Version from

4/28/2023

Part 1: Fundamentals of acoustics

3. Acoustic fields in ducts

3.1 Modes in a 2D duct with solid walls

Aeroacoustics, H.-J. Kaltenbach, SS 2023 Part 5, Slide 1

3. Acoustic fields in ducts
3.1 Modes in a 2D-duct with solid walls

Up to now:
Propagation of planar waves in a duct, 1-D-approximation
Fluid parcels move only in the 1-direction (free slip at the wall)

solutions exist for the wave equation that allow particle motion normal to the
duct axis in the interior of the duct and maintain impermeability in the interior
W consider a duct with parallel walls and gap height , extending to infinity in
the 1-direction. The solution does not vary along the span ( in the 3 direction)

Aeroacoustics, H.-J. Kaltenbach, SS 2023 Part 5, Slide 2

3.1 Modes in a 2D-duct with solid walls

Wave equation for the pressure in 2D

1! ! !
− − =0
! ! ! (3.1.1)

Boundary condition at the 0

solid duct walls ( , )=0 #$ = 0, =
ansatz (separated dependency on coordinates and time, harmonic in time, with
complex valued functions , )
( ̱, ) = ℜ ( ) ( )
(3.1.2)
from now on: ( ̱, ) = ( ) ( )
Inserting into the wave equation
1 ( (
(&') − − =0
( ( (3.1.3)

' ( (
− − − =0
( (
(3.1.4)

Aeroacoustics, H.-J. Kaltenbach, SS 2023 Part 5, Slide 3

3.1 Modes in a 2D-duct with solid walls

has to be valid for all times, therefore

' 1( 1(
− − =
( ( (3.1.5)

0
Left hand side depends on 1 only, the right hand side on 2 only
equation must hold for arbitrary combinations of 1, 2
this is only possible if both sides are independent of 1, 2 , i.e. are constant

Set the constant to −*

1( (
= −* → +* =0
thus
(
(3.1.6)
(
 homogeneous ordinary 2nd order diff. eq. with constant coefficients for
ansatz = -./

characteristic polynomial 0 + * = 0 → 0 = ±&* (3.1.7)

Aeroacoustics, H.-J. Kaltenbach, SS 2023 Part 5, Slide 4

3.1 Modes in a 2D-duct with solid walls

general solution ( ) = 2 cos( * ) + 3 sin( * ) (3.1.8)

constants 2 , 3 , * follow from the boundary cond.

 solution determined up to a factor since only 2 b.c.

to make the solution unique a b.c. in 1 is needed, 0

e.g. a moving piston

at the walls must hold =0

!
thus = 0 at = 0, =
!
! ; !
9: =− #$ < = 1,2
from the linearized Euler equation ! ! ;
follows

! !
9: =− =0 at = 0, =
! ! (3.1.9)

i.e. the derivative of the pressure normal to the wall vanishes

Aeroacoustics, H.-J. Kaltenbach, SS 2023 Part 5, Slide 5

3.1 Modes in a 2D-duct with solid walls

derivative of the ansatz (3.1.2) w.r.t. 2

! ! (
= ( ) ( ) = ( )
! ! (

! ( 0
= 0 if = 0 bei = 0, =
! (
(
used in the ansatz (4.1.8) for = −*2 sin( * ) + *3 cos( * ) (3.1.10)
(

satisfies the b.c.at 2 = 0 if B2 = 0

satisfies the b.c.at 2 = if sin( * ) = 0

?@
which is the case for *= ≡ *B with ? = 0,1,2. . . (3.1.11)

Aeroacoustics, H.-J. Kaltenbach, SS 2023 Part 5, Slide 6

3.1 Modes in a 2D-duct with solid walls

from (3.1.8) we get the solution

( ) = 2 cos( * ) (3.1.12)

describing the mode shape in the wall-normal direction

1
m=0
0,8
m=1
0,6
0,4 m=2
(has pressure maxima 0,2
at the wall like in1D duct
g2/A2

0
with a solid termination) -0,2 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1

-0,4
-0,6
-0,8
m=3
-1
x2/H

Aeroacoustics, H.-J. Kaltenbach, SS 2023 Part 5, Slide 7

3.1 Modes in a 2D-duct with solid walls

Determining ( 1) : combining (3.1.5) , (3.1.6) and (3.1.11) to get

' 1( 1( ?@
− − = = −*B = −
( (
rearranged
( ' ?@
+ − =0
( (3.1.13)

 ordinary differential equation for

general ansatz ( )=2 G H.I +3 H.I
(3.1.14)
(
i.e. = −1 ⋅ & ⋅ F 2 G H.I
+ &⋅F 3 H.I
= −F ( )
(
(3.1.15)

after inserting (3.1.15) into (3.1.13) and ' ?@

dividing by we get −F + − =0

Aeroacoustics, H.-J. Kaltenbach, SS 2023 Part 5, Slide 8

3.1 Modes in a 2D-duct with solid walls

The ansatz (3.1.14) satisfies eq. (3.1.13) if

' ?@
dispersion
relation F=± − = J − *B ≡ FB
0
(3.1.16)
FB can become complex valued ! (meaning explained later)
for every index m exist a pair of FB , *B
shape functions and are therefore not independent
a certain ( 1) exists for every ( 2)
thus, the complete solution for the pressure (from 3.1.2) using (3.1.12) and
(3.1.14) reads

( , ) = 2 cos( *B )2 G HK .I
+3 HK .I (3.1.17)

amplitude factors 2 , 3 , 2 resp. M = 2 2 and M = 2 3 can be chosen freely

Aeroacoustics, H.-J. Kaltenbach, SS 2023 Part 5, Slide 9

3.1 Modes in a 2D-duct with solid walls

Rearranging as wave expressions

( , ) = 2 cos( *B )2 ( GHK .I )
+3 ( OHK .I )
0
(3.1.18)

new: instead of the real wavenumber J the complex value FB appears

for FB real  superposition of two opposite waves

(CAUTION: their propagation speed might differ from the speed of sound 
dispersive process in a duct)

solution appears as a superposition of modes ? = 0,1,2. . . .

Under which conditions do these exist?

Aeroacoustics, H.-J. Kaltenbach, SS 2023 Part 5, Slide 10

3.1 Modes in a 2D-duct with solid walls

Fundamental mode is defined as ? = 0

from (3.1.11) *: = 0, i.e. const in 2
'
from (3.1.16) F: = J − *: = J = 0

from (3.1.18)
( , )=2 2 ( GR.I )
+3 ( OR.I )
(3.1.19)

 the fundamental mode corresponds to the 1D planar wave

What other (physical) solutions might exist ?

- from now on we consider from solutions (3.1.16) only the +sign (by scaling 22)
- a regular propagating wave ( [ − ], [ + ]) is described by
( , ) = 2 cos( *B )2 ( GHK .I )
+3 ( OHK .I )

only in the case of real FB

Aeroacoustics, H.-J. Kaltenbach, SS 2023 Part 5, Slide 11

3.1 Modes in a 2D-duct with solid walls

the root in (3.1.16) can become negative

' ?@
F=± − = J − *B ≡ FB
0
What is the
physical meaning ( , ) = M cos( *B ) ( G ℑ HK .I )
=
of imaginary values = M cos( *B ) Oℑ HK .I
=
FB = &ℑ(FB ) ?
(3.1.20)

= M cos( *B ) ℑ HK .I

= M cos( *B ) cos( ' ) + & sin( ' ) ℑ HK .I

± HK .I
(3.1.20) describes a solution that decays
or growths in the 1-direction by the factor
- spatially growing (acoustic) modes have never been observed (unphysical)
- decaying modes are in practical applications not of great interest since they
do not propagate (in fluid at rest); also known as evanescent modes
Aeroacoustics, H.-J. Kaltenbach, SS 2023 Part 5, Slide 12
3.1 Modes in a 2D-duct with solid walls

Example: ' ?@
F=± − = J − *B ≡ FB
Free field wave length
frequency = 1000 T, = 343 ?/W, J = 2@ / = 18,3 ?G , 0 = 0,343 ?
?@
effect of a variation of wave number *B = with duct width and m
20

αm 10 [?]
0,1
0 0,3
0 1 2 3 4 5 ? 6
0,5
-10
−αm 0,7
1
-20

-30
the wider the duct, the more modes (for given ') are able to propagate
(vice versa: for given and m a mode propagates only if ' is sufficiently high)

Aeroacoustics, H.-J. Kaltenbach, SS 2023 Part 5, Slide 13

3.1 Modes in a 2D-duct with solid walls

For a certain frequency exists a maximum mode order m, up

0
to which modes can propagate resp.
for each mode order m exists a lower limit of frequency 'Y,B ,
above which the mode propagates (a mode can exist for any frequency)
' ?@ @
F real: − > 0, i.e. '>? ≡ 'Y,B (3.1.21)

technical term: „cut-on“ (or cut-off) frequency of mode m:

cut-on frequency without index: ist value for the first higher mode (? = 1)
below 'Y, only the fundamental propagates ('Y,: = 0)
@ 'Y,
'Y, = Y, = = resp. 0Y, = =2
resp. 2@ 2 Y,

(a mode is cut-on if the duct width > half of its wave length w.r.t. 2)
2@ 2
distinguish freefield wave length 0\ ≡ and 0 ,B ≡ =
*B ?

Aeroacoustics, H.-J. Kaltenbach, SS 2023 Part 5, Slide 14

3.1 Modes in a 2D-duct with solid walls

Example: [?] 0,1 0,3 0,5 0,7 1

M , 1 [ T] 1715 572 343 245 172
(for air at standard conditions) 0

consequence:
1) in thin ducts often only the fundamental mode (planar wave) propagates
(pneumatic pipe work, car exhaust, fuel pipe etc.)
2)  mathematical models of sound waves in network of ducts often deal only
with planar waves (dedicated software, similar to electronic circuits)
3) Efficient sound mitigation in duct systems (including turbo-engine housing)
consists in the avoidance of excitation of the fundamental mode by the source
(e.g. by avoiding integer number multiples of rotor and stator blades))
What is the value of the cut-on frequency in the exhaust pipe of a car ?
(for a pipe with diameter ] the first higher mode is cut-on if 0 < 1,7 ])
D = 50mm , c=343m/s  f= 4035 Hz

Aeroacoustics, H.-J. Kaltenbach, SS 2023 Part 5, Slide 15

3.1 Modes in a 2D-duct with solid walls

0\ /2: ?=0
0\ ≡ , = 0,8 , ? = 0,1,2

i.e. 0\ < 0Y, = 2 0

a standing wave in the

2-direction propagates in
the 1-Richtung (distance
of maxima ≠ 0a ) /
/
always a pressure extre-
mum at the wall (3.1.12)
?=1 ?=2

Aeroacoustics, H.-J. Kaltenbach, SS 2023 Part 5, Slide 16

3.1 Modes in a 2D-duct with solid walls

Phase speed of duct modes (in axial x1-direction)

reformulation of the argument in the wave expression
.I
G fg
eK
( , ) = d( ) ( GHK .I ) = d( ) 0

bc '
B ≡
FB
definition (3.1.22)

bc ' '
≡ = =
:
F: J
the fundamental mode move with speed of sound since

for higher modes ? > 0 we get because of FB = J − *B < J

bc
B > ???
 axial propagation of sound in ducts is dispersive (depends on frequency)

Aeroacoustics, H.-J. Kaltenbach, SS 2023 Part 5, Slide 17

3.1 Modes in a 2D-duct with solid walls

Interpretation as superposition of oblique waves

consider solution propagating in the positive 1-direction
0
decomposition of dependency on 2:
1
cos( *B )= hK ./
+ G hK ./
2
v

from (3.1.17) we get

( , ) = 2 cos( *B )2 ( GHK .I ) = (3.1.23)

2 2 2 2
= ( GHK .I OhK ./ )
+ ( GHK .I GhK ./ )
= +
2 2 O G

What is the physical meaning of (3.1.23)?

Aeroacoustics, H.-J. Kaltenbach, SS 2023 Part 5, Slide 18

3.1 Modes in a 2D-duct with solid walls

Remember:
m.
Planar wave propagating in direction m̱ = m
n

( , , )= ( Go⋅.)
= ( GoI .I Go/ ./ ) 0

meaning: decomposition in 2 planar waves propagating obliquely

of (3.1.23) in the 1, 2-plane (no longer along the axis
iB
of the duct) G
*B

FB FB FB
iB
O = −* , iB
G = * 0
B B (3.1.24) l

−*B iB
O

propagation in the direction of the wavevector

j ⋅.) k ⋅.)
i.e. O = ( GHK and G = ( GHK

Aeroacoustics, H.-J. Kaltenbach, SS 2023 Part 5, Slide 19

3.1 Modes in a 2D-duct with solid walls

The propagation speed (phase speed) of a wave with *B iB

G

wave vector i is '/ i

FB
0
l
What is the propagation speed of partial waves +
and −
?
' −*B iB
O
iB
O
= iB
G
= FB + *B = J =
v
from (3.1.24) we have

Thus the partial waves +

and −
propagate like simple planar waves with the
speed of sound

Thus, they are solutions of the wave equation in free space

the solution (3.1.23) in the duct can be represented by the superposition of two
(infinite) planar wave solution
- these solutions extend beyond the duct walls (similar to standing wave in 1D)
and
satisfy the boundary conditions at the (virtual) positions of the duct walls
=0 i = 0, =

Aeroacoustics, H.-J. Kaltenbach, SS 2023 Part 5, Slide 20

3.1 Modes in a 2D-duct with solid walls

FB FB
iB
O =
−*B , iB
G =
*B

±*B
tan l = *B iB
G
FB
- directions of the wave vector
FB
0
- distance of maxima at the wall along 1-direction l

−*B iB
O

0 2@
Δ = = (3.1.25)
cos l FB Δ

therefore the phase velocity along 1

is larger than by the factor 1/ cos l

0
l

Aeroacoustics, H.-J. Kaltenbach, SS 2023 Part 5, Slide 21

3.1 Modes in a 2D-duct with solid walls not part of
the exam

Is this a contradiction to „Information

can not be transported faster than with
the speed of sound“ ?
the transport of information requires a modu-
lation of amplitudes
 consider a wave package (details in chapter 4, Ehrenfried)
Information and energy of a wave package travel with the group velocity $ (not
with the phase velocity ℎ) along the axis of the duct

rs (' ( FB + *B :,t *B iB
G

B = =
(FB (FB FB

1
0
l

= FB + *B G:,t 2FB = −*B iB

O

2
FB
= = cos l rs
= cos l <
FB + *B :,t B (3.1.27)

thus for higher modes the information travels axially slower than with the speed
of sound despite supersonic phase speed ℎ > (from 3.1.22)

Aeroacoustics, H.-J. Kaltenbach, SS 2023 Part 5, Slide 22

Part 1: Fundamentals of acoustics

3. Sound fields in ducts

3.2 Radiated power, mean flow, and ducts

with soft walls

Aeroacoustics, H.-J. Kaltenbach, SS 2023 Part 5, Slide 23

3.2 Radiated power Details not relevant
for the exam

Consider a periodic function = + u on the interval 0 < ‘ < u

orthogonality of modes is defined in terms of a functional inner product

′
≡ 2@
u
x

( ), {( ) ≡ w ( ){ ∗ ( )( = 0 ↔ functionW , { are orthogonal

:

w sin( ? ) cos( m ) = 0
:
x
@ for m = ?
w sin( ? ) sin( m ) = y
0 for m ≠ ?
(3.2.1)
:
x
@ for m = ?
w cos( ? ) cos( m ) = y
0 for m ≠ ?
:

Aeroacoustics, H.-J. Kaltenbach, SS 2023 Part 5, Slide 24

3.2 Radiated power Details not relevant
for the exam

definition of the mean acoustic intensity of a harmonic acoustic field

ƒ
1 1
• = w ′ ′( = ℜ ̂ … ∗
‚ 2
:

through surface € transported power † = w • ⋅ m(€

‡

† G
ˆ. † O
ˆ.

because of hard walls with ′ = 0 → m ′ = 0 there is only axial intensity in a

duct cross section at 1
‰ ‰
1
† = w •ˆ. ( ) ( = w ℜ ̂ …∗ ( [W/m] (per depth 3)
2
: : (3.2.2)
Aeroacoustics, H.-J. Kaltenbach, SS 2023 Part 5, Slide 25
3.2 Radiated power Details not relevant
for the exam

Contribution of a single mode m to the sound pressure field in a 2D duct

( , ) = cos( *B ) 2O
B
( GHK .I )
+ 2G
B
( OHK .I )

Consider the power < Š > + radiated to the far field, no evanescent modes
included
(axial wavenumber FB is real and > 0), i.e. 2G
B =0

Sound pressure from superposition of all „cut-on“ modes = ̂O , =… ,

Œ

̂ O = ‹ cos( *B ) 2O
B
G HK .I
(3.2.3)
B•:

the axial particle velocity is derived from the axial component of the momentum
Œ
balance as ! !
9: =− ↔ &'9: … , = − ‹ cos( *B )(−&FB ) 2O B
G HK .I
! ! (3.2.4)
B•:
Œ
FB
… , = ‹ cos( *B ) 2O
B
G HK .I
'9:
B•:
Aeroacoustics, H.-J. Kaltenbach, SS 2023 Part 5, Slide 26
3.2 Radiated power Details not relevant
for the exam

Contribution of the „cut-on“ modes at frequency ' to the intensity

Œ Œ
1 1 FŽ ∗ OH .
•ˆ. ( ) = ℜ … … ∗ = ℜ ‹ cos( *B ) 2O
B
G HK .I
‹ cos( *Ž ) 2O
Ž
• I
2 2 '9:
B•: Ž•:
(3.2.5)
integration across the cross-section of the duct taking the orthogonality of the
modes into account ( cross correlations do not contribute)
‰ Œ Œ
1 FŽ ∗ OH .
†O = w ℜ ‹ cos( *B ) 2O
B
G HK .I
‹ cos( *Ž ) 2O
Ž
• I ( =
2 '9:
: B•: Ž•:
‰ Œ Œ
1 1 ∗ GH . OH .
= w ‹ ‹ cos( *B ) cos( *Ž ) 2O
B FŽ 2Ž
O K I • I ( =
2 '9:
: B•: Ž•:
Œ Œ ‰
1 1 ∗ GH . OH .
= ‹ ‹ w cos( *B ) cos( *Ž )( 2O
B FŽ 2Ž
O K I • I =
2 '9:
B•: Ž•: :
(‰/ )•‘oo B•Ž, ’“o’ :
Œ Œ
1 1 FB O
= ‹ 2O †O = ‹ 2B
B FB 2B →
O ∗ G HK .I O HK .I
4 '9: 4 '9: (3.2.6)
B•: B•:

Aeroacoustics, H.-J. Kaltenbach, SS 2023 Part 5, Slide 27

3.2 Radiated power Details not relevant
for the exam

Summary: transport of acoustic energy through a duct

• The sound from a source is transported for each frequency with a certain
number of spatial modes (minimum ? = 0, always cut on)
• the (complex) mode amplitude depends on the source process (excitation)
• not all exited modes propagate (are cut-on), some are evanescent
•  the sound pressure at position 1 is not invariant; depends on the installation
and properties of the duct
• The power radiated into the far-field of an infinite duct (no flow through)
towards one side corresponds to the sum of the squares of the amplitudes of
the cut-on modes weighted with their axial wavenumber

Œ
1 FB O
†O = ‹ 2B
4 '9:
B•:
(3.2.6)

Aeroacoustics, H.-J. Kaltenbach, SS 2023 Part 5, Slide 28

3.2 Modes in a 2D channel with constant flow through

Sound propagation in case of mean background flow through the duct

”•

0
aus W. Lipps: Strömungsakustik

- includes many practical applications (HVAC, exhaust, aero engines, …)

- solution by transformation in coordinates moving with the flow with ”•

- result: the cut-on-frequency is lowered – = ”• /

'Y,B = *B 1−– (is relevant for – > 0,2 ) (3.2.7)

- thus with flow some modes can propagate that would be evanescent
(exponential decay) in a fluid at rest
- In addition, the radiated power changes for flow through (depends on –)
Aeroacoustics, H.-J. Kaltenbach, SS 2023 Part 5, Slide 29
3.2 Modes in a 2D duct with soft walls

So far: impermeable wall, particle velocity = 0 , equals to impedance —˜ = ∞

Now: soft wall, i.e. —˜ = 0, the pressure disturbance vanishes at the wall
(same) ansatz for the 2D wave equation

( ̱, ) = ( ) ( )

with the b.c. ( , ) = 0 bei = 0, =

0

1(
ansatz inserted in the wave equation yields an ODE for : = −*
(
having the general solution ( ) = 2 cos( * ) + 3 sin( * )
(up to here identical with the solution for the solid wall, eqn. (3.1.8)) (3.2.8)

?@
matching the b.c.: 2 = 0 and *= for ? = 0,1,2. . .
@
(3.2.9)
( ) = 3 sin( *B )
2
thus („shift“ by )

Aeroacoustics, H.-J. Kaltenbach, SS 2023 Part 5, Slide 30

3.2 Modes in a 2D duct with soft walls

solid wall, b.c.: š = 0 soft wall, b.c.: =0

( ) = 2 cos( *B ) ( ) = 3 sin( *B )
1
1
m=0
0,8 m=1
m=1 0,8
0,6
0,6
0,4 m=2
0,4
0,2 0,2
g2/A2

m=0

g2/B2
0 0
-0,2 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1
-0,2 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1
-0,4 -0,4
-0,6 m=3
-0,6
-0,8 m=2
m=3 -0,8
-1 -1
x2/H x2/H

Aeroacoustics, H.-J. Kaltenbach, SS 2023 Part 5, Slide 31

3.2 Modes in a 2D duct with soft walls

Dispersion relation for F is identical to that of the solid wall case

' ?@
F=± − = J − *B ≡ FB

' ?@ @
same cut-on frequency F real: − > 0, d.h. ' > ? ≡ 'Y,B

solution (duct modes)

(3.2.10)
( , ) = 3 sin( *B )2 ( GHK .I ) +3 ( OHK .I )

Main difference: for *: = 0 is always ‘ = 0  there is no (planar)

fundamental mode below the limit frequency
@
'Y, =

there is no propagating mode, only decaying modes occur there

Aeroacoustics, H.-J. Kaltenbach, SS 2023 Part 5, Slide 32