it contains carbonyl group but does not give positive Tollen’s test (1/2)
C is a methyl ketone as it gives positive iodoform test
B is an aldehyde that gives positive iodoform test (1/2)
D is a carboxylic acid
Since the number of carbons in the compounds A,B,C and D is three or two
B is CH 3CHO as this is only aldehyde which gives a positive i odoform test (1/2)
The remaining compounds A, C and D have three carbons
A is CH 3CH2CHO, C is CH 3COCH 3 and D is CH 3CH 2COOH (1/2 each)

26. (a) The reactant Sucrose is dextrorotatory. On hydrolysis it give glucose dextrorotatory and
fructose which is leavoroatatory. The specific rotation of fructose is higher than glucose
Sucrose is dextrorotatory but after hydrolysis gives dextrorotatory glucose and laevorotatory
fructose. Since the laevorotation of fructose (–92.4°) is more than dextrorotation of glucose (+ 52.5°),
the mixture is laevorotatory. (1)
(b) Invert sugar, The hydrolysis of sucrose brings about a change in the sign of rotation, from
dextro (+) to laevo (–) and the product is named as invert sugar. (1)
(c) Glucose (1)

112
 27. C2H5 CH CH3 (1)
Br

(1+1)

28.

( ( 1+1+1)

SECTION D

29. (a) D. Energy is directly proportional to the wave number. Maximum energy of light is required
for an electron to jump from t2g to eg in case of [CrD6]3- (1/2+1/2)
OR

(a) A, The splitting caused in least in this case as the energy required for electron to jump from t 2g
to eg., is minimum. (1/2 +1/2)
(b) [CrB6]3+, wavelength of light absorbed is 1/17830 = 560nm for the complex while 1/13640 = 733
nm for [CrA6]3- complex. (1/2+1/2)
(c) (i) [CrCl6]3- , Hexachloridochromate(III) ion (1 each)
(ii) [Cr(NH 3)6]3+, Hexaamminechromium(III) ion
A = Cl–, B= H 2O, C= NH 3, D= CN–

30. (a) 2mol e– (or 2F) have been transferred from anode to cathode to consume 2 mol of H 2SO4

113
 therefore, one mole H 2SO4 requires one faraday of electricity or 96500 coulombs. (1)

(b) wmax = – nFE° = – 2× 96500 × 2.0 = 386000 J of work can be extracted using lead storage cell when
the cell is in use. (1)

(c) Both yes and no should be accepted as correct answers depending upon what explanation is provided.

Yes, Hydrogen is a fuel that on combustion gives water as a byproduct. There are no carbon emissions
and no pollutions caused.

However, at present the means to obtain hydrogen are electrolysis of water which use electricity obtained
from fossil fuels and increase carbon emissions.

Inspite of the problems faced today in the extraction of hydrogen, we cannot disagree on the fact th at
hydrogen is a clean source of energy. Further research can help in finding solutions and greens ways like
using solar energy for extraction of hydrogen. (2)

No. It is true that Hydrogen is a fuel that on combustion gives water as a byproduct. There are no carbon
emissions and no pollutions caused.

However, at present the means to obtain hydrogen are electrolysis of water which use electricity obtained
from fossil fuels and increase carbon emissions.

Hydrogen is no doubt a green fuel, but the process of extraction is not green as of today. At present,
looking at the process of extraction, hydrogen is not a green fuel. (2)

OR

Both answers will be treated as correct

(i) Lead batteries are currently the most important and widely used batteries. These are
rechargeable. The problem is waste management which needs research and awareness.
Currently, these are being thrown into landfills and there is no safe method of disposal or
recycling. Research into safer method of disposal will reduce the pollution and health hazards
caused to a great extent.

( 1 mark for importance, 1 for need for the research)

(ii) Fuel cell is a clen source of energy. Hydrogen undergoes combustion to produce water. The
need of the hour is green fuel and hydrogen is a clean fuel. The current problem is obtaining
hydrogen. Research that goes into this area will help solve the problem of pollution and will be
a sustainable solution.

( 1 mark for importance, 1 for need for the research)

SECTION E

31. (a) Both Ti3+ and Cu2+ have 1 unpaired electron, so the magnetic moment for both will be 1.73 BM
(b) Zn, it has a more negative electrode potential so will corrode itself in place of iron.
(c) Mn+ has 3d54s1 configuration and configuration of Cr+ is 3d5 , therefore, ionisation enthalpy of
Mn+ is lower than Cr+ .
(d) Sc and Zn both form colourless compound and are diamagnetic.
(e) The decrease in the atomic and ionic radii with increase in atomic number of actinoids due to
poor shielding effect of 5f electron.
(f) In both chromate and dichromate ion the oxidation state of Cr is +6
(g) 10I– + 2MnO4 – + 16H + → 2Mn2+ + 8H2O + 5I2 (1 each, any 5)
114
32. (a) Addition of glucose to water is an endothermic reaction. According to Le Chat elier’s principle,
on increase in temperature, solubility will increase. (1)
(b) Q is ocean water, due to the presence of salts it freezes at lower temperature (depression in
freezing point) (1)
(c) K3 [Fe(CN) 6] gives 4 ions in aqueous solution (1/2)
i=1+(n−1)α (1/2)
i=1+(4−1)×0.0.852
i = 3.556 1/2)
ΔTb = iKb m = 3.556 x 0.52 x 1 = 1.85 (1)
Tb = 101.85oC (1/2)
OR
(a) Negative Deviation is expected when phenol and aniline are mixed with each other. The net
volume of the mixture will decrease, ΔV< 0 due to stronger intermolecular interactions.
(1)

(1)
(b) Relative lowering of vapour pressure = (P° – P) / P° = x 2 (1/2)
x2 = n2/ n1
n2 = 0.1

n1 = 100/18
x2 = 0.1/ 5.55 +0.1 = 0.1/ 5.65 = 0.018 (1/2)
P° = 23.8 mm Hg
Relative lowering of vapour pressure = (23.80 – P) / 23.80 = 0.018 (1/2)
23.80 - P = 0.428 (1/2)
P = 23.80 -0.428 = 23.37 mm Hg (1)

33. Compound “A” is p-methylnitrobenzene Compound ‘B” is p- methylbenzenamine

Compound C is p-methylbenzenediazoiumchloride Compound D – Toluene
Compound E - Benzaldehyde
The chemical reactions involved are

115
 Sn/HCl NaNO2/HCl H3PO2 CrO2Cl2
0oC-5oC . H3O+

A B C D E
( 1 mark for correct identification of A, 1 each for identification and reaction of formation of B,C,D
and E from A)

OR

(a) (i) The hydrogen attached to N-Ethylbenzene sulphonamide is acidic in nature. This is due to
the presence of strong electron withdrawing sulphonyl group. Hence, it is soluble in alkali. (1)
(ii) Reduction with iron scrap and hydrochloric acid is preferred because FeCl2 formed gets
hydrolysed to release hydrochloric acid during the reaction. Thus, only a small amount of
hydrochloric acid is required to initiate the reaction. (1)
(b) (i) C6H5NH2 > C6H5NHCH3 > NH3 > C6H5CH2NH2 > CH3NH2 (1)
(ii) C2H5Cl < C2H5 NH2 < C2H5OH (1)
(iii) CH3COOH > C2H5OH > CH3NH2> CH3OCH3 (1)

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116
 SAMPLE PAPER (2023 -24)

CHEMISTRY THEORY (043)

Max-Marks:- 70 Time: 3 hours

General Instructions:

Read the following instructions carefully.

(a) There are 33 questions in this question paper with internal choice.

(b) SECTION A consists of 16 multiple -choice questions carrying 1 mark each.

(c) SECTION B consists of 5 short answer questions carrying 2 marks each.

(d) SECTION C consists of 7 short answer questions carrying 3 marks each.

(e) SECTION D consists of 2 case - based questions carrying 4 marks each.

(f) SECTION E consists of 3 long answer questions carrying 5 marks each.

(g) All questions are compulsory.

(h) Use of log tables and calculators is not allowed

SECTION A
The following questions are multiple -choice questions with one correct answer. Each question
carries 1 mark. There is no internal choice in this section.

1. Which property is not a colligative property of a solution?

a) Osmotic pressure

b) Boiling point elevation

c) Surface tension

d) Freezing point depression

2. What happens to the cell potential when the concentration of ions in both half-cells is doubled?

a) Cell potential remains the same

b) Cell potential decreases

c) Cell potential increases

d) It depends on the type of half-cells involved

3. What is the effect of raising the temperature on the rate of a chemical reaction?

a) It increases the rate

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 b) It decreases the rate

c) It has no effect on the rate

d) It depends on the order of the reaction

4. What is the shape of a molecule with sp3d2 hybridization?

A) Linear

B) Trigonal bipyramidal

C) Tetrahedral

D) Octahedral

5. What is the coordination number of the central metal atom in the complex [Fe(CN)6]^3-?

a) 4

b) 6

c) 8

d) 12

6. Which of the following haloalkanes is the primary product in the reaction of chloroethane with
alcoholic KOH?

a) Ethene

b) Ethanol

c) Ethyl chloride

d) Diethyl ether

7. Which alcohol undergoes dehydration most readily?

a) Tertiary alcohol

b) Secondary alcohol

c) Primary alcohol

d) All alcohols dehydrate equally

8. Which of the following compounds will show keto-enol tautomerism?

a) Acetone

b) Benzaldehyde

c) Acetic acid
d) Propanal

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9. The most basic amine among the following is:

a) Methylamine

b) Ethylamine

c) Aniline

d) Dimethylamine

10. The building blocks of proteins are:

a) Amino acids

b) Nucleotides

c) Fatty acids

d) Monosaccharides

11. ________________ _ obeys Raoult’s law in all stages of concentration.

a) Ideal Solution

b) Non-Ideal solution

c) Real Solution

d) None of the mentioned

12. The heat of solution or mixing has a negative side.

a) Heat of solution

b) Heat of dissolution

c) Heat of reaction

d) Heat of mixing

Assertion and Reason type questions

13. Assertion: Increasing the concentration of the electrolyte in a solution decreases its conductivity.

Reason: Higher concentrations of electrolytes lead to increased ion-ion interactions, hindering

charge flow.

Options:

(a) Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct explanation for Assertion.

(b) Assertion is true, but Reason is false.

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(c) Assertion is false, but Reason is true.

(d) Both Assertion and Reason are false.

14. Assertion: The rate constant for a zero-order reaction changes with changes in concentration.

Reason: In zero-order reactions, the rate is dependent on the concentration of reactants.

Options:

(a) Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct explanation for Assertion.

(b) Assertion is true, but Reason is false.

(c) Assertion is false, but Reason is true.

(d) Both Assertion and Reason are false.

15. Assertion: Phenols are less acidic than alcohols.

Reason: The phenoxide ion formed after losing a proton cannot stabilize the negative charge as
efficiently as alkoxide ions.

Options:

(a) Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct explanation for Assertion.

(b) Assertion is true, but Reason is false.

(c) Assertion is false, but Reason is true.

(d) Both Assertion and Reason are false.

16. Assertion: The color exhibited by a coordination compound is unrelated to the nature of the
metal ion.

Reason: Color in coordination compounds arises from the ligands and not from the metal ions
present.

Options:

(a) Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct explanation for Assertion.

(b) Assertion is true, but Reason is false.

(c) Assertion is false, but Reason is true.

(d) Both Assertion and Reason are false.

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 SECTION B

This section contains 5 questions with internal choice in one question. The following questions are
very short answer type and carry 2 marks each.

17. a. If a hypothetical reaction \(2A + B \rightarrow C + D\) has a rate directly proportional to
\([A]^2[B]^2\), determine the order of the reaction and provide the unit of the rate constant.

18. a. A solution of a non-electrolyte, non-volatile substance 'X' is isotonic with a solution of sucrose.
Calculate the molecular weight of substance X if it is 3% and the sucrose solution is 5%.

19. a. Arrange 1-chloropropane, 1-chlorobutane, and 1-chloropentane in ascending order of their

boiling points and melting points.

b. Explain why substitution reactions in certain compounds require more drastic conditions and
occur at a slower rate compared to others.

20. a. Determine the compound more reactive towards nucleophilic addition reactions between
propanal and butanal. Explain your choice.

b. Provide the structural formula of the product formed when benzaldehyde reacts with
semicarbazide.

OR

Convert the following:

a. Convert propanal to 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazone.

b. Convert benzoic acid to benzaldehyde.

21.a. Discuss a property of proteins or DNA utilized in specific techniques for separation and analysis,
such as gel electrophoresis or DNA fingerprinting.

b. Explain the structural changes that occur in biomolecules when exposed to changes in pH.

SECTION C
This section contains 7 questions with internal choice in one question. The following questions are
short answer type and carry 3 marks each.

22. (a) Write the IUPAC name and formula for the following coordination compound:

Hexaamminecobalt(III) chloride.

(b) Define the term 'chelate effect' in coordination chemistry and provide an example.

(c) Differentiate between a coordination complex and a coordination compound with examples.

23. (a) Explain the concept of standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) and its significance in
electrochemistry.

(b) Calculate the cell potential at 25°C for the given electrochemical cell:

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 Zn(s) | Zn2+(aq, 0.001 M) || Cu2+(aq, 0.0001 M) | Cu(s)

(c) Define and differentiate between molar conductivity (\(\Lambda_{0m}\)) and specific
conductivity (\(\kappa\)).

24. Write the names of the products formed when (any 2):

(a) Chlorobenzene reacts with aqueous NaOH followed by acidification.

(b) Propanal is heated with Tollen's reagent.

(c) Ethyl iodide reacts with silver nitrite.

25. You are provided with four organic compounds, "P," "Q," "R," and "S." Compounds "P" and "Q"
give a positive test with the Fehling's reagent, while "R" and "S" do not. Compounds "P" and "R"
react with sodium metal to liberate hydrogen gas. "Q" forms a yellow precipitate with iodine in the
presence of NaOH. Identify the compounds "P," "Q," "R," and "S" and justify your answer.

26. Explain the optical activity changes observed during the hydrolysis of sucrose and provide the
IUPAC name for sucrose. Additionally, identify a product formed during the hydrolysis of sucrose
that reacts with hydroxylamine to produce a specific compound.

27. An organic compound with the molecular formula C4H9Br undergoes hydrolysis to form
C4H9OH. Provide the structure of the compound and elucidate the reaction mechanism for the
hydrolysis.

28. The rate constants of a reaction at two different temperatures, 300 K and 400 K, are 0.02 s⁻¹ and
0.04 s⁻¹, respectively. Calculate the activation energy (Ea) for the reaction using the Arrhenius
equation. (Given: Gas constant, R = 8.314 J mol⁻¹ K⁻¹)

SECTION D
The following questions are case -based questions. Each question has an internal choice and
carries 4 (1+1+2) marks each. Read the passage carefully and answer the questions that follow.

29. Passage In chemistry, chemical equilibrium refers to a state where the rates of the forward and
reverse reactions are equal. It is illustrated in the context of the Haber process used for ammonia
synthesis: N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g). Initially, when the reaction starts, the forward reaction is
favored due to higher concentrations of nitrogen and hydrogen. As the reaction progresses, the
concentration of ammonia increases until equilibrium is reached. Factors such as temperature,
pressure, and concentration impact the equilibrium position significantly.

Questions:

1. Define chemical equilibrium and describe its relevance in the context of the Haber process for
ammonia synthesis.

2. Discuss how changes in pressure and temperature influence the equilibrium in the Haber process,
considering Le Chatelier's principle.

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3. Explain the concept of dynamic equilibrium in chemical systems, utilizing real-life examples apart
from the Haber process, and elucidate the role of equilibrium constants in understanding the extent
of a reaction's completion.

30. Passage Electrochemistry deals with chemical processes involving electron transfer. A classic
example is the Galvanic cell, which converts chemical energy into electrical energy. In a zinc-copper
galvanic cell, zinc metal is immersed in a solution of zinc sulfate, while a copper electrode is in a
solution of copper sulfate. The two solutions are connected via a salt bridge or a porous barrier,
facilitating the electron flow from the anode (zinc) to the cathode (copper), generating an electric
current.

Questions:

1. Explain the fundamental principle of a Galvanic cell, using the zinc-copper cell setup as an
example.

2. Elaborate on the function of the salt bridge in a galvanic cell and how it aids in the cell's smooth
operation and charge neutrality maintenance.

3. Compare and contrast Galvanic cells with Electrolytic cells, highlighting their underlying principles,
applications, and key differences in terms of electron flow and energy conversion mechanisms.

SECTION E
The following questions are long answer type and carry 5 marks each. All questions have an
internal choice.

31. Attempt any five of the following:

(a) Discuss the concept of resonance structures in organic chemistry, providing examples and
explaining their significance in understanding molecular stability and reactivity.

(b) Elaborate on the principles of chromatography and its various types (e.g., gas chromatography,
liquid chromatography). Provide real-world applications for each type.

(c) Compare and contrast the thermodynamic and kinetic control in chemical reactions, providing
examples to illustrate how these concepts affect reaction outcomes.

(d) Analyze the concept of chirality in organic molecules, its significance in drug development, and
the implications of enantiomers in pharmaceuticals.

(e) Define the concept of polymerization and differentiate between addition and condensation
polymerization processes. Provide examples of polymers formed through each method.

(f) Investigate the factors affecting the rate of a chemical reaction, discussing the collision theory
and the role of activation energy.

32. (a) Describe the process of fractional distillation in the petroleum industry, detailing the
separation of crude oil into its components and their applications.

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(b) Discuss the principles behind the solubility of gases in liquids and explain Henry's Law. Provide
real-world examples where this law is applicable.

(c) Calculate the enthalpy change for the combustion of methane, considering bond energies and
enthalpies of formation of reactants and products.

OR

(a) Elaborate on the concept of coordination compounds in inorganic chemistry, discussing ligands,
coordination numbers, and isomerism. Provide examples to illustrate different types of isomerism.

(b) Explain the principles behind the Beer-Lambert law in spectroscopy and its applications in
determining the concentration of solutions.

(c) Discuss the principles of redox reactions and their application in electrochemical cells,
emphasizing the role of standard electrode potentials and the Nernst equation.

33. (a) Investigate the principles and applications of titration in analytical chemistry, detailing acid-
base, redox, and complexometric titrations.

(b) Discuss the principles of electrochemistry, focusing on electrolysis and Faraday's laws. Provide
examples of industrial applications of electrolysis.

(c) Analyze the concept of equilibrium in reversible reactions and Le Chatelier's Principle, providing
examples to illustrate how changes in concentration, pressure, and temperature affect the
equilibrium position.

OR

(a) Elucidate the principles of nuclear chemistry, focusing on radioactive decay processes, half-life,
and applications of radioisotopes in various fields.

(b) Discuss the principles of ideal gas behavior and deviations from ideal gas laws. Provide examples
where real gases deviate from ideal behavior and explain the reasons behind these deviations.

(c) Analyze the concept of enthalpy change in chemical reactions and Hess's law, providing examples
to illustrate how enthalpy changes can be calculated and compared.

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 ANSWERS
Section A

Multiple Choice Questions:

Solutions:

1.Answer: c) Surface tension

Electrochemistry:

2. Answer: a) Cell potential remains the same

Chemical Kinetics:

3. Answer: a) It increases the rate

4. Answer: d) octahedral

Coordination Compounds:

5. Answer: b) 6

Haloalkanes and Haloarenes:

6. Answer: c) Ethyl chloride

Alcohols, Phenols, and Ethers:

7. Answer: a) Tertiary alcohol

Aldehydes, Ketones, and Carboxylic Acids:

8. Answer: a) Acetone

Amines:

9. Answer: c) Aniline

Biomolecules:

10. Answer: a) Amino acids

Solutions

11. Answer: a) Ideal solution

12. Answer: b) Heat of dissolution

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Assertion and Reason type Answers:

13. Electrochemistry:

Answer: (a) Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct explanation for Assertion.

14. Chemical Kinetics:

Answer: (a) Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct explanation for Assertion.

15. Alcohols, Phenols, and Ethers:

Answer: (a) Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct explanation for Assertion.

16. Coordination Compounds:

Answer: (a) Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct explanation for Assertion.

Section B

17. a. Chemical Kinetics: If a hypothetical reaction \(2A + B \rightarrow C + D\) has a rate directly
proportional to \([A]^2[B]^2\), the order of the reaction is the sum of the exponents of the reactant
concentrations in the rate law. Here, the sum is \(2 + 2 = 4\). The unit of the rate constant (\(k\)) is
determined by the overall order of the reaction. For a fourth-order reaction, the unit of rate
constant would be \(mol^{-3} L^{2} s^{-1}\) (when considering the units of concentrations in
\(mol/L\)).

18. a. Solution Chemistry: In this scenario, the osmotic pressure of the 3% solution of substance X is
equal to the osmotic pressure of the 5% solution of sucrose. By using the formula: \(\pi = iMRT\),
and knowing that both solutions are isotonic, you can equate the two osmotic pressures and solve
for the molecular weight of substance X.

19. a. Organic Chemistry: The boiling and melting points of compounds primarily depend on their
molecular weights and the type of intermolecular forces they exhibit. The ascending order is usually
based on the molecular size and the nature of intermolecular forces present in the compounds.

b. Organic Chemistry: The difference in reactivity or reaction rates between compounds arises due
to variations in their structures, functional groups, and the electronic environment around the
reactive site. This leads to differences in the ease of breaking or forming chemical bonds, affecting
the reaction rate.

20. a. Organic Chemistry: The reactivity of aldehydes and ketones towards nucleophilic addition
reactions is influenced by the steric and electronic effects. Comparing propanal and butanal, the
compound more reactive towards nucleophilic addition is determined by the accessibility and
electrophilicity of the carbonyl carbon, often related to the size of the alkyl groups attached.

b. Organic Chemistry: The reaction of benzaldehyde with semicarbazide leads to the formation of
benzaldehyde semicarbazone. The specific reaction between benzaldehyde and semicarbazide
involves the nucleophilic addition of the semicarbazide to the carbonyl group of benzaldehyde,
forming a hydrazone derivative.

OR

126
a. Organic Chemistry: The conversion of propanal to its 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazone derivative
involves the addition of 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine to the carbonyl group of propanal, forming a
hydrazone derivative.

b. Organic Chemistry: The conversion of benzoic acid to benzaldehyde typically involves a reduction
reaction, where the carboxylic acid group in benzoic acid is reduced to an aldehyde group to form
benzaldehyde.

21. a. Biomolecules: Gel electrophoresis utilizes the property of proteins or DNA to separate based
on size and charge. It helps in identifying and analyzing DNA fragments in DNA fingerprinting or
different proteins based on their molecular weights.

b. Biomolecules: Biomolecules such as proteins can undergo structural changes when exposed to
changes in pH. Alterations in pH can disrupt the ionic interactions and hydrogen bonding within the
protein, leading to denaturation or a change in the protein's native structure. Similarly, DNA's
double helical structure can be affected by changes in pH, potentially leading to the disruption of
hydrogen bonding between base pairs.

Section C

22: Coordination Compounds

(a) IUPAC Name and Formula:

- IUPAC Name: Hexaamminecobalt(III) chloride

- Formula: [Co(NH3)6]Cl3

(b) Chelate Effect:

The chelate effect is the enhanced stability of a complex due to the formation of a ring structure by a
multidentate ligand. Example: Ethylenediamine forms a chelate with a central metal ion.

(c) Coordination Complex vs. Coordination Compound:

Coordination Complex: Entire structure involving a central metal ion and its ligands. Example:
[Fe(CN)6]3-

- Coordination Compound: Central metal ion and its ligands within the complex. Example:
[Co(NH3)6]Cl3

23: Electrochemistry

(a) Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE):

A reference electrode in electrochemistry with a potential of 0 V, used to measure other electrode

potentials.

(b) Cell Potential Calculation:

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 - Cell potential calculation involves the Nernst equation and the given cell configuration.

(c) Molar Conductivity vs. Specific Conductivity:

Molar Conductivity (\(\Lambda_{0m}\)): Conductivity of a solution containing 1 mole of electrolyte.

Specific Conductivity (\(\kappa\)): Conductivity of a specific concentration and length.

24: Organic Chemistry

(a) Product: Phenol. Reaction: Chlorobenzene + NaOH → Phenol

(b) Product: Silver mirror (Tollens' reagent test for aldehydes). Reaction: Propanal + Tollen's reagent
→ Silver mirror

(c) Product: Ethyl nitrite. Reaction: Ethyl iodide + AgNO2 → Ethyl nitrite

25: Organic Compounds Identification

Compound "P" and "R" liberate hydrogen gas with sodium, indicating they are alcohols. "P" is
ethanol (CH3CH2OH), and "R" is butanol (C4H9OH). "Q" gives a positive test with Fehling's reagent,
suggesting it's an aldehyde (like propanal, CH3CH2CHO), and "S" might be a ketone (e.g., acetone,
CH3COCH3).

26: Organic Chemistry - Sucrose Hydrolysis

Optical rotation changes are observed due to the conversion of sucrose to equimolar amounts of
glucose and fructose. Sucrose's IUPAC name is α-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-D-fructofuranoside.
Glucose formed from sucrose hydrolysis reacts with hydroxylamine to yield glucosazone.

27: Organic Chemistry - Hydrolysis of Organic Compounds

The compound with the molecular formula C4H9Br is 1-bromobutane, which undergoes hydrolysis
with hydroxide ions to form butan-1-ol. The mechanism involves a nucleophilic substitution, where
the bromine is replaced by a hydroxyl group.

28: Chemical Kinetics

Calculation of activation energy (Ea) using the Arrhenius equation requires the two temperature-
dependent rate constants and the gas constant.

Section D

29. Passage : Chemical Equilibrium

Question 1:

Answer:

Chemical equilibrium refers to the state in a reversible chemical reaction where the rate of the
forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction. At equilibrium, the concentrations of
reactants and products remain constant, although the reactions continue. In the context of the

128
Haber process for ammonia synthesis, the equilibrium is represented by the equation: N2(g) +
3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g). Initially, when the reaction begins, the concentrations of nitrogen and hydrogen
are high. Consequently, the forward reaction is favored due to higher reactant concentrations. As
the reaction proceeds, the concentration of ammonia increases, reaching a point where the rates of
the forward and reverse reactions become equal. At this stage, the system is in a state of equilibrium
where the concentrations of N2, H2, and NH3 remain constant, though the reaction continues in
both directions.

Question 2:

Answer:

Le Chatelier's principle states that if a system in equilibrium is subjected to a change in conditions

(such as temperature, pressure, or concentration), the system will adjust itself to counteract the
change and re-establish a new equilibrium. In the case of the Haber process:

- Pressure: Increasing pressure (by compression) favors the side of the reaction with fewer gas
molecules. In the Haber process, since there are fewer moles of gas on the side of the product (2
moles of NH3) compared to the reactants (1 mole of N2 + 3 moles of H2), an increase in pressure will
shift the equilibrium towards the production of ammonia, the side with fewer gas molecules.

- Temperature: The forward reaction in the Haber process is exothermic, meaning it releases heat.
According to Le Chatelier's principle, if the temperature is increased, the system will shift in the
direction that consumes heat to counteract the change. Thus, a higher temperature will favor the
endothermic (reverse) reaction to absorb the additional heat, shifting the equilibrium towards the
reactants.

Question 3 (Challenging):

Answer:

Dynamic equilibrium is a state reached in a reversible reaction where the rates of the forward and
reverse reactions become equal, leading to a constant concentration of reactants and products,
despite the reactions continuously occurring in both directions. An everyday example of dynamic
equilibrium is the dissolution of sugar in water. As sugar particles dissolve, there is a dynamic
equilibrium between the dissolved and undissolved sugar. Another example is the dissolution of
carbon dioxide in a carbonated beverage, where the bubbles represent a dynamic equilibrium
between dissolved and undissolved CO2.

Equilibrium constants (like Kc or Kp) quantitatively express the extent of a reaction's completion at
equilibrium. For example, in the Haber process, the equilibrium constant expression Kc = [NH3]² /
[N2] * [H2]³ signifies the equilibrium concentrations of products over reactants. A large equilibrium
constant (>>1) indicates that the reaction strongly favors the products at equilibrium, while a small
constant (<<1) shows a preference for the reactants.

30. Passage : Electrochemistry

Question 1:

129
Answer:

A Galvanic cell functions based on redox reactions, involving the conversion of chemical energy into
electrical energy. In the zinc-copper cell, zinc serves as the anode and undergoes oxidation: Zn(s) →
Zn^2+(aq) + 2e-. Simultaneously, copper ions (Cu^2+) gain electrons at the cathode, reducing into
copper metal: Cu^2+(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s). This electron flow constitutes the electric current.

Question 2:

Answer:

The salt bridge or porous barrier connects the two half-cells in a galvanic cell, allowing the flow of
ions between them. Its primary functions are:

- Maintaining electrical neutrality: As electrons flow from anode to cathode, there is a buildup of
positive charge in the anode half-cell and a negative charge in the cathode half-cell. The salt bridge
allows the migration of ions to balance these charges, maintaining electrical neutrality and ensuring
continuous electron flow.

- Preventing mixing of solutions: While allowing ion flow, the salt bridge prevents direct mixing of
the solutions in both half-cells, maintaining their integrity and preventing unwanted side reactions.

Question 3 (Challenging):

Answer:

Galvanic cells generate electrical energy from spontaneous redox reactions occurring within them.
These cells convert chemical energy into electrical energy and are used in batteries. Electrolytic cells,
however, require an external electrical source to drive non-spontaneous reactions and are used in
processes like electroplating and electrolysis.

Underlying Principles:

- Galvanic cells utilize spontaneous redox reactions to generate electrical energy.

- Electrolytic cells use an external electrical source to drive non-spontaneous reactions.

Applications:

- Galvanic cells are used in batteries for everyday applications.

- Electrolytic cells are used in various industrial processes such as electroplating, electrolysis of
water, and extraction of metals.

Key Differences:

- In Galvanic cells, electrons flow from the anode to the cathode spontaneously, generating
electricity. In Electrolytic cells, an external power source forces electrons to flow in the non-
spontaneous direction.

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- Galvanic cells convert chemical energy into electrical energy. Electrolytic cells use electrical energy
to drive non-spontaneous reactions or processes.

Section E

31. (a) Resonance Structures: Resonance structures are multiple valid Lewis structures that
represent a molecule. For instance, in the case of ozone (O3), there are resonance structures that
depict the delocalization of the double bonds among the oxygen atoms. These structures are
important as they contribute to the actual hybrid structure, affecting stability and reactivity.

(b) Chromatography: Chromatography is a separation technique involving a stationary phase and a

mobile phase. Gas chromatography separates compounds based on volatility, while liquid
chromatography separates based on polarity. Applications include drug testing in forensics (gas
chromatography) and separating compounds in pharmaceutical research (liquid chromatography).

(c) Thermodynamic and Kinetic Control: Thermodynamic control involves products favored by
stability, whereas kinetic control involves products favored by the speed of reaction. For example,
the synthesis of ammonia favors the thermodynamic product at lower temperatures but the kinetic
product at higher temperatures due to speed considerations.

(d) Chirality: Chirality refers to molecules that are non-superimposable on their mirror images.
Enantiomers are molecules with different spatial arrangements but identical chemical properties.
The significance of enantiomers lies in pharmaceuticals, where one enantiomer can have different
biological effects compared to its mirror image.

(e) Polymerization: Polymerization is the process of combining monomers to form polymers.

Addition polymerization involves the joining of unsaturated monomers (like ethylene to form
polyethylene), while condensation polymerization involves monomers with functional groups
reacting (like in the formation of nylon-6,6 from adipic acid and hexamethylenediamine).

(f) Chemical Reaction Rates: Factors affecting reaction rates include temperature, concentration,
surface area, and the presence of catalysts. The collision theory states that effective collisions
between particles with sufficient energy and proper orientation lead to successful reactions.

32. (a) Fractional Distillation: Fractional distillation in the petroleum industry separates crude oil into
fractions like gasoline, kerosene, and diesel based on boiling points. Gasoline, with a lower boiling
point, is extracted first, followed by kerosene and diesel. These fractions find applications in fuels
and various petrochemical products.

(b) Solubility of Gases in Liquids: Henry's Law states that the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly
proportional to the partial pressure of that gas above the liquid. An example of this law is in
carbonated drinks where carbon dioxide is dissolved under pressure and released upon opening the
bottle.

(c) Enthalpy Change for Combustion of Methane: The enthalpy change for the combustion of
methane (CH4) can be calculated by subtracting the sum of the enthalpies of formation of reactants
from the sum of the enthalpies of formation of products. For example, the enthalpy change for the
combustion of one mole of methane is -890.4 kJ/mol.

131
 OR

(a) Coordination Compounds: Coordination compounds involve a central metal ion or atom bonded
to ligands. Isomerism in these compounds includes structural isomerism (different connectivity) and
stereoisomerism (different spatial arrangements). An example is the structural isomerism between
[Co(NH3)5(NO2)]2+ and [Co(NH3)5(ONO)]2+.

(b) Beer-Lambert Law: This law describes the relationship between the concentration of a solution
and the amount of light absorbed. It's used in spectrophotometry to determine the concentration of
a solute in a solution.

(c) Redox Reactions and Electrochemical Cells : Redox reactions involve the transfer of electrons
between reactants. Electrochemical cells utilize these reactions to produce electrical energy.
Standard electrode potentials and the Nernst equation are used to calculate cell potentials.

33. (a) Titration: Titration is a technique used to determine the concentration of an unknown
solution by reacting it with a known solution. Acid-base, redox, and complexometric titrations are
employed in various analytical and chemical processes.

(b) Electrochemistry and Faraday's Laws: Electrolysis in electrochemistry involves the decomposition
of substances by passing an electric current. Faraday's laws relate the amount of substance
produced or consumed during electrolysis to the amount of electricity passed through the cell.

(c) Equilibrium and Le Chatelier's Principle: Le Chatelier's Principle predicts how a system at
equilibrium responds to changes in concentration, pressure, or temperature. For example, if more
reactants are added to an equilibrium system, the system will shift towards the products to relieve
the stress caused by the increase in reactants.

OR

(a) Nuclear Chemistry: Nuclear chemistry deals with the changes in the nucleus of an atom and
includes radioactive decay, half-life, and applications using radioisotopes in medicine, industry, and
research.

(b) Ideal Gas Behavior and Deviations: Ideal gas laws assume gas particles have no volume and no
intermolecular forces. Real gases deviate from ideal behavior at high pressures or low temperatures
due to molecular interactions.

(c) Enthalpy Change and Hess's Law: Hess's Law states that the total enthalpy change for a reaction is
the same, regardless of the route taken. Enthalpy changes are calculated using the difference in
enthalpies of formation of products and reactants.

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SAMPLE PAPER (2023 -24)

CHEMISTRY THEORY (043)

Max-Marks:- 70 Time: 3 hours

General Instructions:

Read the following instructions carefully.

(a) There are 33 questions in this question paper with internal choice.

(b) SECTION A consists of 16 multiple -choice questions carrying 1 mark each.

(c) SECTION B consists of 5 short answer questions carrying 2 marks each.

(d) SECTION C consists of 7 short answer questions carrying 3 marks each.

(e) SECTION D consists of 2 case - based questions carrying 4 marks each.

(f) SECTION E consists of 3 long answer questions carrying 5 marks each.

(g) All questions are compulsory.

(h) Use of log tables and calculators is not allowed

SECTION A

The following questions are multiple -choice questions with one correct answer. Each question
carries 1 mark. There is no internal choice in this section.

1. The colligative properties of a solution depend on:

(a) Volume of the solute

(b) Nature of the solute

(c) Number of solute particles

(d) Molecular weight of the solvent

2. What happens to the cell potential when the concentration of ions in both half-cells is doubled?

(a) Cell potential remains the same

(b) Cell potential decreases

(c) Cell potential increases

(d) It depends on the type of half-cells involved

181
3. The rate of a reaction doubles when the concentration of reactant A is doubled. The order of the
reaction concerning A is:

(a) Zero order

(b) First order

(c) Second order

(d) It cannot be determined

4. Which of the following elements is a lanthanide?

(a) Cerium (Ce)

(b) Zirconium (Zr)

(c) Tantalum (Ta)

(d) Selenium (Se)

5. The complex [Co(NH3)6]Cl3 is an example of a:

(a) Neutral complex

(b) Cationic complex

(c) Anionic complex

(d) Coordination compound without a ligand

6. What is the primary product when chloroethane undergoes an SN1 reaction?

(a) Ethene

(b) Ethanol

(c) Ethyl chloride

(d) Diethyl ether

7. Which of the following is a secondary alcohol?

(a) Butan-1-ol

(b) Butan-2-ol

(c) 2-Methylpropan-2-ol

(d) Ethanol

182
8. Fehling's solution is used to test the presence of:

(a) Aldehydes

(b) Ketones

(c) Carboxylic acids

(d) Phenols

9. The reaction of a secondary amine with nitrous acid forms:

(a) A diazonium salt

(b) A primary amine

(c) A quaternary ammonium salt

(d) A secondary amide

10. Which of the following is not a monosaccharide?

(a) Glucose

(b) Lactose

(c) Fructose

(d) Galactose

11. Which of the following is most reactive towards electrophilic aromatic substitution for halogen?

12. Which one of the following is most reactive towards electrophilic attack?

183
Assertion and Reason type questions

13. Assertion: Increasing the concentration of electrolyte in a solution affects its conductivity.

Reason: Higher electrolyte concentration results in more ions available to carry charge.

Options: (a) Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct explanation for Assertion.

(b) Both Assertion and Reason are true, but Reason is not the correct explanation for Assertion. \

(c) Assertion is true, but Reason is false.

(d) Assertion is false, but Reason is true.

14. Assertion: Phenols are more acidic than alcohols.

Reason: Phenols can stabilize negative charge better than alkoxides due to resonance.

Options: (a) Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct explanation for Assertion.

(b) Both Assertion and Reason are true, but Reason is not the correct explanation for Assertion.

(c) Assertion is true, but Reason is false.

(d) Assertion is false, but Reason is true.

15. Assertion: Halogenation of alkanes occurs more readily in the presence of UV light.

Reason: UV light provides the necessary energy to break the carbon-halogen bond.

Options: (a) Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct explanation for Assertion.

(b) Both Assertion and Reason are true, but Reason is not the correct explanation for Assertion.

(c) Assertion is true, but Reason is false.

(d) Assertion is false, but Reason is true.

16. Assertion: Aromatic amines show a weaker basic character compared to aliphatic amines.

Reason: The lone pair of electrons on nitrogen in aromatic amines is delocalized over the benzene
ring.

Options: (a) Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct explanation for Assertion.

(b) Both Assertion and Reason are true, but Reason is not the correct explanation for Assertion.

(c) Assertion is true, but Reason is false.

(d) Assertion is false, but Reason is true.

184
 SECTION B

This section contains 5 questions with internal choice in one question. The following questions are
very short answer type and carry 2 marks each.

17. a. The half-lives of two radioactive elements X and Y are 8 hours and 10 hours, respectively. If
the initial amount of X and Y is 2 grams each, what will be the ratio of X to Y after 16 hours?

b. In a reaction A + 2B → C, it is found that the rate of the reaction is proportional to *A+^2*B+^1/2.

What is the overall order of the reaction, and what are the units of the rate constant?

18. a. A 4% solution of a non-electrolyte, non-volatile compound 'Y' is isotonic with a 5% solution of

glucose. Determine the molecular weight of 'Y.'

19. a. Arrange the following isomeric dichlorobenzenes in increasing order of their boiling points:
ortho-dichlorobenzene, meta-dichlorobenzene, and para-dichlorobenzene.

b. Provide an explanation as to why electrophilic substitution reactions in haloarenes require more

drastic conditions compared to those in benzene.

20. a. Determine which compound, between o-nitrobenzaldehyde and m-nitrobenzaldehyde, is

more reactive towards nucleophilic addition reactions. Justify your answer.

b. Show the product obtained when acetone reacts with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine (2,4-DNP).

OR

Convert the following

a. Convert benzaldehyde to m-nitrobenzaldehyde.

b. Convert chlorobenzene to benzoic acid.

21. a. In DNA fingerprinting, which specific feature of DNA is utilized to determine paternity?

b. Describe the structural changes that occur when a native protein undergoes variation in pH.

SECTION C

This section contains 7 questions with internal choice in one question. The following questions are
short answer type and carry 3 marks each.

22. (a) Write the IUPAC name and the formula for the following coordination compound: Dichlorido
bis (ethylenediamine) cobalt(III) chloride.

(b) Consider the complex [Co(NH3)5Cl]Cl2. Does geometric isomerism exist for this compound?
Justify your answer.

(c) Discuss the concept of 'ligand exchange' in coordination compounds and provide an example
illustrating the phenomenon.

185
23. (a) Explain the construction of an electrochemical cell using ZnSO4 solution and zinc electrodes.
Include the cell diagram and explain the reactions at the anode and cathode.

(b) Explain
Calculate the
the molar conductivity
significance (Λ0�Λ0m)
of the standard of theelectrode
hydrogen nitrate ion (��3−NO3−)
(SHE) using the
in electrochemical given
measurements.
What is the standard potential of the SHE, and why is it assigned a
data: Λ0�Λ0m for NaNO3 = 126.6 S cm² mol⁻¹ Λ0�Λ0m for Na+ = 50.0 S cm² mol⁻¹value of 0 V?

(c) Given the cell constant of a conductivity cell is 0.118 cm⁻¹ and the resistance of the cell is 800
ohms, calculate the conductivity of a 0.02 M solution of an electrolyte at 298 K.

24. Provide the reaction names, structures, and IUPAC names of the products formed when:

(a) Propanal reacts with Tollen's reagent followed by acidification.

(b) Ethyl bromide reacts with sodium ethoxide.

(c) Acetonitrile reacts with hydrochloric acid in the presence of stannous chloride followed by
hydrolysis.

25. You are given four organic compounds labelled as "P," "Q," "R," and "S." Compound "P" forms an
orange-red precipitate with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine (2,4-DNP) reagent. Compounds "P" and "Q"
reduce Tollen's reagent, while compounds "R" and "S" do not. Both "Q" and "R" give a yellow
precipitate when heated with iodine in the presence of NaOH. Compound "S" shows brisk
effervescence with sodium bicarbonate solution. Identify the compounds "P," "Q," "R," and "S"
based on the information provided. Justify your choices.

26. During the hydrolysis of sucrose, the optical rotation values are measured using a polarimeter
and recorded as follows:

S.No. Time (hours) Specific Rotation

1 0 +66.5°

2 ∞ -34.0°

(a) Explain the change in specific rotation values observed during the hydrolysis of sucrose.

(b) What is the specific name given to sucrose based on the above observations?

(c) One of the products formed during the hydrolysis of sucrose is glucose, which reacts with
hydroxylamine to give compound 'A.' Identify compound 'A.'

27. An organic compound 'X' with the molecular formula C4H9Br undergoes hydrolysis to form
C4H9OH. Deduce the structure of compound 'X' and provide a detailed mechanism for the hydrolysis
reaction.

28. The rate constants of a reaction at 300 K and 500 K are 0.04 s⁻¹ and 0.20 s⁻¹, respectively.
Calculate the activation energy (Ea) for the reaction using the Arrhenius equation. (Given: Gas
constant, R = 8.314 J mol⁻¹ K⁻¹)

186
 SECTION D

The following questions are case -based questions. Each question has an internal choice and
carries 4 (1+1+2) marks each. Read the passage carefully and answer the questions that follow.

29. Passage

Chemical kinetics studies the rates of chemical reactions, exploring the factors affecting reaction
rates and mechanisms. The collision theory explains that for a reaction to occur, reacting species
must collide with sufficient energy and proper orientation. The rate of reaction is influenced by
factors such as concentration, temperature, catalysts, and surface area.

(a) Elaborate on the collision theory, detailing the role of reactant concentration and temperature in
influencing reaction rates.

(b) Discuss the impact of catalysts on the rate of a chemical reaction, emphasizing their role in
providing an alternative reaction pathway with lower activation energy.

(c) Considering the significance of chemical kinetics in various industries, explain the practical
applications of understanding reaction rates in fields like pharmaceuticals, materials science, and
environmental chemistry.

30. Passage

Electrochemistry is a branch of chemistry dealing with the interconversion of electrical and chemical
energy. Electrochemical cells, including galvanic and electrolytic cells, facilitate these conversions. In
galvanic cells, spontaneous redox reactions generate electrical energy, while in electrolytic cells,
electrical energy drives non-spontaneous redox reactions.

(a) Define and differentiate between galvanic and electrolytic cells, providing examples and
highlighting their distinct processes.

(b) Explain the relationship between standard electrode potential and the feasibility of redox
reactions in electrochemical cells, along with their applications in industries and daily life.

(c) Analyse the environmental impact of electrochemical processes and propose sustainable
strategies or technological advancements to minimize or utilize the energy derived from these
reactions for practical and environmental benefits.

SECTION E

The following questions are long answer type and carry 5 marks each. All questions have an
internal choice.

34. Attempt any five of the following:

(a) Explain the molecular orbital theory and its application in predicting the magnetic behavior of
coordination complexes with examples.

187
(b) Elaborate on Born-Haber cycle and discuss its relevance in determining the lattice energy of ionic
compounds, considering factors like ionic size and charge.

(c) Compare and contrast the crystal structures of diamond and graphite based on their properties
and bonding arrangements.

(d) Analyse the concept of electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy and how it is
utilized in the study of transition metal complexes.

(e) Define bond dissociation energy and elucidate how it is influenced by bond length and bond
order, giving examples.

(f) Investigate the mechanism and influencing factors involved in the reaction between ozone and
nitric oxide in the atmosphere.

(g) Discuss the effect of catalysts on reaction rates in terms of activation energy and rate-
determining steps, referencing specific chemical reactions.

35. (a) Delve into a comprehensive explanation of the Haber process for ammonia synthesis,
detailing the conditions that optimize the equilibrium and the associated Le Chatelier's Principle.

(b) Illustrate the synthesis of Nylon-6,6, focusing on the reactions and conditions involved. Elaborate
on the structure and properties of the resulting polymer.

(c) Calculate the enthalpy change for the combustion of acetylene, considering bond energies and
enthalpies of formation of reactants and products.

OR

(a) Expound on the concept of adsorption isotherms and discuss their various types and applications,
especially in the field of heterogeneous catalysis.

(b) Elucidate the process of osmotic pressure and its connection to the Van't Hoff factor, relating it
to the colligative properties of solutions.

(c) Analyse the role of Gibbs free energy in predicting the spontaneity and equilibrium of chemical
reactions, emphasizing its relationship with enthalpy and entropy changes.

36. (a) Analyse the Buffer Index and its significance in biological systems, emphasizing the buffering
capacity and pH regulation in biological fluids.

(b) Discuss the factors influencing the rate of heterogeneous catalysis, providing examples and
explaining the mechanisms involved.

(c) Differentiate between Michaelis-Menten kinetics and Lineweaver-Burk plots in enzyme kinetics,
highlighting their significance in determining enzyme activity.

188
 OR

(a) Explain the principles and applications of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy,
detailing the various types of nuclei used in this technique and their sensitivity in structural
elucidation.

(b) Examine the role of phase diagrams in materials science and their applications in understanding
the behaviour of alloys and polymorphic transformations.

(c) Discuss the complexities and applications of electrochemical cells, emphasizing the differences
between galvanic and electrolytic cells, as well as the Nernst equation's significance in cell potential
determination.

189
 ANSWERS
Note:- This Section Only Contain MCQ Answers

Solutions:

1. The colligative properties of a solution depend on:

- (c) Number of solute particles

Electrochemistry:

2. What happens to the cell potential when the concentration of ions in both half-cells is doubled?

- (a) Cell potential remains the same

Chemical Kinetics:

3. The rate of a reaction doubles when the concentration of reactant A is doubled. The order of the
reaction concerning A is:

- (b) First order

d- and f- Block Elements:

4. Which of the following elements is a lanthanide?

- (a) Cerium (Ce)

Coordination Compounds:

5. The complex [Co(NH3)6]Cl3 is an example of a:

- (b) Cationic complex

Haloalkanes and Haloarenes:

6. What is the primary product when chloroethane undergoes an SN1 reaction?

- (c) Ethyl chloride

Alcohols, Phenols, and Ethers:

7. Which of the following is a secondary alcohol?

- (b) Butan-2-ol

Aldehydes, Ketones, and Carboxylic Acids:

8. Fehling's solution is used to test the presence of:

- (a) Aldehydes

190
Amines:

9. The reaction of a secondary amine with nitrous acid forms:

- (a) A diazonium salt

Biomolecules:

10. Which of the following is not a monosaccharide?

- (b) Lactose

11. Which of the following is most reactive towards electrophilic aromatic substitution for halogen?

- (a)

12. Which one of the following is most reactive towards electrophilic attack?

- (a)

13. Electrochemistry:

Answer: (a) Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct explanation for Assertion.

Explanation: Increasing the concentration of electrolyte in a solution does affect its conductivity. This
is because a higher concentration of electrolytes results in more ions available to carry charge,
thereby enhancing the solution's conductivity.

14. Alcohols, Phenols, and Ethers:

Answer: (a) Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct explanation for Assertion.

Explanation: Phenols are more acidic than alcohols. The reason behind this is that the phenoxide ion
formed after losing a proton can stabilize the negative charge better than alkoxide ions due to
resonance, making the phenol more acidic.

15. Haloalkanes and Haloarenes:

Answer: (b) Both Assertion and Reason are true, but Reason is not the correct explanation for
Assertion.

Explanation: While halogenation of alkanes does occur more readily in the presence of UV light due
to its provision of energy to break carbon-halogen bonds, this does not necessarily mean that UV
light is necessary. Halogenation can occur without UV light; the presence of UV light just increases
the reaction rate.

16. Amines:

Answer: (a) Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct explanation for Assertion.

191
Explanation: Aromatic amines indeed show a weaker basic character compared to aliphatic amines.
This is because the lone pair of electrons on nitrogen in aromatic amines is delocalized over the
benzene ring, reducing its availability to accept a proton, thus weakening its basic nature.

192
 SAMPLE PAPER(2023-24)

CHEMISTRY THEORY (043)

Read the following instructions carefully.

There are 35 questions in this question paper with internal choice.

SECTION A consists of 18 multiple-choice questions carrying 1 mark each.

SECTION B consists of 7 very short answer questions carrying 2 marks each

SECTION C consists of 5 short answer questions carrying 3 marks each.

SECTION D consists of 2 case- based questions carrying 4 marks each.

SECTION E consists of 3 long answer questions carrying 5 marks each.

All questions are compulsory.

Use of log tables and calculators is not allowed

SECTION-A

Q1. Which among the following is an example of a solid solution?

(a) Copper dissolved in gold

(b) Ethanol dissolved in water

(c) Glucose dissolved in water

(d) Sodium chloride dissolved in water

Q3. What is the mole fraction of ethylene glycol in a solution containing 20g by mass?

(a) 0.022

(b) 0.052

(c) 0.068

(d) 0.092

Q2. A cathode and an anode are the most common components of an electrochemical cell. Which of

the following claims about the cathode is correct?

a) Oxidation occurs at the cathode

b) Electrons move into the cathode

c) Usually denoted by a negative sign

193
d) Is usually made up of insulating material

Q.4 In a dry cell, which of the following is the electrolyte

(a)Potassium hydroxide

(b)Sulphuric acid

(c)Ammonium chloride

(d)Manganese dioxide

Q.5 Which of the following statements about a lead storage cell (or a lead-acid battery) is false?

a) It is a primary cell

b) The cathode is made up of lead(IV) oxide

c) The anode is made up of lead

d) The electrolyte used is an aqueous solution of sulphuric acid

Q.6 The study of reaction kinetics is called __________.

a) Rate of reaction

b) Mechanism of reaction

c) Factors which affect the rate of reaction

d) All of the mentioned

Q.7 Which of the following is given to a fuel cell’s cathode?

a) Hydrogen

b) Nitrogen

c) Oxygen

d) Chlorine

Q.8 Plotting a graph between temperature and reaction rates can reveal the temperature

dependence of reaction rates.

a) Concentration of reactants and temperature

b) Concentration of products and temperature

c) Rate constant and temperature

d) Rate of catalysis and temperature

194
Q.9 A coordination complex’s core atom/ion is also known as ________

a) Bronsted-Lowry acid

b) Lewis base

c) Lewis acid

d) Bronsted-Lowry base

Q.10 As we proceed from left to right in groups, what happens to the non-metallic nature?

a) Remains constant

b) Decreases

c) Increases

d) Irregular

Q.11 Which substance is used to determine the hardness of water using a simple titration?

a) Mg(EDTA)

b) Fe(EDTA)

c) Na2(EDTA)

d) Co(EDTA)

Q.12 Baeyer’s reagent is which of the following?

a) Acidified KMnO4

b) Aqueous KMnO4

c) Acidified K2Cr2O7

d) Alkaline KMnO4

Q.13 A mono haloarene is an example of __________

a) aliphatic halogen compound

b) side-chain substituted aryl halide

c) alkyl halide

d) aromatic halogen compound

Q.14 To get carboxylic acids directly from alcohol, which of the following oxidising agents is used?

a) Alkaline KMnO4

195
b) Aqueous KMnO4

c) Acidified KMnO4

d) Anhydrous CrO3

Q.15 Which of the following is the right name for the compound H3C-CHCl2?

a) 1,2-Dichloroethane

b) Ethylene dichloride

c) Ethylidene chloride

d) Vic-dichloride

Q.16 Which of the following processes does not result in the production of alcohol?

a) Acid catalysed hydration of alkenes

b) Free radical halogenation of alkanes

c) Reduction of aldehydes

d) Hydroboration-oxidation of alkenes

SECTION-B

Q.19 What is meant by ‘reverse osmosis’?

OR

What are isotonic solutions?

Q.20 What is the effect of adding a catalyst on

(a) Activation energy (Ea), and

(b) Gibbs energy (AG) of a reaction?

Q.21 Express the rate of the following reaction in terms of the formation of ammonia :

N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)

Q.22 Explain the following observations :

(i) Transition elements generally form coloured compounds.

(ii) Zinc is not regarded as a transition element.

Q.23 Why are low spin tetrahedral complexes not formed?

Q.24 Predict the order of reactivity of the following compounds in SN1 reaction :

196
C6H5CH2Br, C6H5C(CH3) (C6H5)Br, C6H5CH(C6H5)Br, C6H5CH(CH3)Br

OR

Arrange the following in increasing order of boiling point:

(i) CH3CH2CH2CH2Br

(ii) (CH3)3.Br

(iii) (CH3)2C.Br

Q.25 What is Tollen’s reagent? Write one usefulness of this reagent.

SECTION-C

Q.26 Differentiate between molality and molarity of a solution. What is the effect of change in
temperature of a solution on its molality and molarity?

Q.27 Assign reasons for the following :

(i) Copper (I) ion is not known in aqueous solution.

(ii) Actinoids exhibit greater range of oxidation states than lanthanoids.

(iii) Manganese exhibits the highest oxidation state of +7 among the 3d series of transition elements.

Q.28 Give an example of linkage isomerism, coordination isomerism, ionization isomerism?

OR

Which complex ion is formed when decomposed AgBr is washed with hypo solution in and write
down equation of following reaction?

Q.29 Write down the IUPAC name of the following:

C6H5NH2, (C2H5)2NH, C2H5NH2

Q.30 Arrange the followiong according to:

(i) C6H5NH2, (C2H5)2NH, C2H5NH2 (solubility in water)

(ii) C6H5NH2, C6H5NHCH3, C6H5CH2NH2 (basic strength)

(iii) CH3.NH2, (CH3)3N, (CH3)2NH (basic strength in aquous solution)

SECTION-D

Q.31 Read the passage given below and answer the following questions:

When haloalkanes with B-hydrogen atom are boiled with alcoholic solution of KOH, they undergo
elimination of hydrogen halide resulting in the formation of alkenes. These reactions are called B-
elimination reactions or dehydrohalogenation reactions. These reactions follow Saytzeff's rule.

197
Substitution and elimination reactions often compete with each other. Mostly bases behave as
nucleophiles and therefore can engage in substitution or elimination reactions depending upon the
alkyl halide and the reaction conditions.

The following questions are multiple choice questions. Choose the most appropriate answer:

(i) Among the following the most reactive towards alcoholic KOH is

(a) CH=CHBr

(b) CH3COCH2CH2Br

(c) CH3CH2Br

(d) CH3CH2CH2Br

(ii) The general reaction, R-X-OH ROH+X, is expected to follow decreasing order of reactivity as in

(b) t-BuF>-BuCl> t-BuBr> t-Bul

(a) t-Bul>t-BuBr> t-BuCl > t-BuF

(c) t-BuBr>-BuCI > t-Bul> t-BuF (t-Bu tertiary Butyl group)

(d) -BuF> t-BuCl>t-Bul>f-BuBr

(iii) Reaction off-butyl bromide with sodium methoxide produces

(a) sodium t-butoxide

(b) t-butyl methyl ether

(c) iso-butane

(d) iso-butylene.

(iv) In the elimination reactions, the reactivity of alkyl halides follows the sequence

(a) R-F>R-CI>R-Br>R-I

(b) R-I>R-Br>R-CI>R-F

(c) R-I>R-F>R-Br>R-Cl

(d) R-F>R-I>R-Br>R-Cl

OR

The ease of dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halide with alcoholic KOH is

(a) 3° 2° <1°

(b) 3° <2° 1°

198
(c) 3°>2">1°

(d) 3° 2° <1

Q.32 Read the passage given below and answer the following questions:

A compound (X) containing C, H and O is unreactive towards sodium. It also does not react with
Schiff's reagent. On refluxing with an excess of hydroiodic acid, (X) yields only one organic product
(Y). On hydrolysis, (Y) yields a new compound (2) which can be converted into (Y) by reaction with
red phosphorus and iodine. The compound (2) on oxidation with potassium permanganate gives a
carboxylic acid. The equivalent weight of this acid is 60.

The following questions are multiple choice questions.

Choose the most appropriate answer:

(1) The compound (X) is an

(a) acid

(b) aldehyde

(c) alcohol

(d) ether

(ii) The IUPAC name of the acid formed is

(a) methanoic acid

(b) ethanoic acid

(c) propanoic acid

(d) butanoic acid.

(iii) Compound (Y) is

(a) ethyl iodide

(b) methyl iodide

(c) propyl iodide

(d) mixture of (a) and (b)

OR

Compound (Z) is

(a) methanol

(b) ethanol

199
(c) propanol

(d) butanol.

(iv) Compound (X) on treatment with excess of Cl, in presence of light gives (a) achlorodiethyl ether

(b) a, a-dichlorodiethyl ether

(c) perchlorodiethyl ether

(d) none of these.

Q.33 (a) How will you convert the following:

1. Propanone to Propan-2-ol

2. Ethanal to 2-hydroxy propanoic acid

3. Toluene to benzoic acid

(b) Give a simple chemical test to distinguish between:

1. Pentan-2-one and Pentan-3-one

2. Ethanal and Propanal

(a) Calculate Eºcell for the following reaction at 298 K:

2Cr(s) + 3Fe2+ (0.01 M) → 2Cr3+ (0.01 M) + 3Fe(s)

Given : Ecell = 0.261 V

(b) Using the Eº values of A and B, predict which one is better for coating the surface of iron

[Eº(Fe2+/Fe) = –0.44 V] to prevent corrosion and why ?

Given : Eº(A2+/A) = –2.37 V : Eº(B2+/B) = –0.14 V

34. (a) The conductivity of 0.001 mol L solution of CHCOOH is 3.905 × 10 S cm. Calculate its molar
conductivity and degree of dissociation(α).

Given λº(H+ ) = 349.65 cm2 mol–1 & λº(CH3COO– ) = 40.95 cm2 mol-1

(b) Define electrochemical cell. What happens if external potential applied becomes greater than

Eºcell of electrochemical cell ?

Q.35 (i)For a general reaction A ⎯→ B, the plot of concentration of A vs time is given in Fig.

200
Answer the following question on the basis of graph.

(a) What is the order of the reaction ?

(b) What is the slope of the curve?

(c) What is the unit of the rate constant?

(ii) The reaction between H₂(g) and O₂(g) is highly feasible yet allowing the gasses to stand at

room temperature in the same vessel does not lead to the formation of water. Explain.

201
 SAMPLE PAPER (2022-23)

CHEMISTRY THEORY (043)

Maximum Marks: 70 Time: 3 hours

General Instructions:

Read the following instructions carefully.

a) There are 35 questions in this question paper with internal choice.

b) SECTION A consists of 18 multiple-choice questions carrying 1 mark each.

c) SECTION B consists of 7 very short answer questions carrying 2 marks each.

d) SECTION C consists of 5 short answer questions carrying 3 marks each.

e) SECTION D consists of 2 case-based questions carrying 4 marks each.

f) SECTION E consists of 3 long answer questions carrying 5 marks each.

g) All questions are compulsory.

h) Use of log tables and calculators is not allowed.

Section-A: Multiple Choice Questions

1. The atmospheric pollution is generally measured in the units of

(a) mass percentage

(b) volume percentage

(c) volume fraction

(d) ppm

2. H2S is a toxic gas used in qualitative analysis. If the solubility of H2S in water at STP is 0.195 m,
what is the value of KH?

(a) 0.0263 bar

(b) 69.16 bar

(c) 192 bar

(d) 282 bar

3. During acetylation of glucose it needs ,v moles of acetic anhydride. The value of x would be

(a) 3

(b) 5

202
 (c) 4

(d) 1

4. Which of the following compounds is found abundantly in nature?

(a) Fructose

(b) Starch

(c) Glucose

(d) Cellulose

5. Glycosidic linkage is an

(a) amide linkage

(b) ester linkage

(c) ether linkage

(d) acetyl linkage

6. Which of the following should be most volatile?

I. CH3CH2CH2NH2

II. (CH3)3N

IV. CH3CH2CH3

(a) II

(b) IV

(c) I

(d) III

7. The most convenient method to prepare primary (i Amine) amine containing one carbon atom less
is

(a) Gabriel phthalmidie synthesis

(b) Reductive amination of aldehydes

(c) Hofmann bromamide reaction

(d) Reduction of isonitriles

203
8. Fused NaCl on electrolysis gives ………….. on cathode.

(a) Chlorine

(b) Sodium

(c) Sodium amalgam

(d) Hydrogen

9. Which of the following is a secondary cell?

(a) Leclanche cell

(b) Lead storage battery

(c) Concentration cell

(d) All of these

10. Molar conductivity of 0.15 M solution of KCl at 298 K, if its conductivity of 0.0152 S cm1 will be

(a) 124 Ω-1 cm² mol-1

(b) 204 Ω-1 cm² mol-1

(c) 101 Ω-1 cm² mol-1

(d) 300 Ω-1 cm² mol-1

11. Shape of d-orbital is

(a) Spherical

(b) Dumbbell

(c) Double dumbbell

(d) None of these

12. Lanthanoid contraction is due to increase in

(a) Atomic number

(b) Effective nuclear charge

(c) Atomic radius

(d) Valence electrons

204
 13. The oxidation state of nickel in |(Ni(CO4)| is

(a) 1

(b) 4

(c) 2

(d) 3

14. The ligand N(CH2CH2NH2) is

(a) Bidentate

(b) Tridentate

(c) Tetradentate

(d) Pentadentate

15. Alkene gives which of the following reactions?

(a) Addition reaction

(b) Substitution reaction

(c) Both (a) and (b)

(d) None of these

16. Criteria for the purity of organic solid is

(a) Boiling point

(b) Melting point

(c) Specific gravity

(d) None of these

Section-B: Very Short Answer Questions

17. Why does white ZnO(s) become yellow on heating?

18. Which one of the following shows SN1 reaction faster?

I-Chloropropane or 2-Chloropropane

19. Identify A and B in the following reaction.

205
20. Account for the following.

(i) Di oxygen is a gas but sulphur is a solid.

(ii) BiCl3 is less covalent than PCl3

(iii) F2 is a stronger oxidizing agent than Cl2

23. Draw the structures of the following.

(a) PCl5(gas)

(b) S8

(c) ClF3

21. Write the IUPAC names of the given complexes and mention a chemical test to distinguish
them.

Name the isomerism shown by the following isomers

(a) [Co(NH3)5Br]SO4

(b) [Co(NH3)5SO4]Br

22. (i) Name the initial material used in the industrial preparation of phenol.

(ii) Write a complete reaction for the bromination of phenol in aqueous and non-aqueous
mediums.

(iii) Explain why Lewis acid is not required in the bromination of phenol?

Define the following terms:

(i) Molar conductivity (Λm)

(ii) Secondary batteries

Set up Nernst equation for the standard dry cell. Using this equation, show that the voltage of a dry
cell has to decrease with use.

Section-C: Short Answer Questions

23. (i) Calculate the number of Coulombs required to deposit 40.5 g of Al when the electrode
reaction is Al3+ + 3e- Al

(ii) How many grams of silver could be plated out of a shield by electrolysis of a solution containing
Ag+ ions for a period of 4 hours at a current strength of 8.5 A?

24. (a) Define lanthanoid contraction. Write about its 2 consequences.

(b) Account for the following:

206
 (i) Actinoid contraction is greater among the actinoids than that of lanthanoids.

(ii) The members in the actinoid series exhibit a large number of oxidation states than the
corresponding members in the lanthanoids.

25. Account for the following:

(a) Titanium (IV) salts are colorless. (Atomic no. 21)

(b) Transition metals act as catalysts.

(c) Silver atom has completely filled d orbitals (4d10) in its ground state, but it is a transition
element

26. Explain the following statements:

(i) Alkyl halides are generally not prepared in the laboratory by free radical halogenation of
alkanes

(ii) Aryl halides are extremely less reactive towards nucleophilic substitution reaction.

(iii) The dipole moment of chlorobenzene is lower than that of cyclohexyl chloride

27. (a) Illustrate the following name reactions by giving a chemical equation in each case:

(i) Clemmensen reduction

(ii) Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky reaction

(b) How will you bring about the following conversions?

(i) Ethanol to acetone

(ii) Benzene to acetophenone

(iii) Benzoic acid to benzaldehyde

28. Consider a scenario where a chemist is working on the synthesis of a new pharmaceutical
compound, and one of the key steps involves the transformation of an aldehyde into its
corresponding alcohol. Provide a concise outline of the reaction mechanism involved in this
conversion, including the necessary reagents and reaction conditions. Additionally, discuss any
potential challenges or side reactions that the chemist might encounter during this transformation.

OR

The rate of a reaction becomes four times when the temperature changes from 293 K to 313 K.

Calculate the energy of activation (Ea) of the reaction, assuming that it does not change with
temperature. [R = 8.314 JK-1 mol-1, log 4 = 0.6021]

207
Section D:- case based questions

29. Passage:

Mr. Sharma, a renowned organic chemist, has been working on the synthesis of new compounds
with potential pharmaceutical applications. Recently, he synthesized a series of aldehydes and
ketones and conducted various tests to study their reactivity and properties. Let's delve into Mr.
Sharma's research and explore some intriguing questions related to aldehydes and ketones.

Question

1.1 Describe the synthesis method Mr. Sharma might have used to prepare the aldehydes and
ketones for his research.

1.2 Mr. Sharma observed that one of the ketones in his study showed remarkable stability. Explain
the factors that contribute to the stability of ketones compared to aldehydes.

1.3 Suggest a suitable chemical test Mr. Sharma could have employed to distinguish between an
aldehyde and a ketone in his synthesized compounds.

1.4 If Mr. Sharma wanted to convert a specific aldehyde into its corresponding alcohol, outline the
reaction conditions and reagents he could utilize.

30. Passage

Dr. Patel, a corrosion scientist, has been actively researching methods to prevent the corrosion of
metal structures in various environments. His focus is on employing electrochemical techniques to
mitigate the effects of corrosion. Let's explore Dr. Patel's work and dive into some challenging
questions related to electrochemistry and corrosion prevention.

Question

1.1 Explain the electrochemical processes involved in the corrosion of metals and how these
processes lead to the degradation of metal structures.

1.2 Dr. Patel experimented with cathodic protection as a corrosion prevention strategy. Elaborate on
the principle behind cathodic protection and how it can be effectively applied to safeguard metal
surfaces.

1.3 Suggest suitable sacrificial anode materials that Dr. Patel might have considered for cathodic
protection in a marine environment. Justify your choices.

1.4 Discuss the impact of pH on the corrosion rate of metals and propose a method Dr. Patel could
employ to control pH in a corrosion-prone environment.

208
Section E:- Long answers

Question 31

a) Define the term 'rate of reaction' and explain its units.

b) Discuss the factors that affect the rate of a chemical reaction.

c) Differentiate between first-order and zero-order reactions, providing an example for each.

d) State and explain the Arrhenius equation. How is it useful in understanding reaction rates?

e) Describe the role of a catalyst in a chemical reaction. Provide an example and explain how a
catalyst affects the reaction rate.

f) Discuss the concept of half-life in the context of a first-order reaction. Provide an equation for
calculating the half-life.

g) Optional: Explain the concept of collision theory and its significance in understanding reaction
mechanisms.

h) Optional: Discuss the applications of chemical kinetics in real-life scenarios, such as industrial
processes or environmental studies.

Question 32

a) Define coordination compounds. Provide an example and explain the terms ligand and
coordination number.

b) Discuss the IUPAC nomenclature system for coordination compounds. Provide examples to
illustrate the naming conventions.

c) Explain the crystal field theory and how it accounts for the color of transition metal complexes.

d) Describe the isomerism observed in coordination compounds, focusing on structural isomerism

and coordination isomerism.

e) Discuss the magnetic properties of coordination compounds. Differentiate between paramagnetic

and diamagnetic compounds.

f) Explain the bonding in metal carbonyls. Provide an example and discuss the significance of these
compounds.

g) Optional: Discuss the application of coordination compounds in medicine or catalysis.

h) Optional: Describe the preparation and properties of a chelating agent commonly used in
coordination chemistry.

Question 33

a) Differentiate between aldehydes and ketones. Provide examples of each and explain the naming
conventions.

209
b) Discuss the methods of preparation of aldehydes and ketones, emphasizing one example for each
method.

c) Explain the nucleophilic addition reactions of carbonyl compounds. Provide an example reaction
and discuss the mechanism.

d) Describe the oxidation and reduction reactions of aldehydes and ketones. Provide suitable
chemical equations.

e) Discuss the concept of keto-enol tautomerism. Provide an example and explain the conditions
under which it occurs.

f) Explain the reactions of aldehydes and ketones with Grignard reagents. Provide a specific example
and discuss the synthetic utility of such reactions.

g) Optional: Discuss the role of aldehydes and ketones in biological systems, giving examples of
important biomolecules containing these functional groups.

h) Optional: Explain the mechanism of the Cannizzaro reaction and provide an example of a
molecule that undergoes this reaction.

210
 Class 12

SAMPLE PAPER (2023 -24)

CHEMISTRY THEORY (043)

Max-Marks:- 70 Time: 3 hours

General Instructions:

Read the following instructions carefully.

(a) There are 33 questions in this question paper with internal choice.

(b) SECTION A consists of 16 multiple -choice questions carrying 1 mark each.

(c) SECTION B consists of 5 short answer questions carrying 2 marks each.

(d) SECTION C consists of 7 short answer questions carrying 3 marks each.

(e) SECTION D consists of 2 case - based questions carrying 4 marks each.

(f) SECTION E consists of 3 long answer questions carrying 5 marks each.

(g) All questions are compulsory.

(h) Use of log tables and calculators is not allowed

Section A

Question 1: Which is not a transition metal?

a. Copper

b. Zinc

c. Iron

d. Silver

Question 2: What is the shape of a molecule with trigonal bipyramidal electron arrangement?

a. Tetrahedral

b. Trigonal planar

c. Octahedral

d. Bent

Question 3: A + B ⟶ C + D represents what type of reaction?

a. Combination

b. Decomposition

211
c. Displacement

d. Redox

Question 4: Which is a Lewis acid?

a. H2O

b. NH3

c. BF3

d. CH4

Question 5: A negative enthalpy change indicates:

a. Endothermic reaction

b. Exothermic reaction

c. Equilibrium

d. No conclusion can be drawn

Question 6: What is the oxidation state of nitrogen in N2O5?

a. +1

b. +3

c. +5

d. +7

Question 7: Which element has the highest electronegativity?

a. Sodium

b. Fluorine

c. Phosphorus

d. Aluminum

Question 8: The enzyme responsible for digestion of proteins in the stomach is:

a. Amylase

b. Pepsin

c. Lipase

d. Trypsin

212
Question 9: What is the chemical formula for potassium permanganate?

a. KMnO3

b. K2MnO4

c. KMnO4

d. K3MnO4

Question 10: In the periodic table, which group do the noble gases belong to?

a. Group 1

b. Group 2

c. Group 17

d. Group 18

Question 11: Which of the following is a non-metal?

a. Sodium

b. Chlorine

c. Iron

d. Calcium

Question 12: What is the geometry of a molecule with a linear shape?

a. Tetrahedral

b. Trigonal planar

c. Linear

d. Bent

Question 13: What is the product of the combustion of hydrocarbons in the presence of excess
oxygen?

a. Water

b. Carbon dioxide

c. Methane

Question 14: Assertion: Metals generally have low electronegativity.

Reason: Metals tend to lose electrons easily.

a. Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct explanation of the Assertion.

213
b. Both Assertion and Reason are true, but Reason is not the correct explanation of the Assertion.

c. Assertion is true, but Reason is false.

d. Both Assertion and Reason are false.

Question 15: Assertion: Combustion reactions are always exothermic.

Reason: Combustion is a redox reaction involving the release of heat.

a. Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct explanation of the Assertion.

b. Both Assertion and Reason are true, but Reason is not the correct explanation of the Assertion.

c. Assertion is true, but Reason is false.

d. Both Assertion and Reason are false.

Question 16: Assertion: The boiling point of water decreases at higher altitudes.

Reason: At higher altitudes, atmospheric pressure decreases.

a. Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct explanation of the Assertion.

b. Both Assertion and Reason are true, but Reason is not the correct explanation of the Assertion.

c. Assertion is true, but Reason is false.

d. Both Assertion and Reason are false.

Section-B

17. Explain the concept of overpotential in electrochemical cells. How does overpotential affect the
efficiency of a galvanic cell?

OR

18. Differentiate between the terms "rate constant" and "rate of reaction." How does the activation
energy influence the rate of a chemical reaction?

19. Discuss the role of Schottky and Frenkel defects in ionic solids. Provide examples of compounds
where these defects are observed.

OR

Explain the factors affecting the colligative properties of solutions. How does the presence of a non-
volatile solute affect the vapor pressure of a solvent?

20. Elaborate on the phenomenon of adsorption isotherms. Compare and contrast Freundlich and
Langmuir adsorption isotherms.

21. Describe the extraction of copper from copper pyrites. Discuss the role of self-reduction in this
process.

214
 OR

Compare and contrast the properties of nitrogen and phosphorus. Explain why nitrogen exhibits
catenation to a much lesser extent than carbon.

Section C

22. Explain the concept of half-life in a first-order reaction. Derive the expression for the half-life of a
first-order reaction. Provide an example of a first-order reaction.

23. a. Define the term "crystal lattice" and explain its significance in solid-state chemistry.

b. Differentiate between amorphous and crystalline solids. Give examples of each.

c. Discuss the role of vacancies in determining the electrical conductivity of crystalline solids.

24. Explain the term "catalysis." Differentiate between homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis.
Provide examples of each.

25. a. Discuss the trends in the physical and chemical properties of Group 15 elements.

b. Explain the structure of xenon hexafluoride, highlighting its hybridization.

c. Compare the reducing properties of phosphorus and nitrogen.

26. Describe the magnetic properties of transition metal ions. Explain the crystal field splitting in
octahedral and tetrahedral complexes. Provide examples.

27. Discuss the mechanism of nucleophilic substitution reactions in haloalkanes. Provide an example
of a nucleophilic substitution reaction.

OR

Explain the acidity order of phenols and the factors influencing it. Discuss the preparation of phenol
from benzene.

28. a. Define entropy and discuss its relationship with spontaneity.

b. State the First Law of Thermodynamics and its mathematical expression.

c. Provide an example illustrating the application of the First Law of Thermodynamics in a chemical
process.

Section D

29. Background: In a sprawling chemical manufacturing plant, dedicated to large-scale nitrogen

compound production, intricate processes are employed. Nitrogen fixation, ammonia synthesis
through the Haber process, nitric acid production using the Ostwald process, and subsequent
environmental considerations form the backbone of this industrial setting.

a) Detail the industrial method for nitrogen fixation and its pivotal role in fertilizer production.

215
 b) Elaborate on the Haber process, its reaction mechanism, and the factors influencing
equilibrium.
c) Outline the industrial process for nitric acid production, emphasizing catalytic oxidation in
the Ostwald process.
d) Examine the environmental repercussions of large-scale nitrogen compound production and
propose mitigative measures.

30. Background: Transition metal complexes are integral to medicinal chemistry. This case explores
their diverse roles, from serving as anticancer agents and MRI contrast agents to catalyzing
pharmaceutical synthesis and enhancing drug delivery systems.

a) Examine the use of transition metal complexes as potent anticancer agents, elucidating their
mechanisms.
b) Investigate the role of these complexes in MRI contrast agents, weighing their pros and cons
in medical imaging.
c) Explore the catalytic applications of transition metal complexes in pharmaceutical synthesis,
showcasing pertinent examples.
d) Delve into the incorporation of these complexes in drug delivery systems, highlighting their
advantages in controlled release applications.

Section E

31. a. Explain the concept of isomerism in coordination compounds. Provide examples of different
types of isomerism observed in coordination complexes.

b. Discuss the crystal field theory and its application in explaining the color of transition metal
complexes. Provide examples to illustrate the theory.

c. Describe the magnetic properties of transition metal ions. How does the number of unpaired
electrons influence magnetic behavior?

32. a. Discuss the factors affecting the rate of a chemical reaction. Explain the role of a catalyst in
influencing reaction rates.

b. Define dynamic equilibrium and explain how it is established in a chemical reaction. Provide
examples to illustrate dynamic equilibrium.

c. Analyze the Le Chatelier's principle and its application in predicting the effect of changes in
concentration, temperature, and pressure on equilibrium.

33. a. Discuss the classification and properties of polymers. Provide examples of addition and
condensation polymers and their applications.

b. Explain the structure and functions of nucleic acids. Discuss the differences between DNA and
RNA.

c. Elaborate on the role of lipids in living organisms. Discuss the types of lipids and their physiological
functions.

216
 SAMPLE PAPER (2023 -24)

CHEMISTRY THEORY (043)

Max-Marks:- 70 Time: 3 hours

General Instructions:

Read the following instructions carefully.

(a) There are 33 questions in this question paper with internal choice.

(b) SECTION A consists of 16 multiple -choice questions carrying 1 mark each.

(c) SECTION B consists of 5 short answer questions carrying 2 marks each.

(d) SECTION C consists of 7 short answer questions carrying 3 marks each.

(e) SECTION D consists of 2 case - based questions carrying 4 marks each.

(f) SECTION E consists of 3 long answer questions carrying 5 marks each.

(g) All questions are compulsory.

(h) Use of log tables and calculators is not allowed

Section A

1: What is the main component of natural gas?

a. Methane

b. Ethane

c. Propane

d. Butane

2: Which type of bonding is present in sodium chloride (NaCl)?

a. Covalent

b. Metallic

c. Ionic

d. Hydrogen

3: What is the chemical symbol for the element potassium?

a. K

b. Pt

217
c. P

d. Ka

4: What is the common name for the reaction where a substance gains electrons?

a. Oxidation

b. Reduction

c. Displacement

d. Decomposition

5: Which of the following is a halogen?

a. Chlorine (Cl)

b. Sodium (Na)

c. Calcium (Ca)

d. Potassium (K)

6: What is the SI unit of pressure?

a. Pascal (Pa)

b. Newton (N)

c. Joule (J)

d. Watt (W)

7: What is the molecular formula of glucose?

a. C6H6

b. C6H12O6

c. CH4

d. CO2

8: Which of the following is an example of a non-renewable energy source?

a. Solar power

b. Wind power

c. Natural gas

d. Biomass

218
9: In the periodic table, which period corresponds to the elements placed in the same horizontal
row?

a. Group

b. Family

c. Series

d. Period

10: What is the chemical formula for sulfuric acid?

a. H2SO3

b. HNO3

c. H2SO4

d. HClO4

11: What is the pH value of a neutral solution?

a. 0

b. 7

c. 14

d. 10

12: Which of the following is a strong acid?

a. Acetic acid (CH3COOH)

b. Hydrochloric acid (HCl)

c. Citric acid (C6H8O7)

d. Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)

13: What is the common name for the reaction between an acid and a base to form water and a
salt?

a. Combustion

b. Redox reaction

c. Neutralization

d. Displacement

14. Assertion: Noble gases are chemically inert.

219
Reason: Noble gases have a full complement of electrons in their outermost energy level.

a. Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct explanation of the Assertion.

b. Both Assertion and Reason are true, but Reason is not the correct explanation of the Assertion.

c. Assertion is true, but Reason is false.

d. Both Assertion and Reason are false.

15. Assertion: Enzymes are specific in their action.

Reason: The active site of enzymes fits only specific substrates.

a. Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct explanation of the Assertion.

b. Both Assertion and Reason are true, but Reason is not the correct explanation of the Assertion.

c. Assertion is true, but Reason is false.

d. Both Assertion and Reason are false.

16. Assertion: The p-block elements show variable oxidation states.

Reason: The p-orbitals can accommodate different numbers of electrons.

a. Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct explanation of the Assertion.

b. Both Assertion and Reason are true, but Reason is not the correct explanation of the Assertion.

c. Assertion is true, but Reason is false.

d. Both Assertion and Reason are false.

Section B

17. Explain the concept of Gibbs free energy. How is it related to spontaneity in chemical reactions?
Provide an example.

OR

Discuss the principle of Le Chatelier and its application to chemical equilibrium. How does the
equilibrium constant change with temperature?

18. Compare the reactivity of alkyl halides towards nucleophilic substitution and elimination
reactions. Provide mechanisms for both reactions.

19. Explain the acidity of phenols compared to alcohols. Provide examples of industrial applications
of ethers.

20. Describe the chelate effect in coordination compounds. How does it influence the stability of
metal complexes?

220
21. Discuss the preparation and reactions of diazonium salts. Provide an example of an important
reaction involving diazonium salts.

OR

Explain the mechanism of addition polymerization. Provide examples of addition polymers and their
applications in daily life.

Section C

22. Explain the concept of the common ion effect in the context of solubility equilibria. Provide an
example and discuss its implications.

23. a. Define standard enthalpy of formation. How is it related to the heat of reaction?

b. State Hess's law and its significance in thermodynamics.

c. Calculate the standard Gibbs free energy change for a reaction using the equation ΔG° = ΔH° -
TΔS°.

24. Discuss the mechanism of nucleophilic substitution reactions in haloarenes. Provide an example
of a nucleophilic aromatic substitution reaction.

25. a. Explain the chelate effect in coordination compounds.

b. Discuss the isomerism observed in coordination compounds, focusing on structural isomerism.

c. Provide an example of a coordination compound exhibiting both geometrical and optical

isomerism.

26. Discuss the nucleophilic addition reactions of carbonyl compounds. Provide examples,
emphasizing the role of nucleophiles.

OR

Explain the concept of the rate-determining step in a multi-step reaction. Provide an example and
discuss how it influences the overall reaction rate.

27. Discuss the properties and uses of nitrogen. Compare the structures of nitrogen and phosphorus
pentoxides.

28. a. Define enzyme inhibition. Discuss the difference between competitive and non-competitive
inhibition.

b. Explain the structure and function of RNA. How does it differ from DNA?

c. Provide an example of a biopolymer and discuss its significance in living organisms.

221
 Section D

29. Background: In a research laboratory committed to sustainable chemistry, scientists are

exploring innovative methods for the eco-friendly synthesis of organic compounds. Their focus lies
on minimizing environmental impact, reducing waste, and utilizing renewable resources.

a) Explore the principles of green synthesis in organic chemistry. Discuss the key considerations
and benefits of adopting green synthesis methods.
b) Investigate the use of renewable feedstocks in organic synthesis. Provide examples of
sustainable raw materials and their applications.
c) Examine the role of catalysts in sustainable organic synthesis. Discuss how catalysis can
enhance reaction efficiency and reduce environmental impact.
d) Elaborate on strategies for minimizing waste in organic synthesis. Discuss the importance of
designing reactions with waste reduction in mind.

30. Background: A cutting-edge laboratory is focused on developing advanced electrochemical

systems for energy storage. Researchers are exploring new materials and technologies to enhance
the efficiency and sustainability of energy storage devices.

a) Investigate the latest advancements in battery technologies, emphasizing the role of

electrochemistry in energy storage.
b) Explore the principles behind supercapacitors and their potential applications in energy
storage. Compare and contrast supercapacitors with traditional batteries.
c) Examine the role of innovative materials in improving the performance of energy storage
devices. Discuss the properties of materials ideal for electrochemical applications.
d) Analyze the environmental impact of current energy storage technologies. Discuss how
advancements in electrochemical systems can contribute to sustainability.

Section E

31. a. Explain the relationship between reaction rate and activation energy. Provide a detailed
analysis of how temperature influences the rate of a chemical reaction.

b. Define and discuss the concept of entropy. Explain how entropy changes influence the
spontaneity of a chemical process.

c. Illustrate the application of the Arrhenius equation in predicting the rate constants of reactions.

32. a. Compare and contrast the structure and properties of aldehydes and ketones. Provide
examples of reactions characteristic to each functional group.

b. Discuss the structure and functions of enzymes in biological systems. Provide examples of
enzyme-catalyzed reactions and explain the specificity of enzymes.

c. Explain the significance of carbohydrates in living organisms. Discuss different types of

carbohydrates and their roles.

222
33. a. Define and explain the concept of chemical equilibrium. Discuss the factors that affect the
equilibrium position in a chemical reaction.

b. Explore the Nernst equation and its applications in electrochemistry. Provide an example of how
the Nernst equation is used to calculate cell potential.

c. Discuss the principles behind the construction and working of a concentration cell. Compare and
contrast concentration cells with galvanic cells.

223
Topper Sheet

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110

226
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110

227
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110

228
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110

229
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110

230
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110

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110

233
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234
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110

238
 Tips & Tricks!
General Tips:-
Organic Chemistry:
Revise Reactions Daily: Go over organic chemistry reactions twice a day. This will
help you remember them better.
Practice Questions: After revising, practice questions related to these reactions.
This will help you understand how to apply what you've learned.

Physical Chemistry:
Focus on Tricky Questions: Pay special attention to tricky and challenging
questions in physical chemistry.
Strong Topic Knowledge: Make sure you have a solid understanding of all the
topics. Don't just memorize; understand the concepts.

Inorganic Chemistry:
Periodic Table: Regularly revise the periodic table and remember the properties
of elements.
Understand, Don’t Just Memorize: Try to understand why certain elements
behave the way they do instead of just memorizing their properties.

Additional Tips:
Regular Breaks: Don't forget to take breaks during your study sessions.
Healthy Routine: Eat well and get enough sleep. This helps your brain function
better.
Past Papers: Practice with past exam papers to get a feel for the type of
questions asked.
Ask for Help: If you're stuck on something, don’t hesitate to ask your teachers or
friends for help.
Stay Positive: Keep a positive attitude. Believe in yourself and your ability to do
well.

239
 EN D
All The Best For Exams