Moulding Sand 1

DISA 030-B Pattern Equipment General 2

Sand Moulding System

Application Manual Pattern Equipment specific for

Reg. No. 10266086
DISA 030-B 3
Edition 02-12

Cores 4

Moulding of Green Sand Cores 5

Feeding & Gating 6

Process General 7

Process specific for DISA 030-B 8

Tables 9

Notes 10
 NOTE
For illustrative purposes the DISA equipment may be shown without
any warning labels and with some of the protective guards removed.
The warning labels and guards must always be in place when the
equipment is in use.

Copyright © 2012 DISA Industries A/S

All information, illustrations, and specifications in this manual are based

on the latest product information available at the time of publication.
DISA Industries A/S reserves the right to make changes at any time
without notice.

Printed in Denmark by DISA Industries A/S, 29. February 2012

DISA 030-B Application Manual
10266086 Table of Contents

1 Moulding Sand

1.1 High-Density Green Sand Moulding..................................................................................... 1.3

1.1.1 Average Grain Size .................................................................................................. 1.5
1.1.2 Moulding Sand Strength ......................................................................................... 1.5
1.1.2.1 Proper Content of Active Bentonite ........................................................... 1.7
1.1.2.2 Bentonite Quality........................................................................................ 1.9
1.1.3 Water Content........................................................................................................ 1.15
1.1.4 Content of Inactive Fines ...................................................................................... 1.19
1.1.4.1 Mixing Efficiency ...................................................................................... 1.21
1.1.4.2 Sand Temperature .................................................................................... 1.23
1.1.4.3 Tensile and Spalling Strength ................................................................. 1.25
1.1.4.4 Wet Tensile Strength................................................................................ 1.25
1.1.4.5 Green Compression Strength ................................................................... 1.27
1.1.5 Permeability........................................................................................................... 1.27
1.1.6 Compactability ....................................................................................................... 1.29
1.1.7 Some laws relating to moulding sand compactability ......................................... 1.31
1.1.7.1 Compressibility Factor ............................................................................. 1.31
1.1.7.2 Definition of Temper Point ....................................................................... 1.33
1.1.8 AFS Clay Content (Total Fines Content) ............................................................. 1.35
1.1.9 Loss on Ignition...................................................................................................... 1.35
1.1.10 Volatile ................................................................................................................... 1.37
1.1.11 Carbonaceous Materials ........................................................................................ 1.37
1.1.12 Base Sand............................................................................................................... 1.39
1.1.13 Sand Testing .......................................................................................................... 1.41
1.1.14 Reconditioning of the Moulding Sand................................................................... 1.41
1.1.15 Sand Control Routine ............................................................................................ 1.43
1.1.15.1 Control of Sand Consistency at the Mixer............................................... 1.45
1.1.15.2 Laboratory Sand Testing .......................................................................... 1.47
1.2 Moulding Materials Testing Practice.................................................................................. 1.49
1.2.1 Moulding Sand Testing ......................................................................................... 1.49
1.2.1.1 Sampling.................................................................................................... 1.49
1.2.1.2 Specimen Rammer .................................................................................... 1.49
1.2.1.3 Strength Properties .................................................................................. 1.51
1.2.1.4 Wet Tensile Strength................................................................................ 1.51
1.2.1.5 Compactability .......................................................................................... 1.53
1.2.1.6 Riddled Density......................................................................................... 1.55

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1.2.1.7 Moisture Content...................................................................................... 1.55

1.2.1.8 Determination of Active Bentonite Content ........................................... 1.57
1.2.1.9 AFS-Clay Content (Total content of fines) .............................................. 1.63
1.2.1.10 Loss on Ignition ........................................................................................ 1.65
1.2.1.11 Volatile Matter ......................................................................................... 1.69
1.2.1.12 Practical conclusion from volatiles and loss-on-ignition tests ............... 1.71
1.2.1.13 Sieve Analysis........................................................................................... 1.73
1.2.1.14 Water sensitivity of moulding sand......................................................... 1.77
1.2.1.15 Mixing Efficiency ...................................................................................... 1.79
1.2.2 Testing raw materials ........................................................................................... 1.83
1.2.2.1 Bentonite Testing ..................................................................................... 1.83
1.2.2.2 Water Content .......................................................................................... 1.83
1.2.2.3 Swelling Index .......................................................................................... 1.85
1.2.2.4 Sedimentation Index ................................................................................ 1.87
1.2.2.5 Montmorillonite Content.......................................................................... 1.89
1.2.2.6 Content of Water-Soluble Carbonates..................................................... 1.89
1.2.2.7 Acidity (pH-value) .................................................................................... 1.91
1.2.2.8 Testing Carbonic Materials ..................................................................... 1.91
1.2.2.9 Grain size .................................................................................................. 1.91
1.2.2.10 Water Content .......................................................................................... 1.91
1.2.2.11 Volatile Content........................................................................................ 1.93
1.2.2.12 Ash Content .............................................................................................. 1.93
1.2.2.13 Sulphur Content ....................................................................................... 1.95
1.2.2.14 Swelling Index (for sea coal only) ............................................................ 1.97

2 Pattern Equipment General

2.1 Pattern Plates and Patterns ................................................................................................. 2.3

2.1.1 Pattern Plate Materials .......................................................................................... 2.3
2.1.2 Standard Pattern Plates ......................................................................................... 2.3
2.1.3 Thick Pattern Plates ............................................................................................... 2.5
2.1.4 Pattern Plate and Mould Utilization...................................................................... 2.7
2.1.4.1 Utilization of Surface Area ........................................................................ 2.7
2.1.4.2 Utilization of Mould Thickness.................................................................. 2.7
2.1.4.3 Determination of Minimum Chamber Depth ........................................... 2.9
2.1.5 Pattern Plate Thickness and Pattern Height Definitions................................... 2.13
2.2 Pattern Design ..................................................................................................................... 2.15
2.2.1 Pattern Construction............................................................................................. 2.15

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2.2.1.1 Pattern Plate Material Selection ............................................................. 2.17

2.2.2 Pattern Production Technique.............................................................................. 2.19
2.2.2.1 Pattern Draft ............................................................................................ 2.23
2.2.2.2 Pattern Guiding in the Mould ................................................................. 2.25
2.2.2.3 Lift-Off Devices......................................................................................... 2.27
2.2.2.4 Pattern Venting ........................................................................................ 2.29
2.2.3 Inspection of Pattern and Moulding Machine ..................................................... 2.31

3 Pattern Equipment specific for DISA 030-B

3.1 Cassette systems.................................................................................................................... 3.3

3.2 Pattern Design ....................................................................................................................... 3.5
3.2.1 Determination of the safety distances on the pattern plates................................ 3.5
3.2.2 Pattern location on the pattern plate ..................................................................... 3.7
3.2.3 Pattern plate guide pins and bushings .................................................................. 3.9
3.2.4 Plane parallelism..................................................................................................... 3.9
3.2.5 Lock screws ............................................................................................................ 3.11
3.2.6 Scraper strip .......................................................................................................... 3.11
3.2.7 Pouring cup wear plates........................................................................................ 3.11
3.2.8 Heater PP and SP.................................................................................................. 3.13
3.3 Core Mask ............................................................................................................................ 3.17
3.3.1 Core setter mask.................................................................................................... 3.17
3.3.2 Core mask design .................................................................................................. 3.17
3.3.3 Standard core mask frames .................................................................................. 3.19
3.3.4 Core mask materials ............................................................................................. 3.21
3.3.5 Core mask production ........................................................................................... 3.23
3.3.5.1 Expandable Foam..................................................................................... 3.29
3.3.5.2 Armospheres + Resin ............................................................................... 3.31
3.4 Pattern plate thickness, pattern height and core height limitation ................................. 3.35
3.4.1 Step-by-step limitation determination procedure ............................................... 3.35

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4 Cores

4.1 Cores....................................................................................................................................... 4.3

4.1.1 Principles of core locating ....................................................................................... 4.5
4.1.1.1 Core/Mould Fit............................................................................................ 4.5
4.1.1.2 Core/Mask Fit ............................................................................................. 4.7
4.1.2 Core locator design .................................................................................................. 4.9
4.1.2.1 Standard core locators................................................................................ 4.9
4.1.2.2 Locating small cores ................................................................................. 4.17
4.1.3 Inserts .................................................................................................................... 4.17
4.1.4 Core box production............................................................................................... 4.19
4.1.4.1 Vacuum Holes in Core Mask.................................................................... 4.21
4.1.4.2 Dressing the core mask ............................................................................ 4.23
4.1.5 Core height limitations ......................................................................................... 4.31
4.1.6 Examples of different types of cores fitting into mould/core mask..................... 4.33

5 Moulding of Green Sand Cores

5.1 Process.................................................................................................................................... 5.3

5.1.1 Sand shot ................................................................................................................. 5.3
5.1.2 Squeezing ................................................................................................................. 5.3
5.2 Process parameters................................................................................................................ 5.5
5.2.1 Sand supply ............................................................................................................. 5.5
5.2.2 Sand level................................................................................................................. 5.5
5.2.3 Sand shot pressure .................................................................................................. 5.5
5.2.4 Chamber depth ........................................................................................................ 5.7
5.2.5 Shot time.................................................................................................................. 5.9
5.2.6 Venting of chamber ............................................................................................... 5.11
5.2.7 Venting of pattern pockets.................................................................................... 5.11
5.2.8 Squeezing ............................................................................................................... 5.13
5.2.9 Miscellaneous ........................................................................................................ 5.13
5.3 Appendix .............................................................................................................................. 5.15
5.3.1 Correct Sandfeeding for Good Castings ............................................................... 5.15
5.3.1.1 Special demands to sandflow from the sand supply unit ....................... 5.15

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6 Feeding & Gating

6.1 Feeding ................................................................................................................................... 6.3

6.1.1 Summary of feeding ................................................................................................ 6.3
6.2 Solidification shrinkage......................................................................................................... 6.5
6.2.1 Shrinkage formation ............................................................................................... 6.5
6.2.1.1 Purely contracting alloys ........................................................................... 6.5
6.2.1.2 Expansion - contraction alloys ................................................................... 6.9
6.2.1.3 Iron-Carbon/Iron-Cementite diagram ....................................................... 6.9
6.2.2 Internal tensile stresses during solidification ..................................................... 6.11
6.2.3 Shrinkage appearance (examples)........................................................................ 6.11
6.3 Feeding criteria.................................................................................................................... 6.17
6.3.1 Modulus criterion .................................................................................................. 6.17
6.3.1.1 Cooling times versus moduli .................................................................... 6.17
6.3.1.2 Modulus of a casting, MC......................................................................... 6.19
6.3.1.3 Modulus criterion constant, kM............................................................... 6.23
6.3.1.4 Feeder shape............................................................................................. 6.23
6.4 Volume criterion .................................................................................................................. 6.25
6.4.1 Feeder shapes ........................................................................................................ 6.25
6.4.2 Alloys...................................................................................................................... 6.27
6.5 Pressure criterion ................................................................................................................ 6.27
6.5.1 Top/side feeder....................................................................................................... 6.29
6.5.2 Feeding length ....................................................................................................... 6.29
6.5.3 Summarising example........................................................................................... 6.37
6.5.4 Feeder neck criterion............................................................................................. 6.41
6.5.4.1 Moduli of necks ......................................................................................... 6.41
6.6 Feeding design ..................................................................................................................... 6.43
6.6.1 Standard of feeder shapes..................................................................................... 6.43
6.6.2 Neck shapes ........................................................................................................... 6.45
6.6.3 Connor block feeder............................................................................................... 6.45
6.7 Calculation examples of feeding ......................................................................................... 6.47
6.7.1 Standard feeder ..................................................................................................... 6.47
6.7.2 Connor block feeder............................................................................................... 6.51
6.8 Gating principles and systems............................................................................................ 6.55
6.8.1 Pressurised gating system characteristics........................................................... 6.57
6.8.2 Depressurised gating system characteristics ...................................................... 6.57
6.8.3 Non-pressurised gating system characteristics ................................................... 6.59
6.8.4 Mixed (Hybrid) gating system characteristics ..................................................... 6.59

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6.9 Gating system formulas ...................................................................................................... 6.61

6.9.1 The free drop and pressurised gating................................................................... 6.61
6.9.2 Derivation of formula F......................................................................................... 6.63
6.9.2.1 Loss factor m............................................................................................. 6.63
6.9.2.2 Gravity acceleration g .............................................................................. 6.63
6.9.2.3 Metallostatic (average) height H ............................................................. 6.65
6.9.2.4 Flow rate W [weight/time unit] ............................................................... 6.67
6.9.2.5 Density ρ of the metal.............................................................................. 6.69
6.9.2.6 The weight G............................................................................................. 6.69
6.9.2.7 Pouring time t........................................................................................... 6.69
6.9.2.8 Standard Gating Nomogram for quick calculation of F ......................... 6.75
6.9.2.9 Metallostatic and metallodynamic pressures ......................................... 6.75
6.9.2.10 Laminar, turbulent and non-turbulent flow in gating systems............. 6.77
6.9.2.11 Velocities in pressurized gating systems ................................................ 6.79
6.9.2.12 Losses in channels and ingates................................................................ 6.83
6.10 Design of gating systems..................................................................................................... 6.85
6.10.1 Pouring cups .......................................................................................................... 6.85
6.10.2 Pouring cup location on pattern plate .................................................................. 6.91
6.10.3 Runners.................................................................................................................. 6.91
6.10.4 Vertical runner connection to the pouring cups .................................................. 6.93
6.10.5 Horizontal runner connection to the pouring cups.............................................. 6.97
6.10.6 Upper horizontal runners ..................................................................................... 6.97
6.10.7 Overlap between upper horizontal runner and vertical runner ....................... 6.101
6.10.8 Vertical runners .................................................................................................. 6.103
6.10.9 Vertical runner connections to horizontal runners ........................................... 6.105
6.10.10 Chokes and reductions on runners..................................................................... 6.109
6.10.11 Intermediate and lower horizontal runners ...................................................... 6.109
6.10.12 Ingates.................................................................................................................. 6.111
6.10.13 Outlets.................................................................................................................. 6.113
6.10.14 Filters................................................................................................................... 6.113
6.10.15 Fillet around the whole gating system............................................................... 6.115
6.11 Calculation of the 4 different gating systems .................................................................. 6.117
6.11.1 Common considerations for the gating systems ................................................ 6.117
6.11.2 Choice of gating system between the 4 gating systems .................................... 6.119
6.11.3 Calculation of the pressurized gating system.................................................... 6.125
6.11.3.1 Ingates..................................................................................................... 6.125
6.11.3.2 Vertical runners...................................................................................... 6.127
6.11.3.3 Horizontal runners ................................................................................. 6.127
6.11.3.4 Pouring cup ............................................................................................. 6.129

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6.11.4 Calculation of the depressurized gating system ................................................ 6.129

6.11.4.1 Vertical runners...................................................................................... 6.129
6.11.4.2 Upper horizontal runner (right side)..................................................... 6.131
6.11.4.3 Upper horizontal runner (left side) ....................................................... 6.131
6.11.4.4 Overlap between upper horizontal runner and vertical runner .......... 6.133
6.11.4.5 Intermediate and lower horizontal runners.......................................... 6.133
6.11.4.6 Ingates..................................................................................................... 6.133
6.11.4.7 Wells........................................................................................................ 6.135
6.11.4.8 Pouring cup ............................................................................................. 6.135
6.11.5 Calculation of the non-pressurized gating system ............................................ 6.137
6.11.5.1 Upper horizontal runner ........................................................................ 6.137
6.11.5.2 Vertical runner ....................................................................................... 6.137
6.11.5.3 Ingates..................................................................................................... 6.137
6.11.5.4 Pouring cup ............................................................................................. 6.139
6.11.6 Calculation of the mixed (hybrid) gating system............................................... 6.141
6.11.6.1 Pouring cup, upper horizontal runners, vertical runners,
wells and intermediate and lower runners ........................................... 6.141
6.11.6.2 Ingates..................................................................................................... 6.141
6.12 Pouring trials and simulations ......................................................................................... 6.143
6.12.1 Computer aided pouring and solidification simulations ................................... 6.143
6.12.1.1 Mould aided simulated pouring trials ................................................... 6.145
6.12.2 DISA moulding machine pouring trials ............................................................. 6.147
6.12.3 Evaluation of pouring trial results ..................................................................... 6.147

7 Process General

7.1 Metal pouring practice .......................................................................................................... 7.3

7.1.1 Charging and melting ............................................................................................. 7.3
7.1.2 Metal tapping .......................................................................................................... 7.5
7.1.3 Inoculation and alloying.......................................................................................... 7.7
7.1.4 Skimming................................................................................................................. 7.9
7.1.5 Transport ................................................................................................................. 7.9
7.1.6 Pouring the metal.................................................................................................. 7.11
7.1.6.1 Manual Pouring........................................................................................ 7.13
7.1.6.2 Pouring Position ....................................................................................... 7.19
7.1.6.3 Automatic Pouring ................................................................................... 7.21
7.2 Process Control .................................................................................................................... 7.27
7.2.1 Process downtime .................................................................................................. 7.27

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7.2.2 Staff training ......................................................................................................... 7.29

7.2.2.1 Production Routines ................................................................................. 7.31
7.2.3 High Density Moulds without Excessive Pressure.............................................. 7.49
7.2.4 Mould Production Trouble Shooting..................................................................... 7.51
7.2.4.1 Mould Production ..................................................................................... 7.51
7.2.4.2 Core Setting .............................................................................................. 7.59
7.2.4.3 Mould Transport....................................................................................... 7.63
7.2.5 Cooling the Castings ............................................................................................. 7.65
7.2.5.1 Experimental Determination of Cooling Time........................................ 7.67
7.2.5.2 Estimated Evaluation of Cooling Time ................................................... 7.69
7.2.6 Quality Assurance ................................................................................................. 7.75
7.2.6.1 Recording Casting Defects ....................................................................... 7.77
7.2.6.2 Casting defect troubleshooting ................................................................ 7.89
7.2.7 Gasholes (small, clear and bright)........................................................................ 7.99
7.2.8 Gasholes (small and very shiny)........................................................................... 7.99
7.2.9 Gasholes (elongated and irregular) .................................................................... 7.101
7.2.10 Gasholes (larger rounded holes) ......................................................................... 7.101

8 Process specific for DISA 030-B

8.1 Productivity............................................................................................................................ 8.3

8.1.1 Variable Mould Thickness ...................................................................................... 8.3
8.1.2 Obtainable moulding capacity ................................................................................ 8.5
8.1.3 Pouring Position ...................................................................................................... 8.7
8.1.4 Automatic Pouring .................................................................................................. 8.9
8.1.5 Moulding Machine Settings .................................................................................. 8.11
8.1.6 Production Settings on DISA 030-B ..................................................................... 8.13

9 Tables

10 Notes

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 Application Manual
Chapter 1 — Moulding Sand

1 Moulding Sand

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SAND PROPERTIES FOR DISA VERTICAL MOULDING MACHINES

Mould height 400 480 < mould height < 600 600 < mould height < 1050

Average sand grain size (washed) 0.14-0.28 DIN AFS 110-60 0.14-0.22 DIN AFS 110-70 0.14-0.18 DIN AFS 110-80

Grain size distribution 3-4 sieves for 90% grains

Green compression strength 16-21 N/cm2 23-30 psi 19-23 N/cm2 27-33 psi 22-25 N/cm2 31-36 psi

Green tensile strength >2 N/cm2 >2.8 psi > 2.2 N/cm2 >3.1 psi >2.5 N/cm2 > 3.5 psi

Spalling strength >3 N/cm2 >4.3 psi > 3.3 N/cm2 >4.7 psi >3.8 N/cm2 >5.4 psi

Wet tensile strength >0.20 N/cm2 >0.3 psi >0.22 N/cm2 >0.32 psi >0.25 N/cm2 >0.35 psi

Permeability >60

Compactability 40% ± 2%

Moisture content Adjusted until a compactability of 40% ± 2% is obtained

Active clay content (MB) >7% >8%

AFS clay content 2.5 to 4% higher than active clay

General Chapters
Loss on ignition 3.5 to 5% 3.5 to 7.5%

Temperature < 40°C (< 104°F)

Table 1.1: 8301x0001-02

1.2
General Chapters Application Manual
Section 1.1 – High-Density Green Sand Moulding

1.1 High-Density Green Sand Moulding

Compared with other sand moulding methods using chemical bind-
ers, the cost of clay-bonded sand is much lower, and the productivity
and quality of the castings are just as good or even better.

In order to achieve maximum efficiency in an automatic moulding

plant, it is crucial to establish an efficient process control system for
the cooling, mixing and aerating operations. Sand control plays an
important role in process control.

Keeping a continual check on sand properties will secure:

• Reduced scrap.
• Better pattern draw.
• Higher moulding plant efficiency.
• Reduced moulding material costs.
• Reduced fettling costs and time.

See Table 1.1 on page 2 Let us begin by listing the moulding sand properties for iron recom-
and Table 1.2 on page 4 mended by DISA for moulding systems.

NOTE; ALUMINIUM

Green compression strength 2-3 N/cm2 lower.

Permeability > 75

Active clay > 6 %

New sand additive 150 kg/ton poured metal to maintain per-

meability.

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SAND PROPERTIES FOR DISA MATCH HORIZONTAL MOULDING MACHINES

Mould height 400 400 < mould height < 600 600 < mould height < 800

Average sand grain size (washed) 0.14-0.28 DIN AFS 110-60 0.14-0.22 DIN AFS 110-70 0.14-0.18 DIN AFS 110-80

Grain size distribution 3-4 sieves for 90% grains

Green compression strength 16-21 N/cm2 23-30 psi 19-23 N/cm2 27-33 psi 22-25 N/cm2 31-36 psi

Green tensile strength >3 N/cm2 >4.3 psi > 3.3 N/cm2 >4.7 psi >3.8 N/cm2 > 5.4 psi

Spalling strength >4 N/cm2 >5.7 psi > 4 N/cm2 >5.7 psi >4.5 N/cm2 >6.4 psi

Wet tensile strength >0.20 N/cm2 >0.3 psi >0.22 N/cm2 >0.32 psi >0.25 N/cm2 >0.35 psi

Permeability >70

Compactability 38% ± 2%

Moisture content Adjusted until a compactability of 38% ± 2% is obtained

Active clay content (MB) >7% >8%

AFS clay content 2.5 to 4% higher than active clay

General Chapters
Loss on ignition 3.5 to 5%

Temperature < 40°C (< 104°F)

Table 1.2: 8301 x 0070-01

1.4
General Chapters Application Manual
Section 1.1 – High-Density Green Sand Moulding

1.1.1 Average Grain Size

There are no strict average grain size requirements concerning sand

for the moulding machine. However it is a well-known fact, also
from other moulding processes, that the probability of metal pene-
tration between sand grains increases with increasing average
grain size. As the ferrostatic pressure height is varying in the
mould, it is recommended to use an average grain size according to
Table 1.1 on page 2 and Table 1.2 on page 4.

Metal penetration (see Metal penetration is a function of metallostatic pressure height and
Figure 1.1 on page 1.6) average grain size for the different moulding machines. It is seen
that the metal penetration tendency increases with increasing met-
allostatic pressure and increasing average grain size.

Sand grains should be distributed over 3-4 sieves to ease a dense

packing of the sand grains.

1.1.2 Moulding Sand Strength

Moulding sand strength depends on:

• proper content of active bentonite.

• the quality of the bentonite.
• proper moisture content.
• content of inactive fines (inactive material less than 0.020
mm (0.0008")).
• mixing efficiency.
• sand temperature.

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 General Chapters

Metallostatic pressure height mm

900

800

700
Metal penetration
probable
600

500

400
Metal penetration
improbable
300

Average grain size, mm

0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
151 104 80 65 55 47 42 AFS
8301 X 0003-03

Figure 1.1 8301X0003-03

The influence of average grain size and metallostatic pressure height of the liquid metal in the
mould on incipient metal penetration

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General Chapters Application Manual
Section 1.1 – High-Density Green Sand Moulding

1.1.2.1 Proper Content of Active Bentonite

The proper content of active bentonite in the moulding sand is just

as important as choosing the correct type of bentonite. Below are
mentioned the reasons why it is important to use high-active ben-
tonite in the moulding sand. The positive effects are to

• obtain high green compression strength in order to produce

stronger moulds that are easier to convey and to avoid mould
deformation in the parting line.
• maintain a high green tensile strength in order to avoid tear-
off at stripping and weakened sand cods in the mould cavi-
ties.
• obtain a higher wet tensile strength in order to avoid mould
scabbing in the water condensation zone and sand expansion
defects.
• ensure good moulding sand plasticity to avoid sand “spring-
back” and that the sand starts flowing through the injection
slot and down into the moulding chamber between the shot
operations.
• stabilize the mould cavity to avoid such casting defects as
shrinkage and other porosities, casting expansions, sand ero-
sion and sand inclusion.

The recommended content of active bentonite measured by means of

the Methylene Blue test must be:

>7% for mould height up to 600 mm.

>8% for mould height from 600 to 850 mm.

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Section 1.1 – High-Density Green Sand Moulding

1.1.2.2 Bentonite Quality

The use of clay of good quality in an automatic moulding system is

one of the most important requirements. Normally, the following
qualities are required of good-quality bentonite:

• it should develop good bonding properties when mixed or

mulled with sand and water in the correct proportion.
• it should be able to resist reasonable heat influence so its
bonding strength and plasticity properties are maintained.
• it should give the moulding sand the correct consistency
(mouldability) so that the sand can be conveyed, stored and
handled in the correct way during processing.
• it should enable the moulding sand to compensate for the
thermal expansion of the silica grains, which counteracts
casting expansion defects.
• it should give the moulding sand the correct stability and
plasticity so that perfect lifting of pattern plates can be
accomplished.
• it should make it possible for the sand to resist the influence
from the heat shock so that it is still economical to reuse the
moulding sand.
• in moulding sand mixtures it should maintain sufficient sand
bonding properties in dry and hot condition so that the metal
can be poured without any risk of casting defects and so that
the poured moulds may be correctly conveyed, and still it
should be economical to reuse the return sand.
• the moulding sand mixture should collapse readily after cast-
ing and be reused.
• it should be economical in terms of price, transport, delivery
and storage.

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Section 1.1 – High-Density Green Sand Moulding

Properties of Bentonite

DISA strongly recommends that bentonite employed for automatic

high-density moulding systems should have the following proper-
ties:

1. Effective build-up of high bonding properties in wet condition

after being mixed with water by
• as quickly as possible forming a film of clay/water around
the grains at minimum water requirements.
• requiring the lowest possible addition of clay to obtain the
requisite bonding strength. If a large quantity of clay is to
be added to obtain the requisite bonding strength, the
water requirements of the moulding sand increases, and its
permeability declines.
2. Sufficient heat stability ensuring:
• that a small quantity of dead-burnt clay is produced per
casting. A large content of dead-burnt clay reduces the
plasticity of the moulding sand and increases its water
requirements.
• that a high strength is obtained at increased temperature,
which counteracts a number of casting defects, such as
metal penetration, expansion defects, rat tails etc.
3. Should collapse readily at shake-out.

Types of Bentonite There are two types of clay, each with specific properties: kaolin
(fireclay) and montmorillonite clay.

Kaolin is not suitable for high-density moulding sand due to low

bonding strength, low durability when being heated and low plastic-
ity. Therefore, kaolin can only be used when it exists in semi-natural
moulding sand and should be enriched with montmorillonite.

Bentonite is a clay containing a minimum of 70% montmorillonite.

DISA recommends the use of bentonite for automatic high-density
green sand moulding.

In nature there are two types of bentonite: sodium bentonite, which

predominantly contains ions Na+, and calcium bentonite, mainly
containing ions of Ca++.

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Properties Ca-Bentonite Na-Bentonite

Green compression strength high lower

Mixability greater small

Dry compression strength low high

Hot compression strength lower high

Durability against dead-burning low high

Thermal stability at high temperature poor very good

Flowability of moulding sand good less well

Resistivity to sand expansion defects low high

Mould breakability in shake-out high low

Table 1.3: Comparison between Na- and Ca-bentonites

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Section 1.1 – High-Density Green Sand Moulding

The features of Na- and Ca-bentonite are compared in Table 1.3 on

page 12. In spite of the great differences between the two types of
bentonites, the one cannot be preferred to the other without taking
into consideration the concrete job (casting type) in question. No one
will choose a Ca-bentonite for steel castings, where the thermal load
of the moulding sand is very great, or use a pure Na-bentonite for
thin-walled castings. For the same reason, Na-bentonite is not used
for aluminium castings, which, on the other hand, must be added in
great quantities for the production of thick-walled cast iron cast-
ings.

It is normally recommended to use both Na- and Ca-bentonite in a

proportion corresponding to production conditions so that the cor-
rect mould stability is obtained, as well as correct sand consistency,
green strength and dry strength plus collapsibility in shake-out.

Some manufacturers of bentonites treat Ca-bentonites with caustic

soda.

In this way the amount of Na-ions increases, and the bentonite

gains some of the good properties of Na-bentonites, such as durabil-
ity when affected by heat, dry strength and resistivity to expansion
defects. At the same time it maintains some good features of the
Ca-bentonites, such as high green compression strength, high col-
lapsibility at the mould shake-out and good mixability.

The Ca-bentonite can be activated by the soda in water solutions

and in dry state. The first method of activation seems to be more ef-
ficient and produces some really good products.

Main Quality Data for Bentonite

Montmorillonite content: min. 70%

Swelling index: Ca-bentonite 6-10 ml

Na-bentonite 18-50 ml

Activated Ca-bentonite 10-20 ml

Water content: max. 12%

pH-value: min. 8.5

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Section 1.1 – High-Density Green Sand Moulding

1.1.3 Water Content

Clay is the only cheap material that becomes plastic when mixed
with water. In the process of a green sand foundry the plastic clay/
water mixture is used to bond together the grained and non-plastic
material, as sand is, to a firm substance that can be conveyed, stored
and moulded, and that is capable of withstanding the heat influence
of metal after pouring. At the same time the substance must be re-
usable.

However, the water content in moulding sand should be kept as low

as possible to:

Ensure high bonding • All strength properties drop drastically when the water content
properties is too high. A too low green tensile strength gives poor stripping
and tear-offs.
• A too low green compression strength means mould handling
problems and an unstable moulding cavity.
• A too low wet tensile strength leads to mould disintegration in
the water condensation zone and thus a higher probability of
sand expansion defects.

Optimize the flowability of • It must be possible for the moulding sand to fill all spaces and
the moulding sand pattern undercuts when it flows into the moulding chamber
from the sand hopper so that maximum density is obtained
already before squeezing, and the squeeze pressure can be
reduced to a minimum. At the same time this leads to a repeata-
ble and uniform mould density.

Obtain the requisite • The moulding sand plasticity drops with the increase of water
plasticity of the moulding content in excess of what is required to utilize the active clay in
sand the sand.
• Higher plasticity means more stable moulds, thus preventing a
number of casting defects, such as shrinkage, porosity and
dimensional defects. A higher plasticity is also necessary to
counteract heat expansion of the silica grains and the casting
defects this may lead to. The more plastic the water/clay mix-
ture is, the better it can absorb the internal mould movements.
Finally, a too high water content makes the moulding sand
sticky. Sticky moulding sand will easily adhere to the conveyor
as well as to the walls of the sand silo and cause moulding sand
build-up in the silos and the sand funnel on the machine.

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Moulding sand

Molten iron

Water vapour Metal penetration

8301 X 0005-01

Figure 1.2 8301 X 0005-01

A high water content results in water vapour development at an explosive rate in the iron/sand
interface area and forces the molten iron in between the sand grains, causing metal penetration.

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Section 1.1 – High-Density Green Sand Moulding

Avoid too compressed • The compression rate of moulding sand increases with increas-
moulds ing water content. Too wet sand leads to too hard moulds. The
harder the moulds, the more work is required to break them at
the shake-out.

Reduce steam generation • The total volume of gas emitted from a green sand mould during
after pouring to a mini- and after pouring is directly proportional to the water content in
mum the moulding sand.

Explosion penetration • Many well-known casting defects are a result of too high steam
generation, such as gas blow-out and misrun. There is another
sort of defect which is due to a too high steam generation, viz.
metal penetration. The steam generated at an explosive rate
presses the molten iron in between the sand grains in the metal
sand contact zone as shown on Figure 1.2. This is called explo-
sion penetration.
• Too much moisture in the moulding sand also means that the
water shifts away from the casting in the mould, influenced by
the hot casting, and is condensed in the coldest sections of the
mould. This leads to tear-off of large mould sections. The exces-
sive steam may condensate on the underside of the mould which
then has a tendency to stick to the PMC, AMC, AMH and jacket.

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Compactability (%)

8% 11% 15% Total content of fines

36

38

40

42

44

0.2 0.32 0.52

Moisture content
2 3 4 5
8301 X 0006-01

Figure 1.3 8301 X 0006-01

Moulding sand with higher fines content shows more tolerance to the variations in the moisture
content for the same compactability limits.

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Section 1.1 – High-Density Green Sand Moulding

1.1.4 Content of Inactive Fines

Inactive fines consist of all the particles smaller than 0.02 mm

(0.0008") which, when mixed with water, do not impart strength or
plasticity to the moulding sand; on the contrary, they serve to de-
crease it.

Inactive fines are normally composed of:

• Dead-burnt bentonite (bentonite which has lost its water by

crystallization).
• Coal dust particles less than 0.02 mm (0.0008") in diameter.
• Dead-burnt coal dust (coke, ash).
• Natural fines from the base sand.
• Crushed and thermally disrupted silica grains.

High content Too high content of inactive fines increases water consumption and
brittleness of the moulding sand and reduces its permeability. With
excessive content of inactive fines, bonding strength drops steeply.

Increased water requirement leads to explosion penetrations and

results in poor surface finish on the casting. This demands longer
shot blasting time.

Generally, the inactive fines must by kept low. An easy method for
determining inactive fines is to compare the green compression
strength with the wet tensile strength. When there is an excessive
amount of inactive fines combined with a high water content, the
green compression strength remains unchanged, while the wet ten-
sile strength drops drastically.

However any moulding sand has a need for inactive fines to fill in
voids in the sand packing, thus reducing the possibility of metal
penetration and improving the surface finish of the casting.

A certain amount of inactive fines is further necessary to make the

consistency of the moulding sand less sensitive to fluctuations in
water additions (Figure 1.3) by absorbing part of the surplus water,
which would otherwise have made for muddy moulding sand con-
sistency.

Optimum fines content For this reason the optimal fines content is a matter of tight-roping
like many other factors in the foundry process.

The inactive fines should be between 2.5 and 4%.

AFS clay content The inactive fines plus the active bentonite constitute the total con-
tent of fines (AFS clay content), see Section 1.1.8, ‘‘AFS Clay Con-
tent (Total Fines Content)’’ on page 1.35.

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Section 1.1 – High-Density Green Sand Moulding

1.1.4.1 Mixing Efficiency

Even the proper composition will not give the moulding sand the op-
timal features, if it is not mixed properly. During mulling the clay
must be properly mixed with water until a plastic water/clay mass
is produced. The plastic mass must be distributed evenly over the
surface of the sand grains so that the bonding film can impart
strength to the material after compaction.

Mixing efficiency tells how well the actual system sand has been
mixed in relation to how well it could have been mixed with the
same composition, but with a longer mixing period.

Mixing efficiency can be measured by testing either:

• wet tensile strength, or

• compactability

of the system sand directly and after a period of 5 min. of additional

mixing.

By using the formula:

Mixing efficiency = Wet tensile strength directly

Wet tensile strength after 5 min. extra mixing

it is possible to perform the measurement without taking into con-

sideration the slight water content change during the additional
mixing.

When using the formula:

Mixing efficiency = Compactability directly

Compactability after 5 min. extra mixing

it should be ensured that the water content was constant both before
and after extra mixing, or a water loss factor should be introduced.

A prerequisite of the test is that the degree of compactability was

kept between 35-55% throughout the entire test.

A result between 0.65-0.70: poorly mixed sand

A result between 0.90-0.95: very intensively mixed sand.

The test determining the condition of the mixture is a good indica-

tion of whether the additives are utilized during the mixing, and
whether the mixing time employed is optimal.

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Water content in%

Moulding sand temperature

6.0
°C °F
60 140

54 129
5.0

49 120
43 109
40 104
39 102
4.0 32 90
27 81

3.0 Compactability
35 38 40 42 45

Optimal sand consistency

8301 X 0007-01

Figure 1.4 8301 X 0007-01

The hotter the sand, the more water it takes to keep the compactability constant (temper point:
see Figure 1.9 on page 1.32) (example).

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Section 1.1 – High-Density Green Sand Moulding

1.1.4.2 Sand Temperature

The temperature of the moulding sand may not exceed 40°C (104°F).
Too hot sand may cause:

• Non-uniform sand properties, especially strength and perme-

ability.
• Increased stickiness.
• Superficial drying out.
• Decreased resistance against sand erosion defects.
• Displacement of the temper point or higher water require-
ments (cf. Figure 1.4).
• Low plasticity, causing higher requirements for clay addition.
• Decreased mixability.

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A ds B
Spalling strength p/cm3

3
d t = 0.65 x ds
2

1
Green tensile strength p/cm3
0 dt
0 1 2 3
8301 X 0008-01

Figure 1.5 8301 X 0008

An easy method for determining green tensile strength through the spalling strength test (after
Dr. Boenisch). Positioning of the test specimen in the testing machine. Interdependence of
spalling strength and green tensile strength.

Silica expansion
Moulding sand
Condensation Expansion scab
water zone

Dried-out
moulding sand
Thermal shock
Casting

Molten metal
A B C
Heat source

A B C

= Condensed moisture zone

8301 X 0009-01

Figure 1.6 8301 X 0009-01

Progress of expansion defect (top).

Schematic view of measurements of wet tensile strength (bottom).

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Section 1.1 – High-Density Green Sand Moulding

1.1.4.3 Tensile and Spalling Strength

Not all strength testing machines permit direct measurement of

green tensile strength. Dr. Boenish’s experimental work made it
possible to test green tensile strength (δt) by testing spalling
strength (δs), using standard sand test specimens located in the jaws
of the testing machine, perpendicularly to the specimen position
used for testing compression strength. δt can be easily calculated,
when δs is known, using the equation:

δt = 0.65 δs

Figure 1.5 shows the way of locating the specimen in the testing ma-
chine (Figure 1.5, A) and the dependency between δs and δt (B).

1.1.4.4 Wet Tensile Strength

Wet tensile strength is crucial for sand resistance to scabbing and

other expansion defects. The expansion defects occur on the
iron-sand face just after pouring. Water from the sand layer next to
the casting moves away from the casting surface, thereby creating a
water condensation zone between the dry and the still wet sand
(Figure 1.6, A). The shell of the dry sand (0.25-0.3 mm or
0.010-0.012") separates from the rest of the sand in the border area
of the condensation zone as a result of heat expansion of the silica
sand grains on one side and weakened sand structure in the border
area between the wet (condensed) and the dry sand layer (Figure
1.6, B). The molten metal presses into the space thus formed, and in
this way a scab is “created” on the casting (Figure 1.6, C). The
strength of the sand in the layer of condensed water is called wet
tensile strength (cf. Figure 1.6).

The more active clay in the sand, especially Na-bentonite, the

stronger the wet sand layer will be, and the more plastic the dry
sand layer will be. Plasticity of the dry sand layer counteracts the
silica sand expansion movements. Therefore the wet tensile
strength is an excellent measure of how much the active clay con-
tributes to the total content of fines (all particles with a dia. less
than 0.02 mm or 0.0008") in the sand.

Wet tensile strength also gives good information about the quality
of the bentonite used.

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Section 1.1 – High-Density Green Sand Moulding

1.1.4.5 Green Compression Strength

Green compression strength increases fast, like all strength proper-

ties, with increasing active clay content. But a part of the active clay
burns dead after pouring by losing part of its water by crystalliza-
tion, which is chiefly responsible for the plastic properties of the
clay. Too much burnt clay causes the sand to seem dry and brittle,
and it loses its strength. Often more water is added, and the sand
may seem stronger, but the fact is that lower strength and plasticity
are the result. If one starts with green strength and keeps it con-
stant, difficulties will arise, since the green strength alone does not
provide a correct picture of the sand properties. However a compar-
ison of green compression and wet tensile strength will show that
while green strength remains constant, wet tensile strength drops
considerably. Thus, if too much burnt clay (inactive fines) is present
in the sand and this is combined with a high moisture percentage, a
false picture of the sand in the green state will be obtained. The fact
that the same total amount of fines is retained is no guarantee that
the sand contains the right amount of active clay, since the active
and inactive (burnt) clay are evaluated together in the test for total
fines content (AFS clay).

1.1.5 Permeability

The lowest limit for average grain sizes is mainly connected with the
reduction of permeability and flowability of the sand. The permea-
bility must be viewed in relation to the amount of gas produced in
the mould (water, carbonaceous materials etc) as well as its degree
of compaction and sufficiently high iron temperature. On the other
hand, permeability is not only dependent upon average grain size
but also on total fines content (grains under 0.02 mm) as well as
sand grain distribution and average grain size. Normally, permea-
bility over 70 is sufficient for adequate mould ventilation.

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Section 1.1 – High-Density Green Sand Moulding

1.1.6 Compactability

Compactability testing measures a property of moulding sands

which is of decisive practical importance in establishing their be-
haviour on modern automated moulding machines. It determines
the percentage decrease of height from the original constant level of
the loose sand under the influence of squeeze compaction. Being
strictly volumetric, the compactability test is independent of the
specific gravity of the sand. The drier the sand is moistened, the less
its height will decrease under the influence of a compacting force,
and the lower the compactability percentage. The influence of the
degree of moisture is far more important than that of the squeeze
pressure, a statement which also holds true for modern moulding
machines.

Compactability is an accurate indicator of degree of moisture, prac-

tically independent of sand composition. It therefore has much in
common with mouldability.

Compactability testing permits an accurate adaptation of sand to

the compaction characteristics of a given moulding machine. More
than that, it offers a good basis of reference when the actual mois-
ture content is replaced by percent compactability for plotting sand
test data. The water requirement of the sand is considered and can
be measured as well as the degree of mulling.

The compactability test eliminates the subjectivity of the old-fash-

ioned “hand test”, which was previously mastered by few people on-
ly, since the compactability test can be performed by anybody.

The compactability test provides a very accurately reproducible and

objective possibility of determining by means of experiments the de-
gree of moisture of the sand, and hence its green-sand condition,
with no limits to sensitivity on either the dry or the moist side.

The compactability test makes it possible to determine, using a sim-

ple procedure, a reference water content that will enable compari-
sons of the properties of different sands to be made. This is
important in appraising the properties of different foundry sands,
especially those of test mixtures for the testing of binder clay.

Thanks to the compactability test it is possible at any time to repro-

duce a specific degree of moisture independently of the water re-
quirements. A specific green-sand condition means a specific degree
of moisture and a specific compactability.

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T C

8301 X 0010-01

Figure 1.7 8301X0010-01

C – T- x 100%
Compressibility factor = xxxxxxxxxxx
------------ for vertical
C
Cope SP

Cope SP
Drag SP

Drag SP

T C

8301 X 0069

Figure 1.8 8301X0069

C–T
Compressibility factor = xxxxxxxxxxx
------------- x 100% for horizontal
C

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Section 1.1 – High-Density Green Sand Moulding

1.1.7 Some laws relating to moulding sand compacta-

bility

Different sands have different water requirements. They will have

the same green-sand condition at very different individual water
contents. The lower the fines content, the greater the water sensi-
tivity. See also Figure 1.3 on page 1.18.

However it is of decisive importance that the compactability of widely

different sands is always the same at the same degree of moisture
(not water content).

1.1.7.1 Compressibility Factor

Each time the moulding machine produces a mould it carries out a

compactability test in the moulding chamber, which means that the
moulding machine itself gives information about the sand quality.

In terms of percentage figures, the compressibility factor of sand in

the chamber is a mould thickness reduction from the prior state and
to its state after the squeezing operation.

Compressibility can be calculated according to the following equa-

tion:
True chamber depth (C) - Mould thickness (T)
Compressibility in % = x 100%
True chamber depth

where the true chamber depth is the actual distance between the
faces of

• the two pattern plates (DISA/DISAMATIC)

• the match plate and the drag/cope/squeeze plate (MATCH)

before the squeeze operation, and mould thickness can be periodical-

ly measured by the machine operator (cf. Figure 1.7).

The compressibility factor determines whether the available com-

pacting energy of the moulding machine is utilized in the best pos-
sible manner, or in other words whether the sand consistency suits
the characteristic of the moulding machine.

If the sand has the correct moisture content, the compressibility

should be 18-25% depending on the type of moulding machine and
machine settings such as blow pressure, blow time, squeeze pres-
sure, squeeze time, sand aeration etc.

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Green compression strength p/cm3

22
Maximum strength

20

18

16

14 Strength

12 Absorbed water

10
Too little water Too much water

6
10-20% more moisture than
4 that at maximum strength
Moisture content (%)
2
1 2 3 4 5
Temper point
Temper point range

8301 X 0011-01

Figure 1.9 8301 X 0011-01

The dependence of strength of moulding sand on the moisture content or the temper point
(example).

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Section 1.1 – High-Density Green Sand Moulding

The influence of the moisture degree on the compressibility factor is

far more important than that of blow or squeeze pressure. However
in judging the compressibility figure, reference must be made to the
actual machine settings.

The compressibility factor can be successfully applied as a quick

method of checking the quality of moulding sand. The chamber
depth is always constant for a certain set of pattern plates and
should be indicated on the Casting Production Sheet together with
all the remaining production parameters, including the machine
settings for this particular set of plates (as shown in the Production
Sheet in the Chapter 3, ‘‘Moulding Process’’ for the specific ma-
chine). The machine operator can easily ascertain even the slightest
changes of compactability of the moulding sand by comparing the
thickness of the mould presently produced with the optimal mould
thickness indicated on the production sheet for the pattern plates in
question. Any deviation from the temper point of the sand will result
in a change of the mould thickness and consequently the compress-
ibility factor. The more moisture above the temper point, the thin-
ner the mould. A quick feedback from the machine operator to the
mixer operator will cause a fast response by correction of the mois-
ture content of the next sand batch in the muller.

The method described above is very practical but can absolutely not
replace the regular routine check of the moulding sand properties.

The compactability and the compressibility factors indicate the con-

sistency of the moulding sand. At a given composition, only the cor-
rect moisture content will provide optimum strength and
flowability. This moisture content is called temper moisture.

1.1.7.2 Definition of Temper Point

Sand is said to be at temper point when it has a moisture content

that is 10-20% higher than that which gives maximum green com-
pression strength or a compactability of 40% ±2%, depending on
sand composition.

The surplus of 10-20% of water is destined for being consumed by

the inactive fines, which are always contained in a moulding sand.
If the sand had only contained the active clay, its temper point
would have corresponded to the maximum of the green strength
curve (cf. Figure 1.9).

Checking the moisture content is extremely important, and the var-

iation should never exceed ±0.25%. Therefore the temperature of the
used sand should not exceed 40°C (104°F). In order to keep this var-
iation at a minimum, the moisture addition in the sand mixer
should be carried out automatically.

The return sand should be cooled down in a cooler to maintain a con-

stant sand-moisture relationship. This is not possible if the sand
temperature is high or varies too much.

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 General Chapters

Green Compression Strength

38% 40% 42% Compactability

Increasing
strength

Increasing content of active

bentonite (constant content
of inactive fines)

Moisture content

2.5 3.0 3.5

8301 X 0012-01

Figure 1.10 8301X0012-01

Increasing the active clay will increase the water requirements of the moulding sand to maintain
the optimal consistency (compactability 40 ±2%), i.e. the temper point shifts to the right.

Green Compression Strength

Slightly decreasing strength

Compactability
38%
40%
42%
Increasing content of active
bentonite (constant content
of active fines)

Moisture content
2.5 3.0 3.5
8301 X 0013-01

Figure 1.11 8301X0013-01

Increase of total fines content at constant active bentonite. Moisture requirement increases with
decreasing green compression strength.

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General Chapters Application Manual
Section 1.1 – High-Density Green Sand Moulding

1.1.8 AFS Clay Content (Total Fines Content)

Fines are defined as all the grained particles that are smaller than
0.02 mm (0.0008").

The following ingredients contribute to the total fines content:

Active fines: • Active bentonite

Inactive fines: • Dead-burnt bentonite
• Coal dust
• Dead-burnt coal dust (coke, ash)
• Natural fines from the base sand

Both active and inactive fines require water, and this is the reason
why an increase of the fines content increases moisture require-
ments of the sand (temper water increase) at a constant compacta-
bility of 40% ± 2%.

Figure 1.10 shows that the more active bentonite present, the great-
er the green compression strength and the temper point (moisture
requirement) will be at the constant rate of the inactive fines.

Figure 1.11 shows that the greater total fines content (at constant
active bentonite content), the higher the content of inactive fines
will be, and the higher the moisture requirement at decreasing
green compression strength.

DISA recommends that the AFS clay content (total fines content)
should be kept 3 to 4.5 % over the active clay figure.

1.1.9 Loss on Ignition

Loss on ignition tells how much combustible material there is in the

sand.

During the test, the following material is extracted on ignition:

• carbonaceous material
• dead-burnt carbonaceous material (coke)
• residual core binder
• water of crystallization from the active bentonite

Loss on ignition should be kept at 3.5-7.5%, depending on produc-

tion programme.

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 General Chapters

Properties Traditional coal dust Substitution materials

Water consumption great small

Sensitivity to changes in water content small great

Mixing process easy more difficult

Danger of local concentration in the sand structure small great

Amounts added large small

Risk of dosing error small large

Deposition of residuals in sand large small

Dust content in sand system large small

Gas generation small large

Table 1.4: Comparison between coal dust and substitution materials.

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General Chapters Application Manual
Section 1.1 – High-Density Green Sand Moulding

1.1.10 Volatile

The test of volatile material tells how much gas the dried, heat-af-
fected sand can generate.

Volatile material can consist of:

• volatiles from the active carbonaceous material.

• volatiles from the residual core binder.
• water of crystallization from the active bentonite.

The volatile material of the moulding sand is normally roughly 40%

of loss on ignition.

1.1.11 Carbonaceous Materials

Main Quality Criteria

Water content: max. 3%

Content of ashes: max. 10%

Volatile ingredients: min. 30%, max. 40%

Sulphur content: max. 1%

Grain size: grains > 0.18 (AFS 90): max. 10%

grains > 0.5 (AFS 35): 0%

Table 1.4 on page 36 compares coal dust with substitution products

such as oils, bitumen, pitch and plastics.

By using a mixture of pit coal dusts and the substitution materials,

properties can be obtained which the additives cannot obtain indi-
vidually.

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General Chapters Application Manual
Section 1.1 – High-Density Green Sand Moulding

1.1.12 Base Sand

Most automatic moulding plants use synthetic moulding sand,

where the system sand is produced by addition of montmorillonite
clay, carbonaceous materials and water to the classified and washed
base sand. None the less, natural sand may be used under certain
special circumstances, but in such cases it is strongly recommended
to add a sufficient quantity of bentonite, so as to obtain correct bond-
ing properties. Pit sand modified in that way is often called semisyn-
thetic sand.

The sand should also be free of calcium and humus. On account of

the requisite high temperature stability, it is recommended that the
sintering temperature is at least 1350°C (2462°F) and that the SiO2
content is over 90% (for pouring of steel: 98%).

In order to be able to keep the total fines content in the moulding

sand at the correct level, the fines content in the base sand should
not exceed 0.5%.

Alkalinity of the new sand should not be lower than pH = 8.5.

For average grain size and distribution - see moulding sand specifi-
cation (Table 1.1 on page 2 and Table 1.2 on page 4).

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 General Chapters

Components Dead-burnt bentonite Tests

Destroyed silica grains
Fines from base sand
Ash

Active bentonite Methylene blue test

Loose coke

Active carbonaceous material

Total fines content
Carbonic gases
Forms part of Loss on ignition
Water of crystalization
active clay
Coke adherent to the sand grains
Material fixed to
the silica grains Organic core binder
Chamotte
Silica share

Screen analysis

8301 X 0015-01

Figure 1.12 8301X0015-01

Composition of moulding sand with indication of the standard tests used fro determining the com-
ponents in question.

Material (%) Dead-burnt clay and inactive

carbonaceous materials
100
New water
Water
New clay
Active clay
New sea coal
Sea coal
New sand

Sand

No. of
pourings

Before 1st After 1st Sand suppression After After 2nd etc.
pouring pouring for new additions reclaiming pouring
8301 X 0016-01

Figure 1.13 8301X0016-01

The dead-burnt bentonite can be partly suppressed from the system sand by adding new
materials.

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Section 1.1 – High-Density Green Sand Moulding

1.1.13 Sand Testing

A description of a standard test for moulding sand will be given in

Section 1.2, ‘‘Moulding Materials Testing Practice’’ on page 1.49.
However, Figure 1.12 shows the moulding sand composition and the
tests applied.

1.1.14 Reconditioning of the Moulding Sand

If we consider a new mixed batch of sand prepared of new materials

and subject it to pouring, some of the material will be more or less
directly exposed to thermal shock, causing:

1. Thermal destruction of silica grains.

2. Dead-burning of the bentonite.
3. Dead-burning of the carbonaceous material.
4. Evaporation of water.
5. Heating the whole sand mixture.
6. Formation of conglomerates.

The mentioned phenomena make the new batch of moulding sand

change its composition.

Compensation for:

• destructed materials
• excessive build-up of inactive fines
• loss of moisture
• elevation of sand temperature
• sand conglomeration

has to be provided in order to bring the return sand into usable con-
ditions.

By adding new materials to the return sand during reconditioning,

compensation for destroyed silica sand, bentonite and carbonaceous
material is provided as well as suppression of excessive fines.

Figure 1.13 schematically shows the process of partly dead-burnt

bentonite suppression from the system sand by adding new materi-
als.

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 General Chapters

New bentonite addition (%)

1.3

1.2
9 3

1.1

1.0 10 3.5
)
( %
te nt
c on
es
0.9 fin 11
nic 4
r ga
In o 12
0.8 13
14 4.5
15
16
0.7 3 5

0.6 3.5
6
tio

4
ra

0.5 7
on
/ir

4.5
nd
Sa

8
5
0.4 9
6 10
0.3 7
12
8
NB!
9
New coal dust addition is calculated as
0.2 10 15 60% of new bentonite. In the case of
12
the synthetic carbon materials, the new
15 additions must be made in accordance
20
0.1 20 with the volatile content.

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Total new sand addition (%)
8301 X 0017

Figure 1.14 8301 X 0017

Diagram for determining new material additions for reconditioning of a moulding sand with a
green compression strength of 2000 p/cm2 at its optimum consistency (for iron alloys only).

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General Chapters Application Manual
Section 1.1 – High-Density Green Sand Moulding

Depending on sand-to-metal ratio, casting geometry, quality of the

moulding sand etc., the consumption of additives during the sand
reconditioning process will be:

• bentonite 0.1-1.0%
• sea coal 0.1-0.5%
• new sand 0.5-5.0%

Any core sand breakdown material should be considered as new

sand addition to the system sand.

Figure 1.14 can be helpful in determining new material additions

for reconditioning of a moulding sand with green compression
strength of approx. 2000 p/cm2. As shown on the diagram, necessary
new sand and new bentonite addition can be found from the inor-
ganic fines content and sand/metal ratio. The amount of new coal
dust to be added is normally calculated as 60% of the new bentonite
added (does not apply to the substituted carbonaceous materials). It
should be noted that the diagram is true only for iron alloys.

1.1.15 Sand Control Routine

Personnel responsible for operation of a mechanized high density

green sand moulding line must establish a moulding sand checking
routine. The sand properties tested regularly are used for:

• current sand quality control.

• casting defects diagnostics.

Moulding sand control consists of two steps:

1. Control of moisture, new sand, bentonite and carbonaceous

material addition to predetermined amount of return sand
during the sand mixing process in order to obtain a certain,
predefined consistency.
2. Control of moulding sand composition, strength and packing
properties.

The first step is carried out by a mixer, either manually by a sand

mixer operator or by means of an automatic sand moisture control-
ling device.

The second step takes place at the sand laboratory according to a

specific testing programme.

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General Chapters Application Manual
Section 1.1 – High-Density Green Sand Moulding

1.1.15.1 Control of Sand Consistency at the Mixer

This part of sand processing control consists of a regular check to de-

termine whether:

1. dosing of new materials and return sand into the mixer corre-
sponds to the predetermined values.
2. return sand receives the necessary degree of dispersion before
it enters the mixer and during mixing.
3. the amount of water added during mixing results in predeter-
mined sand consistency at a given sand composition after
ended mixing process.

Dosing control The dosing control method depends on the way in which the new
materials are transported and measured when introduced into the
mixer.

Dispersion The dispersion degree of the moulding sand depends on the type of
mixer and proper maintenance of the sand plant, especially the sand
mixer.

Adding moisture The amount of added moisture must be controlled by testing the con-
sistency of the sand. DISA recommends control of compactability as
the most independent method, but riddled density can also be used.
The sand mixer operator should check compactability and water
content of freshly mixed sand every third to fifth batch, if sand con-
sistency is checked manually.

Sand moisture control Several automatic sand moisture control devices are available. But
devices it is recommended to use those based on measuring sand consisten-
cy (compactability or riddled density) as one of input values.

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Property Test Test interval Test equipment

Moisture content Hourly Moisture tester

Titration equipment/balance 0.01g

Active bentonite content Daily
accuracy

Vessel/syphon pipe, Elutriator or wet

Sand composition Total fines content Daily
sieve device

Loss on ignition Daily Furnace (1000°)

Grain size and distribution Weekly Sieve column and vibrator

Compression strength Strength tester

Tensile strength* Testing tubes

Green strength Hourly
Spalling strength Ramming device

Wet tensile strength Balance, 1 g accuracy

Permeability Permeability tester, ramming device,

Packing and consist-
Hourly 3 mm mesh sieve, tripod and ram-
ency
Compactability ming device

*Calculated: Tensile strength = 0.65 x spalling strength

Table 1.5: Testing program for DISA moulding sand. The last column gives a list of the minimum
equipment required.

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Section 1.1 – High-Density Green Sand Moulding

1.1.15.2 Laboratory Sand Testing

Quick control of the moulding sand consistency is very important,

but nothing can replace full laboratory test of composition, packing
and strength properties of the moulding sand.

DISA recommends the sampling of sand every hour of approx. 5 kg

to be put into a coverable container just before the sand falls into the
sand hopper. A test should be made to determine:

Hourly test • compression strength

• spalling strength or tensile strength
• compactability
• permeability
• water content

The wet tensile strength test may be applied hourly in combination

with the above tests.

Daily test Once a day tests must be made for:

• active bentonite content

• loss on ignition
• total fines content

Weekly test The above testing programme must be supplemented with sieve
analysis performed approximately once a week. Table 1.5 shows the
testing programme, testing frequency and testing equipment ap-
plied.

The list of testing equipment applied can also be understood as the

minimum sand laboratory equipment required for testing moulding
sand.

The test results will be collected in a “DAILY SAND CONTROL

SHEET” shown in Table 1.6 on page 48.

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DAILY SAND CONTROL SHEET

Type of machine: Date: Responsible:

Strength features Packing features Composition features

Time Compression Spalling Tensile

Compactability Water content
strength strength strength Permeability
(%) (%)
p/cm2 (psi) p/cm2 (psi) p/cm2 (psi)

Active bentonite
%
ml
Active ben-
Methylene blue
tonite content

Total fines content

%

Loss on ignition
%

General Chapters
Average
1.48

Table 1.6: Daily Sand Control Sheet used for sand data collection
General Chapters Application Manual
Section 1.2 – Moulding Materials Testing Practice

1.2 Moulding Materials Testing Practice

A detailed description of all testing procedures is beyond the frame-
work of the present section. The purpose is to give the readers some
guidelines for moulding material tests, which are most frequently
used, and to bring their attention to certain important details and
hints.

1.2.1 Moulding Sand Testing

1.2.1.1 Sampling

Sand samples should be taken as close as possible to the part of the

process for which the sand will be used. In other words, a sand sam-
ple for a routine laboratory check must be taken before it reaches
the moulding machine; however a sample for testing residual water
content of the pre-conditioned return sand must be taken just before
charging into the mixer. The samples are to be kept in vessels with
tightly fitting lids in order to prevent moisture evaporation. It is al-
ways useful to keep some residual sand from each sample until the
castings poured into the sand represented by the respective samples
have been examined. It is extremely helpful when making a casting
defect diagnosis to be able to recheck some of the suspicious-looking
sand results. The vessels containing the samples should be carefully
marked with date, hour and place of sampling.

1.2.1.2 Specimen Rammer

The specimen rammer, whether hydraulical or mechanical, is used

not only for producing strength and permeability samples, but also
for compactability measurement. When ordering a rammer, make
sure that the attachable ruler for compactability measurement is in-
cluded. The ruler must be self-made, but note that the specimen
tubes are available in two heights, 100 mm and 120 mm. The ruler
must suit the one required.

In order to obtain uniform and consistent results, the rammer must

be mounted on a proper base.

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Section 1.2 – Moulding Materials Testing Practice

1.2.1.3 Strength Properties

Before carrying out any kind of strength test, make sure that the
testing machine is properly calibrated. Normally a special calibra-
tion set is available as an option from the manufacturers of the test-
ing machines.

The existing devices for strength determination make it possible to

measure green and dry compression, shear strength and spalling
strength. A direct determination of the tensile strength requires
special equipment which is not always available. However Dr. Boe-
nisch’s comprehensive experimental work has shown that there is
an excellent indirect method of green tensile strength determina-
tion by using the standard strength testing machine to carry out a
spalling test (δs) as shown on Figure 1.5 on page 1.24. The green ten-
sile strength (δt) can easily be calculated according to formula:

Formula δt = 0.65 x δs.

1.2.1.4 Wet Tensile Strength

Testing wet tensile strength is one of the auxiliary checks. It helps

to determine (relatively quickly) how much the active clay content
contributes to the total fines content (AFS clay content). The wet
tensile test also gives a picture of the quality of the bentonite. A good
Na-bentonite and Ca-bentonite activated by soda in solution re-
mains around 30 g/cm2. A Ca-bentonite activated by soda yields be-
tween 20-25 g/cm2, whereas a pure Ca-bentonite lies around 15 g/
cm2.

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Starting height: 100% = 100 mm

100

90

80

70
Height after Compaction

A
60 B

50 C
40

30

20

0 1 5 10 15 20 25
Squeeze pressure in kp/cm2 A = 3.85% H20
B = 4.25% H20
= Moulding sand, unscreened C = 4.90% H20
= Moulding sand, screened through 3 mm mesh size
8301 X 0019

Figure 1.15 8301X0019

Compaction degree of moulding sands of different moisture content, screened and unscreened.

10 kp/cm2
Screen 3 mm mesh size 200 kp or 3 rams

Reduction of height =
Funnel compactability

Sand

Test tube 100

ø50
Base
Filling Cut-out Squeezing or
ramming

8301 X 0020

Figure 1.16 8301X0020

Principle of measuring compactability.

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Section 1.2 – Moulding Materials Testing Practice

1.2.1.5 Compactability

Sand compactability can be determined very accurately with a com-

pactability tester. The sand is filled, always under the same condi-
tions (screened or unscreened), loosely into a test specimen tube,
scraped to an accurate height and then squeeze-compacted, apply-
ing a pressure of 10 kp/cm2 (140 psi). Another compaction method is
the so-called three-rams method. On Figure 1.15 compactability of
sand with different moisture content has been tested in screened
and unscreened conditions. The compactability of the unscreened
sand corresponds roughly to moulding sand which is not aerated be-
fore flowing into the moulding chamber.

Screened sand shows somewhat lower ultimate compaction heights

than unscreened sand. For testing the degree of sand moisture
alone, conventional screening using 3 mm mesh size is recommend-
ed; for examinations in direct relation to the moulding machine, un-
screened sand (sand in the state in which it is fed into the moulding
chamber) can be tested. (See Figure 1.16 showing the standard sand
screening equipment).

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Compactability

10

20

30

40

50

Riddled density kg/litre

60
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
8301 X 0021

Figure 1.17 8301X0021

Relationship between compactability and riddled density.

Screen 3 mm mesh size

Tripod
100
Cut-out Filling

Weighing ø 108.5
1 Litre
108.5

8301 X 0022

Figure 1.18 8301X0022

Principle of measuring the riddled density.

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Section 1.2 – Moulding Materials Testing Practice

1.2.1.6 Riddled Density

Riddled density is the weight of one litre of standard screened sand.

Riddled density can be used besides the compactability as a method
of temper control. There is a linear dependence between the com-
pactability and the riddled density (see Figure 1.17) for a given
moulding sand.

Figure 1.18 shows the principle of measuring the riddled density.

1.2.1.7 Moisture Content

Particular care must be taken to ensure that the sand specimen for
moisture testing is stored in vessels covered with a tightly fitting lid.
The large specific sand grain surface and an elevated sand temper-
ature above ambient makes it very easy for the moisture to evapo-
rate before the test is completed.

For a quick moisture testing at the sand mixer a “speedy” sand test-
er is recommended. It works on a chemical principle, and an accura-
cy ± 0.1% of moisture is fully acceptable. However for routine
laboratory moisture testing a higher accuracy of approx. 0.01% is re-
quired.

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Section 1.2 – Moulding Materials Testing Practice

1.2.1.8 Determination of Active Bentonite Content

This method of investigation is based on the capacity of active clay

to absorb part of the colouring matter from methylene blue. This ca-
pacity to absorb depends on the type of clay. For this reason, a cali-
bration curve must be drawn up for each individual type of clay to
be investigated.

Preparation of methylene The standard test solution is 0.4%. It means that 4 g of methylene
blue solution blue crystals should be dissolved in 996 ml of distilled water. First
stir 496 ml of water with the crystals with a magnetic stirrer for half
an hour and then add the remaining 500 ml of water to the solution.

Preparation of 2% solution Dissolve 20 g of the white tetrasodium pyrophosphate crystals in

of Na4P2O7 480 ml of distilled water. Stir in a magnetic stirrer, then add the re-
sidual 500 ml water to the solution.

Preparation of 0.5 N solu- Dissolve 13.8 ml of concentrated H2SO4 (normally between 96 and
tion of H2SO4 98%) in 486.2 ml distilled water (always add the acid into the water,
not opposite) and fill up to 1000 ml with an additional 500 ml dis-
tilled water.

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Section 1.2 – Moulding Materials Testing Practice

Establishing the It is necessary to know the Methylene Blue absorbtion capacity of

Calibration Curve the bentonite used in the moulding sand. Determination of the cali-
bration curve takes place for a sand/clay mixture containing 10% of
bentonite.

1. To 4.5 g of new sand add 0.5 g of the clay (dried at 110°C)

(230°F) to be investigated. For weighing out the materials, use
an ERLENMEYER flask. Weighing accuracy must be within
±0.05 g.
2. Add 50 ml of distilled water and 5 ml of the 2% tetrasodium
pyrophosphate (Na4P2O7) solution, which acts as a defloccu-
lant. Boil the mixture for min. 5 min.
3. Cool the mixture down to ambient temperature and add 2 ml
of H2SO4,0.5 N.
4. Add 5 ml of methylene-blue solution, and stir the contents of
the flask for a minute in a mixer. Then, using a glass rod, place
one drop of the solution on filter paper. If a dark blue round
spot appears on the paper, the clay can absorb methylene blue,
and the experiment can be carried out.
If, on the other hand, no dark blue spot appears, but a bluish
green patch, the clay cannot absorb methylene blue, and the
experiment must be abandoned.
5. After it has been ascertained that addition of 5 ml methyl-
ene-blue solution results in the appearance of a dark blue spot,
add more methylene-blue solution, but now only at a rate of 2
ml at a time.
Upon addition of each dose of methylene-blue, stir for one min.
Continue addition in this manner until a bluish-green halo
develops around the dark blue spot. When this halo appears
the first time, stir for another two min. without adding further
methylene-blue, and check to see if the bluish-green halo dis-
appears.
If the bluish-green halo disappears, add another 1 ml of meth-
ylene-blue and stir for two minutes. Then place a drop on the
filter paper. Continue this process until the bluish-green halo
around the dark blue spot reappears.

The final stage has now been reached, and a calibration curve for
the clay sample in question can be drawn up.

The calibration curve can be drawn up most conveniently by plotting

on millimetre-scale paper the quantity of methylene-blue solution (1
cm = 2 ml) and the clay content as abscissa (2 cm = 1% clay). Thus,
having one point of the calibration curve, viz. the quantity of meth-
ylene-blue solution (in ml) corresponding to 10% clay, and knowing
that the curve is a straight line through the origin, we can draw the
curve.

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 General Chapters

Ml. absorbed methylene

blue solution
50
45
(Na)
40 Tested Bentonite
35

30 (Activated Ca)
25
(Ca)

20
15
10
5 Bentonite%
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
8301 X 0023

Figure 1.19 8301 X 0023

Typical calibration curve for newly tested bentonite. Some other popular bentonite are shown for
comparison (example).

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Section 1.2 – Moulding Materials Testing Practice

The calibration curve for the clay in question is plotted on Figure

1.19. The curves for different, known bentonite are plotted for the
sake of reference (not to be scaled). The calibration curve should be
determined each time after receiving a new delivery of bentonite.
The results can vary significantly from delivery to delivery.

When applying a mixture of two or more bentonites to the moulding

sand, a corresponding mixture must be used for establishing the cal-
ibration curve.

Testing the active clay 1. Weigh out 5 g ± 0.05 g (dried sample) of the sand sample with
content of a moulding sand unknown clay content.
2. Add 50 ml of distilled water and 5 ml of the 2% tetrasodium
pyrophosphate (Na4P2O7) solution, which acts as a defloccu-
lant. Boil the mixture for 5 min.
3. After cooling to ambient temperature, add 2 ml H2SO4,0.5 N
and approx. 25 ml methylene-blue solution and stir the con-
tents of the flask for 2 min.; then place a drop on the filter
paper and ascertain whether the bluish-green halo around the
dark blue spot appears as previously mentioned.
4. If the bluish-green halo does not appear, proceed with adding 5
ml of methylene-blue solution per dose, stir for 1 min. and
inspect the filter paper until the halo appears.
5. The testing procedure is now repeated, the amount of methyl-
ene-blue now to be added should be 10 ml below the
change-over point found by the first test. Stir for two minutes.
Add 2 ml of methylene-blue solution and stir for one min.
Repeat this process until the change-over point has been
reached.
6. Using the quantity of methylene-blue solution added (in ml) as
ordinate, draw a horizontal line through the point reached
until it intersects the curve previously drawn up; from the
point of intersection, draw a vertical line till it intersects the
horizontal coordinate axis. The point of intersection thus found
represents the content of active clay in the sample.
Accuracy of test: ± 5%

Influence on results: No variation of the results has been observed to be a conse-

quence of addition of the following material:
• Coal dust.
• graphite.
• extra water.

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Upper
level
Flushing
water in
150
R15 15
Sand Flushing
Vibrator water out
25

A B C
8301 X 0024

Figure 1.20 8301 X 0024

Different methods for determination of the total fines content.

A: Siphon tube; B: Elutriator; C: Wet screen.

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1.2.1.9 AFS-Clay Content (Total content of fines)

Grains smaller than 20 microns (0.02 mm or 0.0008") are considered

as fine material.

Testing procedure 1. Weigh out approx. 70 g of representative sand sample.

2. Dry the sample for 1 hour at a temperature not lower than
105°C (220°F), but not higher than 110°C (230°F); spread the
sand over a large area for better evaporation of the water.
3. Weigh 50 g of the dried sand, add 450 ml tap water at approx.
20°C and add 50 cm3 of a standard 2% solution of tetrasodium
pyrophosphate (Na4P2O7). This is used as a deflocculant
instead of NaOH used previously, because of the tendency for
NaOH to cause gelling problems, preventing sand grains from
settling properly. The tetrasodium pyrophosphate is made
by dissolving 20 g of Na4P2O7 in distilled water and
diluting it to a volume of 1000 cm3.
4. Add the sand sample to the water solution and stir for 5 min-
utes in order to separate the clay or other materials from the
sand grains. Wash the adhering sand from the stirrer to the
beaker (see the geometry of the beaker and the siphon tube on
Figure 1.20, A) with distilled water and fill up to a level of 150
mm (6"). Normally a standard vessel has a mark at the 150
mm level.
5. Stir the sand and water mixture and allow it to settle for a
period of exactly 10 min.
6. Using the siphon tube (Figure 1.20, A) reduce the water/sand
suspension down to a level of 25 mm (1") above the bottom of
the vessel.
7. Refill the vessel with water to the 150 mm mark, stir again
and allow it to settle for 10 minutes. Then siphon the water
down to the 25 mm level.
8. Repeat this procedure again and again, allowing a settling
time of 5 min. until perfectly clear water is contained in the
upper 125 mm (5").
This now means that all particles bigger than 0.02 mm
(0.0008") stay within 25 mm (1") from the bottom in suspen-
sion. All fines (smaller than 0.02 mm) would not be able to set-
tle with a speed of 25 mm/min. (1"/min.) and will have been
extracted.
9. Evaporate the water out of the remaining sand and weigh the
washed and dried sample.
10. The total fines content is calculated as a percentage loss of
weight of the sample before and after the washing procedure.

It is always desirable to carry out two parallel tests for averaging

purposes.

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When using an elutriator apparatus for continuous washing, the

principle of the test is the same, but obviously the manual work will
be omitted (Figure 1.20, B). For the instruction of use refer to the
manufacturer.

Another and faster method is called the wet screen method. A screen
with 0.02 mm mesh is installed on a standard sieve analysis vibra-
tor, and an arrangement for water flushing is installed above and
beneath the screen (Figure 1.20, C). The sand sample treated as in
the syphon pipe method is vibrated for 15 min. with simultaneous
water flushing. Then the sample is dried and previously described.

Assuming that the total fines is roughly only a sum of active clay
and inactive silt (dead-burnt clay included), the amount of
dead-burnt clay can be determined by subtracting the active clay
content (methylene blue test) from the total fines content.

The washed and dried sand obtained after the total fines content
test can be used directly for the sieve analysis.

1.2.1.10 Loss on Ignition

The loss on ignition test is a measure of the presence of organic sub-

stances. In the moulding sand the following materials can burn on
ignition.

• Active carbonic material

• Dead-burnt carbonic material (coke)
• Core sand binder remains
• Combined water from the active clay (normally between 1
and 2%)

One of the main test conditions is to provide access for free air to the
heated samples in order to enable total combustion.

Testing procedure 1. Take a representative sample of the sand to be tested and dry
at least 50 g at 105-110°C for 2 hours.
2. Weigh, dry and clean a silica crucible and note the weight
(W1).
3. Weigh 20 g of the sand into the silica crucible (W2).
4. Carefully put the crucible containing the sand into the muffle
furnace, avoiding shock-heating which might eject some sand
grains.
5. Keep the sample at a temperature of 925°C for 2 hours with a
supply of air to the muffle furnace by a loose-fitting door or
small vent.
6. Remove sample from the muffle furnace and cool to room tem-
perature.
7. Weigh crucible and sand (W3). As the sample cannot be
weighed before it is cool, prevent moisture pick-up by storing
in a desiccator.

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Work out the result as shown below:

Weight of crucible W1

Weight of sample 20 g

Total weight W2 = W1 + 20 g

Weight of sample after ignition W3

Loss of weight W = W2 - W3

To convert W to a percentage, multiply W by 5. In this way the loss

on ignition (L.O.I) is:

L.O.I = W x 5

Accuracy of the method ±0.1%.

For better accuracy, two samples should be treated parallelly and

the result averaged.

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1.2.1.11 Volatile Matter

The amount of volatile in a sand system has a marked influence on

casting quality. The percentage of volatile also provides a useful in-
dication of the amount of non-coked organic components present in
the sand.

The test should be run very carefully with careful attention to de-
tails. The most difficult problem can be in weighing accurately. The
sand sample has a tendency to reabsorb water after drying. It may
be necessary therefore to weigh the crucibles when still warm. It is
important to keep the air away of the sample, as we are not inter-
ested in burning the material, but merely getting rid of the volatile
matter.

An inert atmosphere can be created either by covering the crucibles

tightly or by using a special furnace to generate a nitrogen atmos-
phere in the heating chamber.

Testing procedure 1. Dry the sand as for the loss-on-ignition test.

2. Weigh a clean dry nickel boat (V1).
3. 5 g of sand sample (V2) weigh into the boat.
4. Cover the investigated sample with a layer of glowed and dried
new sand.
5. Drip a couple of drops of benzene to create strictly reducing
atmosphere. (Nitrogen flushing through the furnace can be
used alternatively).
6. Push boat to hot zone, which should be at a temperature of
925°C, and leave for 7 min.
7. Push boat into cooling zone and cool for 10 min. Then remove
it from furnace and cool to room temperature.
8. Re-weigh sample plus nickel boat (V3) and work out result as
shown.

Weight of the boat V1

Weight of the sample 5g
Total weight V2 = V1 + 5 g
Weight after heating V3

Loss of weight V’ = V2 - V3

To convert to a percentage, multiply V’ by 20.

Thus the volatile is:

V = V’ x 20.

The accuracy of the test ±0.1%.

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British American German B.S.S A.S.T.M DIN 4188

Standard Society for DIN 4188
Aperture Aperture Aperture
Testing
Sieve No. Sieve No. Diameter Diameter Diameter
Materials

5 - - 3.35 mm

8 - - 2.06 mm - 2.0 mm

10 12 4 1.68 mm 1.68 mm 1.4 mm

16 18 6 1.00 mm 1.00 mm 1.0 mm

22 25 8 0.70 mm 0.71 mm 0.71 mm

30 35 12 0.50 mm 0.50 mm 0.50 mm

44 45 16 0.35 mm 0.35 mm 0.35 mm

60 60 24 0.25 mm 0.25 mm 0.25 mm

100 100 40 0.15 mm 0.15 mm 0.18 mm

150 140 60 0.10 mm 0.10 mm 0.125 mm

200 170 80 0.08 mm 0.09 mm 0.09 mm

300 270 E 110 0.05 mm 0.05 mm 0.063 mm

350 400 E 185 0.03 mm 0.04 mm -

Table 1.7: Comparison of standard sieves.

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According to standard testing procedures in different countries, the

heating temperature and time for testing Loss-on-Ignition and Vol-
atile are slightly different. Investigations show, however, that there
are no significant differences between these methods in the final re-
sults.

NOTE
A simplified but slightly less accurate testing method may be
applied if coverable ceramic crucibles are used. Items 4, 5, 6
and 7 are replaced by the following items:

4a) Place the covered crucible with the sand sample in the
furnace.
5a) Leave it at a temperature of 925°C for 7 min.
6a) Transfer the crucible as quickly as possible (still cov-
ered) into the desiccator and cool to room temperature.
7a) Reweigh the sample, uncovered, and work out the
results as previously.

1.2.1.12 Practical conclusion from volatiles and loss-on-igni-

tion tests

Assuming knowledge of:

• the active clay content (MB).

• the loss-on-ignition (LOI).
• volatiles (V).
• the volatile matter content in the active carbonic material (V’).
• water combined in the active clay (around 1.5%).
• there is no core additive in the moulding sand.

the following can be calculated:

• Content of active carbonic material in moulding sand (CA):

100
CA = --------- ( V – 1.5% )
V′
• Content of coked degassed material in the moulding sand
(CS)

CS = LOI – CA – 1.5%

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Date of delivery:
SAND COMPOSITION Weight
SHEET Tested by:

Ordered by:

DIN 4188 Material on Material Calculation of average Determination of total fine content
Mesh the screens through grain size (grains smaller than 0.02 mm
size
mm
g
g % % Factor a Weight of specimen

Col. 1 Col. 2 Col. 3 Col. 4 Col. 5 Col. 6 Weight of specimen after g

b
2.0 0.4 washing

1.4 0.5 g
c Weight of fines a-b
1.0 0.7

0.71 1.0 c-- %

d Fine content x 100
0.5 1.4 a

0.355 2.0 Loss on ignition of washed %

e
0.25 2.8 specimens

0.18 4.0 Determination of non-combustible fines

0.125 5.7 (grains smaller than 0.02 mm)

0.09 8.0 Loss on ignition of %

f
0.063 11.4 unwashed specimens

x)
Pan 0 15.9 Combustible fines %
g f-e
100% Sum (calculated)

h Non-combustible fines d-g %

x) Amount of sand on
Calculation of average grain size
this screen must be
multiplied by 0.3 when
plotting the histogram. 100
50 100 Average grain size = -----------------------------------
Sum of col. 6
90
100
= ---------------------------- = ________________ mm

40 80
Standard deviation =
70
Numbers from Col. 3

Numbers from Col. 4

30 60 Grain shape (microscope)

50
Grain surface (microscope)
20 40
Specific surface of sand
30 assembly cm2/g

10 20 Humus content
max. 4 min. 0
10
Lime content %
0 0
Pan 0.09 0.18 0.355 0.71 1.4 Sintering temperature
0.02 0.063 0.125 0.25 0.5 1.0 2.0 start °C
compl. °C

Table 1.8: Sand composition sheet for recording the sand composition data

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1.2.1.13 Sieve Analysis

The purpose of the sieve analysis is to determine the average grain size
and distribution of the sand.

Washed and dried sand must be used for the test. It is most practical to
use the final product of the AFS clay test (total fines content).

Standard sieve column is used for the tests. Table 1.7 on page 70 shows
some commonly used sieve mesh size systems. A standard vibration de-
vice is used for sieving purposes.

To convert the AFS standard sand grading to the European standard, see
Figure 1.23 on page 1.78.

Testing procedure 1. Build up the sieve column in the right mesh size order.
2. Pour the washed, dried and weighed sand sample onto the upper-
most sieve.
3. Cover the column and fix it on the vibrator.
4. Sieve the sand for 20 min.
5. Detach the sieve column from the vibrator.
6. Detach the upper sieve with the coarsest sand fraction and weigh it
(G1) together with the sand grains.
7. Brush the sand grains away carefully onto a large sheet of paper and
weigh the sieve again (G2). Mark the heap of sand on the paper with
the mesh size of the sieve.
8. Calculate the weigh of the coarsest fraction by subtracting G2 from
G1.
G = G1 - G2
9. Repeat activities from points 6, 7 and 8 for all the sieves in the col-
umn. Keep the sand heaps until the test is finished for possible
rechecking of the results and further sand grain investigations.
10. Fill in the Sand Composition Sheet (Table 1.8 on page 72).
Column 1: sieve sizes (shown in DIN standard)
Column 2: the weighing results of each fraction
Column 3: percentage of each fraction calculated in relation to the
total weight
Column 4: cumulative percentage of each fraction when the weight
is considered as 100%
Column 5: conversion factors which are inversely proportional
with the mesh size of the preceding sieve
Column 6: product of figures from column 3 and column 5.
11. Calculate the Average Grain Size (AGS) using the formula:

100
AGS =
SUM OF COLUMN 6

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The sand lies on 3.5 sieves

0.5 1 1 1

100
5%
90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10
5%
0
PAN 0.09 0.18 0.355 0.71 1.4
0.063 0.125 0.25 0.5 1.0 2.0
8301 X 0026

Figure 1.21 8301X0026

The sand is distributed over 3.5 sieves.

50 100

90

40 80

70

30 60

50 U = 72

20 40

30

10 20

10

0 0 1.33 x AGS = 0.28

PAN 0.09 0.18 0.355 0.71 1.4
0.67 x AGS = 0.14
0.063 0.125 0.25 0.5 1.0 2.0
0.14 0.28
8301 X 0027

Figure 1.22 8301X0027

Uniformity (Gleichmässigkeit) of this sand is U= 72, providing the average grain size (AGS) of
0.21 mm.

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12. Plot histogram column into diagram shown on Table 1.8 on page 72
(SAND COMPOSITION SHEET) using figures from column 3.
13. Plot the cumulative curve into diagram (Table 1.8 on page 72) using
figures from column 4.
14. Determine the sand distribution as shown in Figure 1.21 by deter-
mining the number of sieves on which 90% of the sand is distributed.
This method aims at eliminating 5% of the finest and 5% of the
coarsest material on the cumulative sand distribution curve. It is
then easy to determine the number of sieves on which the residual
material rests. The sand shown on the example is distributed on 3.5
sieves.
15. The sand fractions kept on the paper can now be investigated by
microscope for:
• sand grain shape.
• presence of foreign particles.
• degree of dead-burnt clay adhering to the sand grain.
• creation of conglomerates (aggregates).

In Germany another term for sand distribution is used called uniformity

(Gleichmässigkeit). In order to determine the uniformity (U), the average
grain size value (AGS) is used. The purpose is to eliminate part of the
coarsest material corresponding to 1.33 x AGS and part of the finest ma-
terial corresponding to 0.67 x AGS on the cumulative distribution curve.

Figure 1.22 illustrates the uniformity (U) of a sand AGS = 0.21 mm, which
appears to be 72. The uniformity of moulding sand should stay between 60
and 80.

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1.2.1.14 Water sensitivity of moulding sand

(Sensitivity of sand consistency on variation of moisture content)

Water sensitivity of moulding sand expresses how large a variation of

moisture content the sand can bear without a major change in its consist-
ency. Water sensitivity is expressed as a percentage change in compacta-
bility per percentage change of water content.

Testing Procedure 1. Take a representative specimen of optimal mixed system sand.

2. Take a test of its compactability (C1) and moisture content (W1).
3. Add a little water and mix it a little.
4. Take a test of compactability (C2) and moisture content (W2).

The water sensitivity (WS) is:

C2 – C1
WS = ----------------------
-
W2 – W1

Interpretation WS between 35 and 55%, highly sensitive sand

WS between 15 and 20%, low sensitivity

Remarks 1. The test has to be carried out on sand that has been optimally
mixed, which means that the clay is developed maximally.
2. (C2 - C1) should be minimally 5%.
3. Variation between C1 and C2 occurrence in the area between 35 and
55%.
4. Accuracy of measurement of the moisture content should be min.
±0.05%.
5. Accuracy for compactability measurement should be min. ± 0.5%.

The water sensitivity test for a given sand indicates

• how big must a change of the water content be to cause a signifi-

cant change of sand consistency (compactability).
• how accurately the water addition has to be made (of special signif-
icance when using automatic water addition in the sand plant)
• how to compensate for water evaporation during the test for mixing
efficiency.

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AFS/F

500
400

300

200

150

100

70

50
40

30

20

15

10
0.01 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.7 (K DIN)

8301 X 0028

Figure 1.23 8301 X 0028

Conversion chart from AFS average grain size to DIN according to the formula
log F = - 0.92 log K + 1.26.

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1.2.1.15 Mixing Efficiency

Mixing efficiency test shows how well the actual system sand has been
mulled compared with how well it could be mulled. The test can be carried
out either by reference to

1. change of compactability
or
2. change of wet tensile strength.

Compactability 1. Make the water content (W1) and compactability (C1) test of a repre-
change method sentative specimen of a cooled system sand, previously stored for a
minimum of 1 hour.
2. Mix the sand additionally for 5 min. in a correctly adjusted labora-
tory mixer. Water content has to be kept constant during the mixing
process, i.e. compensation for water evaporated should be constantly
adjusted.
3. Make the compactability (C2) and water content (W2) test of a cooled
and stored specimen after the additional mulling.

The mixing efficiency (ME) is calculated as:

C
ME = ------1
C2

If the difference in water content between the constant before and after
mixing exceeds 0.3%, it is necessary to compensate the “ME” result for the
water sensitivity of the sand in question. It is necessary to “convert” the
W2 back to W1, using the water sensitivity (WS) expressed as a percentage
of compactability change per water content change. See also the section on
testing water sensitivity. The conversion is made as follows:

C2 = C 2 – ( ( W 1 – W 2 ) × WS )
converted
Then the mixing efficiency will be:
C 1
ME = ---------------------------------------
C 2 converted

Remarks 1. The water content should be measured with an accuracy of ±0.05%.

2. The compactability should be kept between 35 and 55%.

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Wet tensile strength 1. Make a wet tensile strength (WTS1) test of a representative speci-
change method men of a cooled system sand previously stored for 1 hour.
2. Mix the sand additionally for 5 min. in a correctly adjusted labora-
tory mixer. No water control is necessary.
3. Make wet tensile strength (WTS2) test of the additionally mixed
sand.

The mixing efficiency is calculated by:

WTS
ME = --------------1
WTS 2

Interpretation • Mixing efficiency between 0.65 and 0.70 - inefficiently mulled sand.
• Mixing efficiency between 0.90 and 0.95 - very vigorously mulled sand.

As can be seen from the above, the wet tensile strength method is much
faster as it is much less sensitive and has less effect on the moisture con-
tent. On the other hand, the compactability change method is easier to
carry out as the equipment required is always accessible.

A too low mixing efficiency can be caused by:

• poor maintenance of the sand mixer.

• too short mulling time.
• too low effect of the mixer motor in relation to the sand charge size.

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1.2.2 Testing raw materials

Consistent moulding sand properties depend directly on the quality of the

raw materials. Therefore it is very important to make sure that freshly de-
livered moulding materials correspond with the standards of the foundry.

1.2.2.1 Bentonite Testing

Many different data exist concerning quality of bentonite, which can be

checked, especially in connection with spot checking of raw materials.The
tests shown in the present section represent a choice for detecting the
most essential properties of clay, such as:

• water content.
• type of clay (Na- or Ca-bentonite).
• content of montmorillonite.
• degree of activation.
• alkalinity (pH).

1.2.2.2 Water Content

One of the simple but important tests is water content. The correct water
content should be checked for three main reasons:

• too wet clay is difficult to handle in the dosing and transporting

devices and harder to disperse in the mixer.
• too wet clay can affect the moisture content of the moulding sand.
• economical reasons.

Testing procedure Weigh out 10 g of a clay sample on a precision balance (accuracy +0.01 g)
in a closed vessel and dry in a constant temperature at 110°C (230°F) for
2 hours. Cool in a desiccator.

The water content is the percentage of water loss of the sample. A mois-
ture level between 8 and 12% is considered acceptable.

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2 g Bentonite

100 ml water

Swelled volume
after 2 hours

8301 X 0029

Figure 1.24 8301 X 0029

Bentonite particles absorbing water increase in volume (swell).

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1.2.2.3 Swelling Index

The bentonite gain their plastic and binding features only after absorbing
water in between the clay particles. This causes swelling of bentonite.

Since different types of bentonite swell differently when absorbing water,

the test detects roughly the type of bentonite used.

Testing procedure Fill a measuring glass with 100 ml of water and let 2 g of bentonite with
(see Figure 1.24) a known moisture content (%M) fall so slowly down into the water that the
clay gets time to form a sediment. The time for clay addition should not
exceed 1 hour. The total testing time from the start to the reading is 2
hours.

Register the swelled volume (V’) of the clay in the measuring glass.

The swelling index (SI) is calculated as:

V′ × 100
SI = ---------------------
100 – M
A typical Ca-bentonite has a swelling index between 6 and 10 ml and
Na-bentonite between 18 and 50 ml. Some swelling indices for known ben-
tonites are shown below:

Panther Creek (Ca) 6-7 ml

Berkbond (activated Ca) 13 ml
Geko (activated Ca) 16 ml
Volclay (Na) 26 ml

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A B
180 ml H20 20 ml 1N NH4Cl

2 g Bentonite
Sedimentations index (ml)
100
90
80
70
60
50 A
40
30 B
20 C
A- Na-Bentonite D
B- Well activated Ca-Bentonite 10
E
C+D- Just acceptable activated Ca-Bentonite 0
1 2 4 8 24 48 72 Hours
E- Non-activated Ca-Bentonite

8301 X 0030

Figure 1.25 8301 X 0030

Test for sedimentation index. A) Measuring glass with suspended bentonite. B) Curves plotted as
examples.

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Section 1.2 – Moulding Materials Testing Practice

1.2.2.4 Sedimentation Index

See Figure 1.25 This test indicates the amount of active Na+ ions available in the ben-
tonite. Per definition the amount of these ions is high in a pure sodium
bentonite (see the curve). Working with Na-activated Ca bentonites, the
amount of active Na+ ions can be of decisive importance.

Testing procedure 1. Mix 2 g bentonite “as delivered” with 180 ml demineralized water in
5 min.
2. Add 20 ml 1N solution of ammonium chloride (NH4CL).
3. Mix additionally 1 min.
4. Pour 100 ml of the suspension into two measuring glasses scaled in
ml.
5. Read the volume (ml) of the settled sediment after 15 min., 30 min.,
1 hour, 2 hours, 4 hours, 8 hours, 24 hours, 48 hours and 72 hours.
6. Plot a diagram as the one shown on Figure 1.25.

Interpretation After 72 hours the Sedimentation Index for a well activated Ca bentonite
should stay between 25 and 35 ml. At any rate an activated Ca bentonite
should not stay below 20 ml. A pure Na bentonite stays normally above 40
ml. The test can be repeated for samples of the same bentonite heated to
the temperature of 100°C, 200°C, 300°C, 400°C and 500°C to indicate its
thermal durability.

The test can be used for indicating how much more the bentonite can be
activated by mixing it with different amounts of soda ash (Na2CO3). This
is a good way of controlling the quality of the delivered bentonite.

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Alcohol Bromoform (CH Br3)

Sedimentation
3
Density 2.1 g/cm3

1 g dried
2
bentonite

1
Sedimentation (ml) 10 ml of
0.1 ml bromoform solution
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Montmorillonite (%)

8301 X 0031

Figure 1.26 8301X0031

The montmorillonite content can be read from the curve if the sedimentation value is known.

0.1 N H Cl

2 ml

5 g bentonite 40 ml H20
100 ml H20
10 ml 4 drops phenolphtalein

8301 X 0032

Figure 1.27 8301X0032

Determining soda content in bentonite.

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Section 1.2 – Moulding Materials Testing Practice

1.2.2.5 Montmorillonite Content

Montmorillonite is a compound which gives clay its excellent features as

a moulding sand binder. The montmorillonite has thin blade-like particles
which, due to their lamellar structure and thus large specific surface, can
absorb water. In this way it will be more plastic which gives the binding
forces.

The montmorillonite content in the bentonite for high density moulding

should be as high as possible and not lower than 75%.

Testing procedure 1. Prepare an alcoholic solution of bromoform (CHBr3) with a specific

(see Figure 1.26) density of 2.10 g/cm3.
2. Dry the bentonite at 110°C (230°F) for 2 hours. Add the heavy alco-
hol/bromoform solution into the graduated test tube (density 2.10 g/
cm3) up to a level of 10 ml.
3. Put 1 g of the dried bentonite into the test tube and shake until a
homogeneous suspension is obtained.
4. Stand the measuring glass still for 30 min. to allow sedimentation
after which the volume of the floating matter can be determined on
the scale of the measuring glass.
5. Determine the montmorillonite content from the curve on Figure
1.26.

1.2.2.6 Content of Water-Soluble Carbonates

This test gives an indication of whether or not the bentonite is a pure

Na-bentonite or soda (Na2CO3) activated Ca-bentonite.

Testing procedure 1. Weigh 5 g of dried bentonite, mix it with 100 ml distilled water and
(see Figure 1.27) mix thoroughly (glass A).
2. Pour 10 ml of the suspension into an Erlenmeyer glass (B), add 40
ml of distilled water and 4 drops of phenolphtalein.
3. Titrate the suspension with 0.1N solution of hydrochloridic acid
(HCl) until the red colour disappears. Register the consumed
amount of the acid “a” (ml).

The content of water soluble carbonates is calculated as:

Content of water soluble carbonate = “a” x 2.12%.

This figure is normally equivalent with the content of soda in the ben-
tonite.

Interpretation Content of water soluble carbonates:

• less than 0.4% - pure Na-bentonite.

• more than 0.4% - soda-activated Ca-bentonite.

The test should be carried out rather quickly or the acid will attack the
other carbonates.

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Section 1.2 – Moulding Materials Testing Practice

1.2.2.7 Acidity (pH-value)

The pH-value of bentonite should stay well in the base area. Too acid ben-
tonite has deteriorated bonding properties.

The test is carried through with a pH-meter. The usual solution is 8 g of

tested material in 100 ml H2O. The pH of the bentonite, as for the mould-
ing sand, must be higher than 8.5.

1.2.2.8 Testing Carbonic Materials

Normally the following tests should be made in connection with the con-
trol of recently delivered raw materials:

• grain size (if grainy type).

• water content.
• content of volatiles.
• ash content.
• sulphur content.

1.2.2.9 Grain size

Normally the average grain size of the carbonic material should not ex-
ceed the grain size of the base sand. That is why some of the national
standards of raw material control set up a limit of max. 10% of particles
which are larger than 0.18 mm.

Another limitation concerns very coarse grains which create concentrated

local gas generating spots. That is why a grain share larger than the av-
erage size of moulding sand grains should not be present.

1.2.2.10 Water Content

Water content is measured on a 10 g sample (accuracy ± 0.01 g) which is

heated for 2 hours in a constant temperature over 110°C (230°F). The per-
centage of loss of weight is the measure for the moisture content.

Higher accuracy can be obtained when drying in an atmosphere free of ac-

id. Maximal acceptable moisture content is 5%.

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Section 1.2 – Moulding Materials Testing Practice

1.2.2.11 Volatile Content

Volatile content is an indirect measure of the lustrous carbon generation.

Testing procedure 1. Put 1 g of dried carbonic material in a porcelain crucible furnished

with a tightly fitting lid.
2. Heat the sample in a furnace at 925°C.
3. Check after 2-3 min. (when most of the gasses have escaped) if the
lid still closes tightly and put the sample back into the furnace.
4. Transfer the sample to a desiccator after 7 min. total heating time.
Cool it down to room temperature and then weigh (a).

The volatile content (V) is calculated as follows:

1–a
V =≡ ----------- x100%
1

Minimum volatile should be 30%.

1.2.2.12 Ash Content

In this test the carbonic material is completely combusted so that the re-
sidual inorganic material (ash) will be deposited as fines in the moulding
sand structure.

Testing procedure 1. Weigh out 2 g of dried material and place it in a flat porcelain cruci-
ble.
2. Heat the sample initially for 1-2 hours at 500°C and then for 2-3
hours at 900-950°C.
3. Cool the sample in a desiccator and determine the loss of weight (a).

The ash content (A) is calculated as follows:

2–a
A = ----------- x100%
2

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Section 1.2 – Moulding Materials Testing Practice

1.2.2.13 Sulphur Content

Sulphur reduces the binding properties of the moulding sand.

Testing procedure 1. Prepare an Eschka-mixture by mixing two parts of dried MgO with
one part of Na2CO3 free from water (by weight). Both compounds
should be purified for analytical use.
2. Mix 1 g of dried carbonic material with 3 g of Eschka mixture, place
it in a porcelain crucible and cover with 1 g of Eschka-mixture.
3. Place the crucible in a furnace at a temperature of 600°C and
increase the temperature gradually to 800°C ±25°C drying for one
hour. Keep the sample at this temperature for approx. 1.5 hour,
until all the black particles disappear (stir the sample from time to
time with a platinum or nickel wire to expose all the particles to the
heat).
4. Transfer the sample to a 250 ml glass beaker, add 100 ml hot dis-
tilled water and leave it for approx. 30 min.
5. Oxidize the filtrate, which now amounts to approx. 250 ml, with 5 ml
of 10% hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) solution or 5 ml saturated bromine
solution and then add 5 ml of concentrated hydrochloridic acid (HCl)
in order to make the solution acidic. Boil the solution for a while.
6. Add a couple of droplets of methyl orange as an indicator and neu-
tralize the solution with NaOH or Na2CO3. After neutralization add
1 ml of 1 N HCl and bring it to boil.
7. With a pipette add 10 ml of 10% BaCl2 solution, stirring constantly.
Continue the boiling for 15 min. and leave the solution overnight.
8. Filter the solution through a filter, free it from ash of the “OOH”
type. Clean with hot distilled water.
9. Repeat filtering until the filtrate does not precipitate with AgNO3.
10. Transfer the precipitate, which consists of BaSO4, to a weighed cru-
cible, dry, incinerate at 500-600°C, and heat it at 900°C, until it has
a constant weight (a).

The sulphur content (S.C.) is calculated as follows:

a × 0.1373
S.C. = ------------------------- × 100%
1
The maximal allowable sulphur content in the carbonic material is 1%.

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1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5

7 7.5 8 8.5 9
8301 X 0033

Figure 1.28 8301 X 0033

Sea coal heated in a standard crucible is baked and swells into solid “buttons” of different heights.

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Section 1.2 – Moulding Materials Testing Practice

1.2.2.14 Swelling Index (for sea coal only)

It was observed that the coal dust was subjected to high temperature
swells. This is expected to:

• counteract the thermal expansion of the silica grains.

• prevent metal penetration to some extent by closing the spaces in
the moulding sand structure.

Testing procedure 1. Weigh out 1 g of dried coal dust. Place it in a cold crucible and level
the sample by tapping the crucible lightly 12 times on a solid sur-
face, rotating between taps.
2. Cover the crucible with a lid and place it upright in the silica trian-
gle supported by a flame shielded mesh directly over the gas flame.
Heat the covered crucible in the gas flame until the flame of the
burning volatile matter dies out, but in any case for not less than 2.5
min.
3. Remove the coke button carefully, and remove the carbon residue in
the crucible. Four buttons should be made in this manner for each
sample of coal tested.
4. The profile of the sintered coke residue, looking like a dark button
and staying on the bottom of the crucible, will then be compared
with the standard profiles shown on Figure 1.28. The swelling index
of the sample in question is the number under the standard refer-
ence button, most similar to the residue, sintered in the crucible.

Normally a coal dust with swelling index 4 or higher is considered accept-

able.

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Chapter 2 — Pattern Equipment General

2 Pattern Equipment General

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General Chapters Application Manual

a) scraper strip
b) scraper strip bar a
c) scraper strip screws. Quantity depends
on pattern plate size

c b

Figure 2.1 8302 X 0187

Standard Pattern Plate

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 Application Manual
Section 2.1 – Pattern Plates and Patterns

2.1 Pattern Plates and Patterns

In terms of quality a moulding operation must correspond to the ad-
vantages offered by a moulding machine. As we use to say: castings
will never be better than the pattern. The purpose of using the
moulding machine is to produce castings with the following proper-
ties:

• minimum shifting of parts

• minimum dimensional tolerances
• fine surface finish
• minimum application of cores
• high productivity

All the above properties are directly dependent on the quality of the
pattern equipment. Therefore, this section deals with our recom-
mendations and advice concerning pattern equipment.

2.1.1 Pattern Plate Materials

Pattern plates for the moulding machines are usually made of cast
iron. Steel, resin and aluminium plates may also be used. In order
to save weight on thick pattern plates, aluminium with an outer
frame of steel may be used. When using aluminium and resin as pat-
tern plate material, dimensions on plate width and length should be
different from those applying to iron plates. This is due to the fact
that the heat expansion coefficients are different for iron and alu-
minium.

2.1.2 Standard Pattern Plates

See Figure 2.1 A set of pattern plates means two pattern plates - one mounted on
the PP and the other one on the SP. The outer dimensions match the
chamber size of the moulding machine size in question. The toler-
ances will of course be taken into account (see details in the pattern
plate documentation). Four lock screws and two guide pins or bush-
ings (depending on type of machine) are mounted at the back of the
standard plate. The bottom edge of the plate is completed with a
flexible scraper strip (a), which prevents sand build-up under the
pattern plate. The scraper is held fixed by a brass strip (b). For pat-
tern change there are different arrangements on the back of the pat-
tern plates. See details in the chapter Pattern Equipment for the
specific machine as well as the pattern equipment drawings.

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A A-A

Figure 2.2 8302 X 0014

A high pattern plate bolster frame built together of two standard pattern plates.

A A

A-A

Figure 2.3 8302 X 0010

Example of thick pattern plate bolster frame using frame/rib construction.

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Section 2.1 – Pattern Plates and Patterns

2.1.3 Thick Pattern Plates

See Figure 2.2 In order to accommodate negative patterns and/or deep pockets, the
pattern plates will become thicker. However the maximum weight
allowed for the pattern plates makes it necessary to lighten the pat-
tern plates themselves for example as shown in Figure 2.2 or by
casting the plate hollowed out in selected areas.

For max. weight of SP and PP, including patterns, see details in the
chapter Pattern Equipment for the specific machine.

See Figure 2.3 Another method is to use a pattern plate bolster in an iron frame/rib
construction and the rest of the plate as well as the pattern cast in
one piece of resin. This will be explained in detail later.
A

B B
C

Figure 2.4 8302 X 0363

Safety distances from edges of the moulds.

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Figure 2.5 8302 X 0020

This mould has contained a casting, the pattern of which covered approx. 60% of the total area of
the pattern plate.

Involute

Figure 2.6 8302 X 0026

Schematic presentation of swing plate swinging operation.

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Section 2.1 – Pattern Plates and Patterns

2.1.4 Pattern Plate and Mould Utilization

2.1.4.1 Utilization of Surface Area

The degree of pattern-plate surface area utilization is restricted by

the basic sand features:

1. Thermal, static and dynamic sand stability (Figure 2.4)

2. Stability and pressure deformation while moulds are being
conveyed forward (Figure 2.5).

Plate area covered by the pattern and the gating system should not
exceed 60% of the total plate area.

Many factors influence these features, but the strongest criterion for
high-quality castings is sand stability until solidification is complete
as well as pressure deformation. Factors determining sand stability
during solidification for side and bottom walls include total pattern
height and wall thickness. See details in the chapter Pattern Equip-
ment for the specific machine for guide lines for determination of
safety distances on the pattern plates from their edges.

2.1.4.2 Utilization of Mould Thickness

Maximum pattern plate thicknesses plus pattern heights are given

by the maximum chamber depth of the machines. This means that
if plates plus patterns thicker than the maximum dimensions al-
lowed are fitted on the machine, the patterns will be damaged due
to collision during the squeeze operation.

See Figure 2.6 The limitation of pattern plate plus pattern on the SP is defined by
a curve described during the upswing. All patterns located inside
the curve traced by the involute will clear the upper edge of the
moulding chamber during the upswing of the swing plate.

Another limit is imposed by the sand injection slot. A pattern which

is under the sand injection slot during sand injection, will be ex-
posed to wear due to “sand blowing”. Whether one wants to employ
so large a pattern that it will be under the slot, will therefore depend
on the pattern material, the desired pattern life, and acceptance of
possible worse mould quality.

Maximum draw of SP There is one more pattern height limit which concerns patterns
placed on the swing plate. This is maximum draw of the plate before
it starts to swing. This is important due to the fact that it is difficult
to change a pattern plate when the highest point of the pattern is
not completely free of the front of the moulding chamber.

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P Q S (min 70) For 2110 S = min 60

T A F B

Figure 2.7 8302 X 0192

Mould thickness calculation (definition).

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Section 2.1 – Pattern Plates and Patterns

2.1.4.3 Determination of Minimum Chamber Depth

In order to understand the chamber depth calculation method bet-

ter, moulding sand blown into the moulding chamber should be con-
sidered in two stages:

The filling of the chamber and the later squeezing operation.

See Figure 2.7 Compressibility (K) of the sand (mould thickness reduction in per-
centage of the mould thickness before the squeeze operation) is nor-
mally approx. 25% (when blow pressure = 3 kp/cm2 (43 psi), mould
squeeze pressure = 10 kp/cm2 (143 psi) and sand compactability =
40%). Chamber depth can be calculated by using the following des-
ignations.

A= thickness of pattern plate on the swing side

B= thickness of pattern plate on the squeeze side

C= minimum possible chamber depth by which a certain pattern

set can be produced. Chamber depth is defined as the distance
between the PP and SP before the squeeze operation

F= distance between pattern plates in the moulding chamber be-

fore the squeeze operation

K= compressibility of the sand (approx. 0.25)

P= pattern height on the swing side

Q= pattern height on the squeeze side

S= minimum distance between mould cavities to ensure good

mould stability and to avoid metal breakthrough from one
mould cavity to another, 70 mm (2.8"). However for moulding
machine DMM 2110 it is 60 mm (2.4”)

T= necessary mould thickness

The minimum possible chamber depth can be expressed as:

(1) C = F + (A + B)
T T
(2) F = ------------- = -----------
1–K 0.75
and

(3) T=P+Q+S

If we insert (3) in (2) and (2) in (1), the chamber depth can be ex-
pressed as:
P+Q+S
(4) C = ------------------------- + ( A + B )
0.75

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Z Safety stroke Without crash pins With crash pins

X
C C C

Figure 2.8 8302 X 0030

Safety stroke, pattern collision and precaution for single squeezing.

Safety stroke Z1 Without With crash

crash pins pins
Z2 Safety stroke
X
C C C

Figure 2.9 8302 X 0232

Safety stroke, pattern collision and precaution for double squeezing.

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Section 2.1 – Pattern Plates and Patterns

Consequently the suggested sequence of calculation of the minimum

chamber depth will be:

STEP 1: Total plate thickness: A + B

STEP 2: Total pattern height (without plates): P + Q

STEP 3: Necessary mould thickness: T = (P + Q) + S

STEP 4: Necessary separation between pattern plates before

squeezing operation
T
F = -----------
0.75
STEP 5: Calculated minimum chamber depth:

C = F + (A + B)

The programme in the machine is designed in a way so that the

above-mentioned calculation will be done and the chamber depth set
automatically when A, B, P & Q values are entered at the keyboard.

In many cases it is even advisable to increase the chamber depth be-

yond the calculated minimum values. For example, it is always good
practice to choose the chamber depth large enough, so that patterns
do not project under the injection slot in the moulding chamber top
plate. Other examples are reduced pattern wear and better mould-
ability.

The programme will also see to it that pattern collision is prevented.

Collision might occur when A, B, P & Q are too small entered at the
keyboard and no sand or too little sand has entered the moulding
chamber. Then the minimum chamber depth has been calculated
too small, and so is the so-called safety stroke. For single squeezing
machines (see Figure 2.8 and for double squeezing machines, see
Figure 2.9).

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P P P P=0

10

A (min. 20) A A A

Figure 2.10 8302 X 0182

Definition of A and P on the swing plate (SP).

Q Q Q Q=0

10

B (min. 20) B B B

Figure 2.11 8302 X 0188

Definition of B and Q on the squeeze plate (PP).

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Section 2.1 – Pattern Plates and Patterns

The safety stroke Z is proportional to the chamber depth C, and the

length X will, when correct A, B, P & Q are entered, always exceed
the squeeze plate and swing plate travel during the maximum ob-
tainable compression of a mould in the chamber.

See Figure 2.8 Should it prove necessary to use a chamber depth smaller than the
minimum value calculated, precautions should be taken when man-
ufacturing the pattern equipment. This is to prevent any damage
should the pattern plates collide. This should be done by providing
a minimum of two crash pins on each pattern plate, each crash pin
being of course aligned with one on the opposite pattern plate.

These pins are made of steel and should not be tapered with a min-
imum diameter of 25 mm (1") and of sufficient length to protrude be-
yond the highest point of the pattern.

In order to determine whether a certain pattern can fit in on the ma-

chine, there are detailed limitation drawings in the chapter Pattern
Equipment for the specific machine.

2.1.5 Pattern Plate Thickness and Pattern Height

Definitions

See Figure 2.10 1. Definition of A and P on the swing plate (SP).

See Figure 2.11 2. Definition of B and Q on the squeeze plate (PP).

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Section 2.2 – Pattern Design

2.2 Pattern Design

2.2.1 Pattern Construction

The making of pattern plates requires the utmost care. It is definite-

ly poor economy to cut down on pattern costs at the expense of fet-
tling. Such a policy will seriously slow down the rate of production,
and the time required for fettling will be considerably longer. Also,
the quality will suffer. On the other hand, the size of a job has deci-
sive influence on the choice of pattern material and on pattern con-
struction.

Metal patterns are still considered to ensure a long life, and espe-
cially fully machined patterns are very accurate in terms of dimen-
sions.

Synthetic resins, however, are today used to a continually increas-

ing extent as pattern material in spite of their shorter life. A clear
advantage of the resin patterns is the fast reproducibility and the
relatively low costs of material and of production, compared with
metal patterns. A combination of metal and resins is successfully
employed both for designing pattern plates and for the patterns
themselves.

The examples shown below cover various solutions of pattern design

for moulding machines.

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Figure 2.12 8302 X 0049

Grey iron pattern, fully machined, bolted to a standard grey iron pattern plate.

Figure 2.13 8302 X 0050

Standard grey iron pattern plate with fully machined brass patterns.

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Section 2.2 – Pattern Design

2.2.1.1 Pattern Plate Material Selection

Besides the length of the run, the choice of pattern material should
be influenced by pattern heights, location of the patterns on the
plate, the geometry of the pattern and whether the pattern will be
placed on the squeeze or the swing side. Blow pressure, moulding
sand type and pattern temperature can also be significant factors in
determining pattern material, and hence pattern wear and pattern
life. The figures below must therefore be subject to reservations, but
they will nevertheless give a fair indication of what to choose.

Patterns or Pattern Plate Materials Life (Number of Shots)

Soft plaster 100 - 500

Hard wood 500 - 1,000
Hard plaster 1,000 - 5,000
Plastic plaster 2,000 - 10,000
Epoxy resin 5,000 - 50,000
Polyurethane resin 20,000 - 60,000
Aluminium alloys 20,000 - 60,000
Copper alloys 40,000 - 60,000
Grey cast iron 200,000 - 300,000
Low-alloy steel 300,000 - 500,000

Coating of metallic patterns with nickel or chromium results in a

further life increase, not only because of an increase of hardness, but
also because the patterns can be dismantled from the plate and re-
coated when the coating layer has worn through.

A discussion of the numerous different alloys suitable for patterns

would prove very lengthy. We could, however, point out a few of
them:

a. Aluminium alloy containing 4% Cu and 3% Si.

b. Bronze alloy containing 2% Ni and 0.3% Si.
c. Beryllium bronze containing approx. 2% Be (should be treated
so that high surface hardness is obtained).
d. Red brass No. 5 containing 85% Cu, 5% tin, 5% lead, 5% zinc
and max. 2% Ni.
e. Zinc alloys containing 91-92% zinc, 5% Al and 3-3.5% Cu.
Although more difficult to cast than aluminium alloys, they
are frequently used for patterns. This alloy is known commer-
cially as “Kirksite”.

For long production runs we recommend cast iron patterns for

moulding in the moulding machine. The relatively moderate addi-
tional cost will be recovered through the increased life.

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General Chapters Application Manual

Figure 2.14 8302 X 0051

Grey iron pattern plate with patterns cast of polyurethane resin around an aluminium insert.

Figure 2.15 8302 X 0262

Polyurethane resin pattern plate surface cast together with pattern in bolster frame pattern
plate.

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 Application Manual
Section 2.2 – Pattern Design

2.2.2 Pattern Production Technique

The technique generally used for the production of a series of metal

patterns consists of first making a master pattern in wood or resin.
Where small patterns are required, the master copy pattern can be
made to a larger scale, say 2:1 or more, in order to minimize the di-
mensional inaccuracies of the final pattern.

Thereafter, two alternatives exist:

1. Making all patterns on a copying machine on the basis of the

master pattern.
2. Making a mould in which the pattern is cast.

If the master pattern is made to a scale of 1:1, copies of it can be cast

in light-alloy metal in moulds of special sand (Petro Bond) or plas-
ter/Gypsum cement. If cast iron or steel patterns are required,
moulds can be made of ceramic materials (aluminium oxide or zirco-
nium oxide powder, using ethylene silicate as binder) or convention-
al clay-bonded sand. After the joint surfaces have been machined
and finished, the patterns are assembled in pairs and the locator
holes drilled. One pattern half is positioned on the plate, which is
then drilled via the pattern locator holes. The next step is to assem-
ble the two plates front to front, using pattern plate locator pins, and
to drill the second plate through the holes in the first plate. This
method ensures that both pattern halves always correspond with
each other when mounted on the plates.

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General Chapters Application Manual

Figure 2.16 8302 X 0256

Integrated pattern plate cast in polyurethane.

1 2 3 4 5 6

Negative

Figure 2.17 8302 X 0054

Different pattern plate and pattern construction methods.

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 Application Manual
Section 2.2 – Pattern Design

When resin patterns are to be produced, a master pattern should be

made of resin or wood. Then a negative of the pattern can easily be
cast in a synthetic resin. The negative is the basis for further oper-
ations.

See Figure 2.17 Generally, the following pattern and pattern plate construction
methods can be employed.

Method 1 Pattern of metal or resin, bolted on the metal plate, either standard
or a thick one. The patterns can be cast and polished manually or
machined.

Method 2 Similar to Method 1, but the patterns are indented in the pattern
plate and bolted on it. The patterns can be of metal or resin.

Method 3 The patterns are surface-cast of resin on a core roughly correspond-

ing to the final pattern shape. The core can be cast in metal or resin.
In both cases the core insert is prepared in advance, and a negative
of the final pattern’s shape is fixed on the insert. The void between
the core and the negative surface is subsequently cast in between.
The pattern can be cast directly on a metal plate or later bolted on
as an indented pattern.

Method 4 The patterns are cast in their negative directly in the pattern plates.

Method 5 Pattern and pattern plate cast in one piece of resin over a negative.
The plate has a frame of cast iron and some bushings of steel at the
rear.

Method 6 Pattern and pattern plate surface cast of wear-resistant resin and
inside backing core, either metallic or cast of resin. Metal bushings
cast into the rear for lock screw mounting.

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General Chapters Application Manual

Normal outside draft Normal inside draft Inside draft (D<H)

(D>H) D D

H
H
mm(in)
Pattern height
1.9 1.4 1.0 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 2.0 1.4 1.0 1.0 1.0 4.0 2.8 2.0 2.0 2.0

2.5(0.1)
5(0.2) 12° 12°
6° 24°
10(0.4) 3° 6° 12°
20(0.8)
1.5° 3° 6°

40(1.6)
1° 2° 4°

80(3.2)
0.75° 1.5° 3°
160(6.3)
0.50°
320(13.6)
0.33°

Figure 2.18 8302 X 0055

Graphical presentation of pattern draft.

6°
3°
5
5

R0.5 - 1.0mm (0.02-0.04")

A B

Figure 2.19 8302 X 0056

A) The correct draft ensures lift-off without tearing.

B) The draft may be reduced by pulling a fillet around the pattern.

0°

Sand tear-off R0.5 - 1.0mm

Pattern Pattern

Figure 2.20 8302 X 0057

Turned patterns often cause sand tear-off due to 0° draft. Fillets of R 2-3 mm help, but R 0.5-1 mm
will normally be sufficient.

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 Application Manual
Section 2.2 – Pattern Design

2.2.2.1 Pattern Draft

Figure 2.18 Minimum pattern draft generally depends on pattern height. But
many other factors, such as pattern material, surface finish, pattern
shape, sand quality and squeeze pressure influence the draft very
strongly. On the opposite page is shown a graph of pattern draft rec-
ommended by DISA.

Depending on pattern, sand quality and machine settings it will of-

ten be possible to use less outside draft as shown in Figure 2.18, Fig-
ure 2.19 and Figure 2.20.

A pattern on the swing plate often requires less draft than the one
on the squeeze plate.

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General Chapters Application Manual

Draft

Parting line

Figure 2.21 8302 X 0058

Sometimes the casting manufacturer accepts a slight increase of the draft at the parting line,
which solves the problem of sand tear-off.

No draft

ø50 (2")
is recommended
45°

5 (0.2")

Figure 2.22 8302 X 0059

Guide pin has no draft and should be min. ø25 (1").

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 Application Manual
Section 2.2 – Pattern Design

2.2.2.2 Pattern Guiding in the Mould

Mounting of guide pins on the pattern plate provides a more accu-

rate pattern-mould separation during the very first stage of pattern
stripping. The more accurate the separation, the less sand tear-off
tendency.

The number and location of guide pins depend on the complexity of

pattern and the available space on the plate. Figure 2.22 shows the
recommended shape of a guide pin.

No draft is shown. There might be a small draft, but it should not

exceed the draft on the patterns, which are to be guided.

The guide pins must be fixed tightly, perpendicularly to the pattern

plate. If the guide pins are longer than the total pattern height, they
will also protect patterns which may collide in the moulding cham-
ber if the chamber depth setting for instance is incorrect. See also
Figure 2.10 (Minimum Chamber Depth Calculation).

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General Chapters Application Manual

Figure 2.23 8302 X 0060

Rubber ball as energy accumulator during squeezing and stripping. Beside the casting after pour-
ing.

Venting

Figure 2.24 8302 X 0061

Rubber lifter accumulates energy during squeezing, which helps pushing the sand out of the pat-
tern without leaving any impression on the mould.

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 Application Manual
Section 2.2 – Pattern Design

2.2.2.3 Lift-Off Devices

A rubber ball in the bottom of a deep concave pattern part can help
to push green sand moulds out during stripping by delivering back
the energy which was accumulated in it during squeezing (Figure
2.23).

If an impression-less top of the green sand mould is required after

mould assembly, a convex rubber lifter can be employed. Air holes
must be provided under the lifter as shown in Figure 2.24. The soft-
ness, surface area and thickness of the rubber ball or lifter depend
on the pressure that will be exercised on the part of the pattern in
question during the squeezing operation. In turn, the pressure de-
pends on machine settings, depth of pattern and surface finish of
pattern.

O:\Dtp\Manuals\Text\DISA 030\AM\Eng\2012-02\2 Pattern equipment general.fm 2.27

General Chapters Application Manual

Heating plate
Air vents

Pattern

Pattern

Air vent

Heating plate of
Pattern plate pressure plate

Venting grooves of Venting grooves Pattern plate

heating plate

Figure 2.25 8302 X 0062 Figure 2.26 8302 X 0063

Air venting of deep patterns. It is important to ensure connection between

the venting valve in the pattern plate and the
venting groove in the heating plate of the ma-
chine.

Figure 2.27 8302 X 0433

Different types of air vents.

2.28 O:\Dtp\Manuals\Text\DISA 030\AM\Eng\2012-02\2 Pattern equipment general.fm

 Application Manual
Section 2.2 – Pattern Design

2.2.2.4 Pattern Venting

To avoid vacuum formation in the deep patterns during lift-off and

to ensure proper air evacuation during the sand-blow operation, air
vents may be mounted in the bottom of deep patterns. Figure 2.25,
Figure 2.26 and Figure 2.27 show the vents and how to install them.

It is essential to connect the air vent with the ambient atmosphere

and/or the vacuum tank. This is done by drilling a hole through the
PP behind the air vent. This hole might lead directly to a venting/
vacuum groove in the PP and SP. If not, a groove in the rear side of
the pattern plate must be made to allow the connection. An example
is shown in Figure 2.28. Configurations and dimensions of grooves
and contact areas will vary greatly from machine to machine. See
details in the chapter “Pattern Equipment” for the specific machine.

Groove

Contact with
pattern plate

Figure 2.28 8302 X 0365

This figure shows an example of venting grooves.

O:\Dtp\Manuals\Text\DISA 030\AM\Eng\2012-02\2 Pattern equipment general.fm 2.29

General Chapters Application Manual

2.30 O:\Dtp\Manuals\Text\DISA 030\AM\Eng\2012-02\2 Pattern equipment general.fm

 Application Manual
Section 2.2 – Pattern Design

2.2.3 Inspection of Pattern and Moulding Machine

Pattern defects All pattern defects such as impact marks causing break-off on the
mould, must be repaired immediately after they have been discov-
ered.

Pattern draft Patterns must be regularly checked for pattern draft after repair
jobs and changes.

Air vents and rubber lifters Air vents can only function as intended if they are not blocked.
Therefore they must be cleaned regularly. Defective rubber lifters
may lead to counterdraft.

Moulding machine adjust- Even patterns of the best quality can produce castings with a high
ments rejection rate if the moulding machine is not properly adjusted. The
following adjustment and check must be undertaken regularly:

1. Check parallelism of PP and SP.

2. Check adjustment of the guide pins for the pattern plates and
the core mask, both laterally and vertically.
3. Check level of the bottom plate of the moulding machine
related to AMC/PMC.
4. Check perpendicularity of the core setter related to the sym-
metry line of the machine.

O:\Dtp\Manuals\Text\DISA 030\AM\Eng\2012-02\2 Pattern equipment general.fm 2.31

General Chapters Application Manual

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DISA 030-B Application Manual
10266086 Chapter 3 — Pattern Equipment specific for DISA 030-B

3 Pattern Equipment specific for

DISA 030-B

O:\Dtp\Manuals\Text\DISA 030\AM\Eng\2012-02\3 Pattern equipment 030-B.fm 3.1

 DISA 030-B
10266086

Figure 3.1 8302 X 0016

Example of a cassette system within the field of malleable iron pipe fittings. Two halves of the
pattern plate (aluminium) mounted on the grey iron base plate.

Figure 3.2 8302 X 0018

Example of a cassette system.

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DISA 030-B Application Manual
10266086 Section 3.1 – Cassette systems

3.1 Cassette systems

See Figure 3.1 and When the production programme consists of short series or situa-
Figure 3.2 tions requiring quick conversion of existing patterns into moulding
machine patterns, a cassette system can be used with advantage.
The principle of such a system is based on a permanent frame made
of steel or grey iron, whose overall dimensions correspond to the
standard plate dimensions. Patterns mounted on exchangeable base
plates are screwed into the frame. The inside area of the frame can
be utilized by one exchangeable pattern plate (full format - 1/1), two
halves (½ format), or even smaller units, depending on require-
ments. For cassette system examples, see Figure 3.1 and Figure 3.2.

Maximum weight of pattern plates, including patterns, allowed are:

SP: 160 kg

PP: 220 kg

O:\Dtp\Manuals\Text\DISA 030\AM\Eng\2012-02\3 Pattern equipment 030-B.fm 3.3

 DISA 030-B
10266086

535
B B
DISA 030-B
C

650

Casting wall Module of Total pattern height Top edge Side edges Bottom edge
thickness solidification (without pattern plates) A B C

mm in. cm in. mm in. mm in. mm in. mm in.

0 - 100 0 - 3.9 30 - 40 1.2 - 1.6 30 - 40 1.2 - 1.6

0 - 10 0 - 0.4 0 - 0.50 0 - 0.2 100 - 200 3.9 - 7.9 70 2.8 50 - 60 2.0 - 2.4 50 - 60 2.0 - 2.4
200 - 300 7.9 -11.8 70 - 80 2.8 - 3.2 70 - 80 2.8 - 3.2

0 - 100 0 - 3.9 50 - 60 2.0 - 2.4 40 - 50 1.6 - 2.0

10 - 15 0.4 - 0.6 0.50 - 0.75 0.2 - 0.3 100 - 200 3.9 - 7.9 70 2.8 70 - 80 2.8 - 3.2 60 - 70 2.4 - 2.8
200 - 300 7.9 -11.8 90 - 100 3.5 - 3.9 80 - 90 3.2 - 3.5

0 - 100 0 - 3.9 60 - 70 2.4 - 2.8 50 - 60 2.0 - 2.4

15 - 20 0.6 - 0.8 0.75 - 1.00 0.3 - 0.4 100 - 200 3.9 - 7.9 70 2.8 80 - 90 3.2 - 3.5 70 - 80 2.8 - 3.2
200 - 300 7.9 -11.8 100 - 110 3.9 - 4.3 90 - 100 3.5 - 3.9

0 - 100 0 - 3.9 70 - 80 2.8 - 3.2 60 - 70 2.4 - 2.8

20 - 25 0.8 - 1.0 1.00 - 1.25 0.4 - 0.5 100 - 200 3.9 - 7.9 70 2.8 90 - 100 3.5 - 3.9 80 - 90 3.2 - 3.5
200 - 300 7.9 -11.8 110 - 120 4.3 - 4.7 100 - 110 3.9 - 4.3

0 - 100 0 - 3.9 80 - 90 3.2 - 3.5 70 - 80 2.8 - 3.2

25 - 1.0 - 1.25 - 0.5 - 100 - 200 3.9 - 7.9 70 2.8 100 - 110 3.9 - 4.3 90 - 100 3.5 - 3.9
200 - 300 7.9 -11.8 120 - 130 4.7 - 5.1 110 - 120 4.3 - 4.7

(8302 X 0023)
8302 X 0603

Figure 3.3 8302X 0603

The above table should be used as a guide.

3.4 O:\Dtp\Manuals\Text\DISA 030\AM\Eng\2012-02\3 Pattern equipment 030-B.fm

DISA 030-B Application Manual
10266086 Section 3.2 – Pattern Design

3.2 Pattern Design

3.2.1 Determination of the safety distances on the pat-

tern plates

See Figure 3.3 Depending on the casting wall thickness or module of solidification
and total pattern height (without pattern plate), the patterns are
mounted providing the safety distances from the top, the sides and
the bottom (Figure 3.3).

O:\Dtp\Manuals\Text\DISA 030\AM\Eng\2012-02\3 Pattern equipment 030-B.fm 3.5

 DISA 030-B
10266086

Machine

Pattern plate

Freely moveable

Figure 3.4 8302 X 0366

Flexible guiding of the pattern plates on the machine ensures one-direction extension due to the
thermal expansion of the plates.

PP SP

Figure 3.5 8302X0410

The centres of the left guide bushing on the swing plate and the right guide bushing on the
squeeze plate are the reference points for placing the patterns.

3.6 O:\Dtp\Manuals\Text\DISA 030\AM\Eng\2012-02\3 Pattern equipment 030-B.fm

DISA 030-B Application Manual
10266086 Section 3.2 – Pattern Design

3.2.2 Pattern location on the pattern plate

See Figure 3.4 and The patterns on either pattern plate must be accurately placed.
Figure 3.5 Shifted patterns will cause mismatch defects of the casting and
make is impossible to set cores accurately into the mould impres-
sion.

The pattern plates are guided on the moulding machines by means

of guide pins in the base plates and corresponding guide bushings in
the pattern plates.

One of the guide pins is always fixed horizontally on the machine,

and the other one is moveable in horizontal direction so that pattern
plate movements caused by heat expansion are possible
(Figure 3.4).

The location of the patterns on the plate should be as in normal pat-

tern maker practice be determined from the fixed guide of the plates
(Figure 3.5). Therefore, as soon as it can be determined which pat-
tern will be mounted on the swing side and which on the squeeze
side, it is at the same time determined from which guide bushing the
pattern’s location will be marked (facing the plates):

• for the plate on the swing side: from the left

• for the plate on the squeeze side: from the right.

O:\Dtp\Manuals\Text\DISA 030\AM\Eng\2012-02\3 Pattern equipment 030-B.fm 3.7

 DISA 030-B
10266086

DISA 030-B

ø20 +0.021
0
614 ± 0.02

8302 X 0604

Figure 3.6 8302 X 0604

Pattern plate guide pin bushings, their diameter and distance.

0.2

0.1mm (0.004")
0.1

Figure 3.7 8302 X 0364

Plane parallelism of the standard plate should be within 0.1 mm (0.004").

Figure 3.8 8302 X 0388

Non-plane parallel pattern plates will produce non-transportable and inaccurate mould strings.

3.8 O:\Dtp\Manuals\Text\DISA 030\AM\Eng\2012-02\3 Pattern equipment 030-B.fm

DISA 030-B Application Manual
10266086 Section 3.2 – Pattern Design

3.2.3 Pattern plate guide pins and bushings

See Figure 3.6 Pattern plate guide pins and bushings must not be worn down.
Worn bushings or pins will immediately cause dimensional inaccu-
racies of the casting. For this reason, the guide pins and bushings
must be controlled regularly for wear and replaced, if necessary.

Guide pin bushing distance is one of the important characteristics

of the pattern plate. Figure 3.6 shows the proper distance.

3.2.4 Plane parallelism

See Figure 3.7 and Both sides of the standard pattern plate must be plane parallel,
Figure 3.8 meaning that parallelism deviation on the longest dimension of the
plate may not exceed 0.1 mm (0.004") (see Figure 3.7). Plane paral-
lelism error will cause production of unparallel moulds as shown in
Figure 3.8.

O:\Dtp\Manuals\Text\DISA 030\AM\Eng\2012-02\3 Pattern equipment 030-B.fm 3.9

 DISA 030-B
10266086

8302 X 0442

Figure 3.9 8302 X 0079 Figure 3.10 8302 X 0442

Lock screw. Typical scraper strip fault.

Figure 3.11 8302 X 0080

A pattern with incorrect lock screw distance or dirt on the back surface causes non-parallel mould
parting lines.

Sand fillet Cup wear plate

Wear track

Wear draft on
wear plate Impact mark

Figure 3.12 8302 X 0083

Pouring cup wear plate and typical faults in it.

3.10 O:\Dtp\Manuals\Text\DISA 030\AM\Eng\2012-02\3 Pattern equipment 030-B.fm

DISA 030-B Application Manual
10266086 Section 3.2 – Pattern Design

3.2.5 Lock screws

See Figure 3.9 Screws for fixing pattern plates must be screwed all the way home
(Figure 3.9). A pattern plate with loosened lock screws will be locked
incorrectly in the PP and SP of the moulding machine (Figure 3.11)
causing non-parallelism of the closing surfaces of the mould. This
may result in dimensional errors in the castings, fin formation and
mould smash-up during transport.

3.2.6 Scraper strip

See Figure 3.10 The scraper strip must be flush with the rear edge of the groove in
the lower edge of pattern plate. A shifted or deformed scraper strip
(Figure 3.10) may cause sand build-up on the rear side of the pat-
tern plate. This will lead to poor lift-off and increased wear of the
chamber bottom plate.

3.2.7 Pouring cup wear plates

See Figure 3.11 and The cup is provided with a replaceable wear plate. The plate is in-
Figure 3.12 tended to ensure

• that the upper surface of the cup is without draft. This is impor-
tant to avoid formation of a sand fillet (Figure 3.11) which may
cause sand inclusion in the casting by falling into the mould cav-
ity
• that the pouring cup is protected against unnecessary wear dur-
ing the sand shot and plate handling.
• Impact marks on the wear plate of the cup described in connec-
tion with control of edge strips may also cause formation of sand
fins that may drop into the mould cavity (see also Figure 3.12).

O:\Dtp\Manuals\Text\DISA 030\AM\Eng\2012-02\3 Pattern equipment 030-B.fm 3.11

3.12

Contact area for heating of pattern plate

320

140

140

320
298
278

278
298
325

305

305

325
262.5 267.5

223.5
ø40 ø60 Pattern plate
188.5
rear side
165.5 142.5
128.5
111.5 R48
108.5
58.5 R20 R16 95.5
42.5
11.5 15
R155
0
16.5
0
030-B
ø28 67 10
47.5 R1 PP
15
66.5
O:\Dtp\Manuals\Text\DISA 030\AM\Eng\2012-02\3 Pattern equipment 030-B.fm

30
94.5
116.5 74.5
147.5
170.5
228.5 193.5
234
257.5
295
280
278

278
286
295
307
305

307
161
0

Excluded area for Venting grooves to ambient

DISA 030-B
(not hatched)

10266086
venting (small hatched)
8302 X 0605

Figure 3.13 8302 X 0605

DISA 030-B PP pattern plate venting possibilities.

DISA 030-B Application Manual
10266086 Section 3.2 – Pattern Design

3.2.8 Heater PP and SP

See Figure 3.13 The PP contact area on the rear side of the PP pattern plate is shown
in a simplified version in Figure 3.13. The function of the venting
grooves is already described in the general chapter for pattern
equipment.

The so-called contact area is not only the direct contact area be-
tween PP and SP and pattern, but also areas where the inevitable
sand shot blasting coming through the vents is unwanted. The par-
ticular sensitive areas are small hatched and even channels leading
from the vents to the ambient air/vacuum venting grove areas
should be avoided in these sensitive areas.

O:\Dtp\Manuals\Text\DISA 030\AM\Eng\2012-02\3 Pattern equipment 030-B.fm 3.13

3.14

Contact area for heating of pattern plate

0
312.9
298
280
278

140

30

30

140

278
280
298
312.9
325

325
267.5
255.5
223.5 223.5
ø40 ø60 Pattern plate
188.5
165.5
rear side
142.5
128.5
R48 111.5
108.5
95.5
R8
R20
61.5 58.5
39.5 11.5
R155
0 0
ø28 R16 16.5 030-B
47.5 7
SP
O:\Dtp\Manuals\Text\DISA 030\AM\Eng\2012-02\3 Pattern equipment 030-B.fm

66.5
74.5
R16 94.5
116.5
147.5
170.5
193.5

228.5
257.5 250
312.9

312.9
278
255

255
278
290
307

307
15

15
0

DISA 030-B
Excluded area for venting Venting grooves to ambient

10266086
(small hatched) (not hatched)
8302 X 0606

Figure 3.14 8302 X 0606

DISA 030-B SP pattern plate venting possibilities.

DISA 030-B Application Manual
10266086 Section 3.2 – Pattern Design

The SP contact area to the rear side of the SP pattern plate is shown
in Figure 3.14.

See Figure 3.14 The option to use vacuum to further facilitate the sand filling and
intricate pattern pockets is possible in the areas 1 and 2. The vacu-
um sequence in relation to the sand shot operation is adjustable sep-
arately for areas 1 and 2.

The dimensions are shown in order to facilitate the customer to

make a template accordingly in full size. This can be used in order
to determine the places on a given pattern plate where the grooves
and the contact surfaces meet the pattern plate. It will this way be
much clearer to make the connection from the vent in a particular
pattern to the groove in the PP and SP.

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 DISA 030-B
10266086

Figure 3.15 8302 X 0226

Example of core mask and corresponding cores.

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DISA 030-B Application Manual
10266086 Section 3.3 – Core Mask

3.3 Core Mask

3.3.1 Core setter mask

The core setter mask on the core setter serves to accurately place the
cores in the mould cavity. The close tolerance within which the
moulding machine operates can only be fully utilized with the accu-
racy of the pattern equipment including the core setter mask.

3.3.2 Core mask design

See Figure 3.15 Basically, the core mask represents the negative impression of the
swing plate patterns. The cores held by means of vacuum in this im-
pression will be set in the mould side made by the squeeze plate.

In connection with the making of the core mask, it should therefore

be decided which of the pattern plates to place on the swing side and
hence which one on the squeeze side.

The core locators holding the cores in the mould must therefore be
placed on the pattern of the squeeze plate and the locators holding
the cores in the mask on the swing plate pattern.

Already at an early stage, the following must be defined:

• how the core will be placed in the mask in order to be stable

• where to choose the core pushing surfaces, i.e. the mask/core
contact surfaces which are used to ensure that the core will be
pushed safely into the mould with uniform force
• how to ensure that core deformation during the pushing into the
mould will not cause the core to be jammed in the mask
• where to place the vacuum holes of sufficient diameter and
number so that their location matches a point on the core which
ensures:
— a sufficient suction surface to retain the core in the mask
— a sufficient sealing between the mask and the core suction
surface

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 DISA 030-B
10266086

525
645 A

Figure 3.16 8302X0085

Standard core setter mask frames are available in two thicknesses.

A = 70 mm (2.76") and A = 130 mm (5.1")

Figure 3.17 8302 X 0257

Back of a core setter mask. The frame is provided with two guide bushings and fixing screws in
the corners.

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DISA 030-B Application Manual
10266086 Section 3.3 – Core Mask

3.3.3 Standard core mask frames

See Figure 3.16 and The core mask is normally cast of epoxy resin in specially designed
Figure 3.17 standard core mask frames made of aluminium. Their inside shape
enables the resin to remain stable in the frame. The frame has four
holes for the bolts which are used in the quick lock system to clamp
the core mask to the core setter. Like the pattern plates in the
moulding machines, the frame is guided by a pair of guide pins in
the core setter console. The round and the elongated pins correspond
in placement to those for the pattern plate. Figure 3.16 and
Figure 3.17 show standard core mask frames.

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1-2 mm (0.04-0.08") of surface Foam expanding of Armospheres

coat material (wear resistant) (glass beads) and resin

Aluminium standard
Vacuum suction hole core mask frame

Figure 3.18 8302 X 0389

Cross section through a typical core mask cast into the Al frame.

Figure 3.19 8302 X 0173

A heavy core package in a moulding machine core mask.

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DISA 030-B Application Manual
10266086 Section 3.3 – Core Mask

3.3.4 Core mask materials

See Figure 3.17, The resin cast into the standard aluminium frame normally consists
Figure 3.18 and of two layers:
Figure 3.19
• 1-2 mm (0.04-0.08") surface coat, wear-resistant material
• backing layer of foam expanding material filling the frame up to
the rear face.

Figure 3.18 shows a cross section of a typical core mask and exam-
ples are shown in Figure 3.19 and Figure 3.17.

Resin for mask manufacturing

Polyurethane resin version

Release agent: QZ 11 or 13 CIBA

Surface coat: Gelcoat 2081/1802 (100:40) CASCO NOBEL

Coupling layer: 2045/1802 (80:20) CASCO NOBEL

Backing mix: 2045/1874/Armospheres (glass beads) CASCO NOBEL

(100:80:300)

Epoxy resin version

Release agent: QZ 11 or 11B CIBA

Surface coat (2 layers) SW 404/HY 404 (100:9) CIBA

Coupling layer: Araldit LV 569/HY2959 (100:14) CIBA

or
glass fibre Hexel EPO 648/648 (100:20) HEXEL

Backing mix: Expandable foam CIBA

Araldit CW 2215/HL/DY 050 (100:20:1)

Table 1: Materials

Table 1 shows examples of the core mask materials. It is advisable

to contact the local supplier of the resin materials used in order to
get proper guidance on their preparation, use or possible substitute
materials.

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10266086

Figure 3.20 8302 X 0213

Core print pattern of the swing plate is provided with an extra wax plate on the locator studs
where the core is not supposed to be in contact with the mask.

Figure 3.21 8302 X 0214

A fillet (3-5 mm) is produced at the transition point from core print to parting line in order to avoid
jamming of the core in the mask.

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DISA 030-B Application Manual
10266086 Section 3.3 – Core Mask

3.3.5 Core mask production

See Figure 3.20 and As mentioned, the core mask manufacturing process is basically a
Figure 3.21 process to make a negative of the swing plate.

Below follows a step-by-step description of the production method of

a typical moulding machine core mask.

1. The core print pattern on the swing plate must be supplied

with an allowance (0.3 mm or 0.01") where the core is not sup-
posed to be in contact with the mask (Figure 3.20) and a fillet
(R = 3-5 mm, 0.12 - 0.20") should be produced at the parting
line of the core pattern (Figure 3.21). This should be done in
order to avoid jamming of the core in the mask.

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10266086

Figure 3.22 8302 X 0215

Distance pieces glued in place. The glue should crack by demoulding.

Figure 3.23 8302 X 0216

A thin layer of release agent is applied.

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DISA 030-B Application Manual
10266086 Section 3.3 – Core Mask

2. Where vacuum sealing rubber lip-rings are to be placed, the

distance pieces are glued on, see Figure 3.22. Also metal wear
pieces can be glued on the pattern to be cast into the mask
material.
3. The entire pattern plate is covered with a thin layer of release
agent (Figure 3.23).

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10266086

Figure 3.24 8302 X 0217

Applying a coat of surface resin.

Figure 3.25 8302 X 0218

A standard frame supplied by DISA is generally used as frame material.

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DISA 030-B Application Manual
10266086 Section 3.3 – Core Mask

See Figure 3.24 and The plate is covered with a 1-2 mm surface resin. A brush is
Figure 3.25 used to fill the resin into corners and other not readily accessi-
ble places (Figure 3.24).
The core mask frame is placed on the SP pattern plate, posi-
tioned by means of locator pins and secured to the plate with
standard screw clamps (Figure 3.25). It is advisable to make
the core mask before mounting the pouring cup, since the cup
will hinder positioning of the frame.

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 DISA 030-B
10266086

Figure 3.26 8302 X 0219

Coupling layer for expandable foam as backing compound.

Figure 3.27 8302 X 0220

Backing layer of foam resin is poured on the surface coat.

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DISA 030-B Application Manual
10266086 Section 3.3 – Core Mask

See Figure 3.26 4. When the surface layer has gelled, apply a coupling layer. The
coupling layer is evening out the change from surface layer to
the backing mix. In the case of expandable foam, it is also
strengthening the surface layer.
5. When the coupling layer has gelled, the backing mix can be
put in. Two versions are described, expandable foam and
armospheres + resin. Both are light materials in order to save
weight.

3.3.5.1 Expandable Foam

See Figure 3.27 Liquid expanding resin is poured on top of the coupling layer. After
curing it is very important to wait until the material has tempered,
which normally takes 24 hours. A non-tempered material can cause
mask distortion after the screw clamps have been released. After
filling the frame with the expanding foam resin, a top plate is placed
on the frame (Figure 3.28) in order to obtain a plane rear surface of
the mask. Figure 3.29 and Figure 3.30 show the result after de-
moulding.

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 DISA 030-B
10266086

Figure 3.28 8302 X 0221

In order to obtain a plane rear surface on the mask, a top plate is placed on the mask frame. The
surplus of the foam resin flows away.

Figure 3.29 8302 X 0222

Rear of core mask filled up with foam-expanding resin.

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DISA 030-B Application Manual
10266086 Section 3.3 – Core Mask

3.3.5.2 Armospheres + Resin

It is recommended that 6-8 kg are mixed at a time.

The backing compound should be well-tamped and finally it should

be scraped flush with the rear side of the core mask, see Figure 3.31.

The pattern plate and core mask, still clamped together, are placed
in a heating cabinet at 60°C for approx. 16 hours. This treatment is
intended to “age” the backing compound artificially causing it to
shrink and impart more stability to it. 4-5 hours should be allowed
for cooling.

The final result is seen on Figure 3.32.

Maximum weight allowed for a core mask with cores is 50 kg.

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10266086

Figure 3.30 8302 X 0223

Front of core mask.

Figure 3.31 8302 X 0224

Rear side of armospheres and resin core mask.

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DISA 030-B Application Manual
10266086 Section 3.3 – Core Mask

Figure 3.32 8302 X 0225

Demoulded armosphere and resin core mask.

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3.34

General chamber depth (C) calculation: Possible maximum values of the combination of
A, B, P and Q at maximum chamber depth:
T = P + S + Q = (C - (A + B)) x 0.75
(sand compressibility = 25% ⇒ (SMIN = 70 mm and sand compressibility = 25%)
TMAX = P + SMIN + Q = (CMAX - (A + B)) x 0.75 ⇒

C= P+S+Q + (A + B) P+S+Q + (A + B) = 500

0.75 0.75

Front of chamber top wear plate

275 40
P Q
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P Q S (Min. 70)

T A (Min.20) F B (Min.20)

C (Max.500 - Min.160)

DISA 030-B
Swing plate front Chamber depth Squeeze plate front

10266086
8302 X 0607

Figure 3.33 8302X0607

General chamber depth (C) calculation. Maximum total pattern plate thickness (A + B) and pattern heights (P + Q) determination.
DISA 030-B Application Manual
10266086 Section 3.4 – Pattern plate thickness, pattern height and core height limitation

3.4 Pattern plate thickness, pattern height and

core height limitation

3.4.1 Step-by-step limitation determination procedure

1. General chamber depth (C) calculation:
Maximum total pattern plate thicknesses (A + B) plus pattern
heights (P + Q) determination due to maximum chamber depth
(C); Smin = 70 mm and sand compressibility = 25% are basis val-
ues. See Figure 3.33 and calculations in connection with
Figure 2.7 in the chapter Pattern Equipment General.

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(A+ P) Max. = 180

180

8302 X 0608

Figure 3.34 8302 X 0608

Sand injection slot relative to SP.

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DISA 030-B Application Manual
10266086 Section 3.4 – Pattern plate thickness, pattern height and core height limitation

2. Sand injection slot relative to SP. If pattern plate and/or pat-

terns are exceeding the dimension indicated in Figure 3.34,
the exceeding parts will be exposed to the sand shot directly,
hence being worn accordingly.
It is recommended to use this figure to determine general limi-
tations for the SP. If you want to extend these limits, see points
3 and 4.

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10266086

Max. pattern plate thickness:

AMax = 130 -10 = 120

220
520
245
480
255
440
261
400
263
360
261
320
255
280
246
240
235
200
220
160
205
120
185
80
160
40

A 10
130
8302 X 0609

Figure 3.35 8302 X 0609

SP involute.

(A+ P) Max. = 192

200 Chamber front

Pattern plate locks

192

8302 X 0610

Figure 3.36 8302 X 0610

SP pattern change.

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DISA 030-B Application Manual
10266086 Section 3.4 – Pattern plate thickness, pattern height and core height limitation

3. SP involute. Pattern plate + patterns placed within this invo-

lute will not be damaged by collision with the top chamber
plate front during SP swing operation. See Figure 3.35.
4. SP pattern change. The space chamber front and the pattern
plate locks in the SP is limited to 192. The SP will start to
swing up beyond the shown position, see Figure 3.36.

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 DISA 030-B
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(B+ Q) Max. = 280

280

8302 X 0611

Figure 3.37 8302 X 0611

Sand injection slot relative to PP.

50 Chamber front

8302 X 0612

Figure 3.38 8302 X 0612

PP pattern plate change.

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DISA 030-B Application Manual
10266086 Section 3.4 – Pattern plate thickness, pattern height and core height limitation

5. Sand injection slot relative to PP. If pattern plate and/or pat-

terns by the use of maximum chamber plates are exceeding
the dimension indicated in Figure 3.37, the exceeding parts
will be directly exposed to the sand shot, hence being worn
accordingly.
6. Stop position of PP pattern plate at pattern plate change,
Figure 3.38. The 50 mm is only indicated for general informa-
tion

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3.42 .

General equation: Maximum obtainable: B For M = 70:

(830 + B) - Mould Delivery Correction = 830 + BMax - Mould Delivery Correction BMax = 65 + (0 -120)
V + M + 545
= VMax+ M + 545
For M = 130
BMax = M - 5 + Mould delivery
BMax = 125 + (0-120)
correction

Rear face of core mask before core setting stroke

VMax 280 M 545 Front of chamber top plate

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B
Mould delivery correction 0-120
830 + B

Normal delivery position of mould face

DISA 030-B
10266086
8302 X 0615

Figure 3.39 8602 X 0615

PP plate limitations (B) in relation to core setting

DISA 030-B Application Manual
10266086 Section 3.4 – Pattern plate thickness, pattern height and core height limitation

7. PP plate limitations (B) in relation to core setting:

BMax = pattern plate thickness of PP is dependent on
(Figure 3.39):
a. The machine design itself (830 and 545) mm).
b. The core mask thickness M.
c. The maximum core setting stroke 280 mm.
d. The mould delivery correction parameter.
In principle, as will be shown later, core mask thickness M can
be varied from 0 mm to 240 mm, but DISA has chosen two
practical sizes, 70 mm and 130 mm.
The maximum B is shown for these two sizes.
As can be seen, the thickness B will hardly be a problem in
practice.

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3.44

General equation: Maximum obtainable N:

(830 + B) - Mould Delivery Correction ≥ NMax = 285 + B - M - L - Mould delivery
L + N + M + 545
⇒ correction

Maximum obtainable core height H:

OMax = M - 10; H = N + 0
Normal delivery position of mould face

830 - B Front of chamber top wear plate

L M 545
O:\Dtp\Manuals\Text\DISA 030\AM\Eng\2012-02\3 Pattern equipment 030-B.fm

-120 N O Min.10 B
H

DISA 030-B
Area of mould delivery correction

10266086
8203 X0613

Figure 3.40 8302X0613

General limitations of core dimensions N, O and H.

DISA 030-B Application Manual
10266086 Section 3.4 – Pattern plate thickness, pattern height and core height limitation

8. Definition of the core sizes N, O and H can be seen on:

The limitation of N, O and H in relation to the following is also
shown:
a. The machine design itself (830 and 545 mm)
b. The core mask thickness M
c. The PP plate thickness B
d. The dropped joint dimension L on the PP
e. The control of the mould delivery position of the parameter
As will be shown later, the core mask thicknesses M can in
principle be chosen to be between 0 and 300 mm, but DISA has
chosen two practical sizes, 70 mm and 130 mm. The limita-
tions are given for these two sizes.
In practice, N should be chosen 5-10 mm shorter than the indi-
cated maximum value in order to have a little clearance; O is
chosen minimum 10 mm shorter than the core mask thickness.

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3.46

Maximum obtainable M + N: Maximum obtainable N: Maximum obtainable N, O and H:

(M + N) = 240 for M = 70; NMax = 170
(M + N)Mould rail = 130 NMax = 240 - M OMax = 60
HMax = 240
for M = 130; NMax = 110
OMax = 120
HMax = 240

Rear face of core mask before core setting stroke

M 545 Front of chamber top wear plate

N O
O:\Dtp\Manuals\Text\DISA 030\AM\Eng\2012-02\3 Pattern equipment 030-B.fm

H B
70

Mould guide rail

135

DISA 030-B
10266086
8302 X 0614

Figure 3.41 8302 X 0614

Limitations of core dimensions due to mould guide rail.

DISA 030-B Application Manual
10266086 Section 3.4 – Pattern plate thickness, pattern height and core height limitation

9. Limitations to N, O & H due to mould guide rail.

As can be seen on Figure 3.41, the mould guide rail are restricting the
total of N and M, hence also N, O & H.

To summarize, for any new casting to be considered, the following should be

checked in order to decide whether it is possible for the machine:

1. Surface area utilization, see Figure 3.3.

2. Maximum total pattern plate thicknesses (A + B) plus pattern heights
(P + Q), see Figure 3.33.
3. SP pattern height and pattern plate thickness limitations, see
Figure 3.34.
4. PP pattern height and pattern plate thickness limitations, see
Figure 3.37.

For cored castings, the following should also be checked:

5. General limitations of the core dimensions N, O and H, see Figure 3.40.

6. Limitations to N, O and H due to core insertion guard gate and mould
guide rail, see Figure 3.40.
7. Limitations to core dimension O due to convolute of the rear side of the
SP.

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 Application Manual
Chapter 4 — Cores

4 Cores

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General Chapters Application Manual

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 Application Manual
Section 4.1 – Cores

4.1 Cores
Almost all types of sand cores (cold box, hot box, shell, SO2, CO2 etc)
may be used with the moulding machine.

Mass production of cored high-quality castings requires not only a

proper design of the core on the core setter mask side, but also that
the design of the mould side of the core ensures safe and repeated
setting of the core into the mould.

If the shape of the core itself does not permit that the core is held in
the core setter mask or in the mould, core locators must be used for
this purpose. Normally a distinction is made between the following
kinds of locators:

• Fixing locators, holding the core in the mould (normally not used
on the core mask side, since the core is held in the mask by
means of vacuum).
• Auxiliary locators, positioning, indexing or supporting the core
in the mould and the core setter mask.

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General Chapters Application Manual

Supporting surface

Clamping surfaces Supporting

surface

Fixing
locator

Clamping
surfaces

A Positioning B
surface

Figure 4.1 8302X0135

When the core is inserted in the mould, the clamping surfaces of the locator keep the core in po-
sition by tight fit (A) and prevents the core from tilting out (B).

Z: Non-jamming loose
Y: Supporting surfaces core/mask fit

U: 3-5 mm space for W: Core/mask core

scratched sand pushing surface

W: Surfaces restricting
core setting movement Casting cavity

W: Core/mask core
pushing surface

V: Space ensuring that the core Z: Non-jamming loose

will not jam in the mould core/mask fit

X: Clamping surfaces

Figure 4.2 8302 X 0136

Properly designed core in its mould and core setter mask.

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 Application Manual
Section 4.1 – Cores

4.1.1 Principles of core locating

See Figure 4.1 The core locators are intended to retain the core in the mould by
means of the clamping surface and to support it against tilting out
of the mould by means of the supporting surfaces. In other words,
those locators are holding the core in the mould and are therefore
called the fixing locators.

4.1.1.1 Core/Mould Fit

In order to be sure that the core will be fixed and positioned properly
in the mould, the tolerances on the various surfaces of the locators
between the core and the mould cavity (pattern) must be determined
properly.

There are generally three types of fits applied:

1. Tight fit where the core dimension is slightly bigger than that
in the mould print
2. Just fit, where the dimension on the core is the same as the
one of the mould print (naturally within the pattern, core box
and core production tolerances)
3. Loose fit, where there is a clearance between the core and the
mould print.

Figure 4.2 shows on one of the typically designed cores the fits nor-
mally applied:

Fit “X”: The clamping surfaces of the fixing locator usually have
a tight fit
Fit “Y”: The supporting surfaces of the fixing locator will have a
just fit
Fit “W”: The surfaces restricting the core setting movement and
the surfaces transferring the core setting forces from
the mask are just fit
Fit “U”: A loose fit (clearance) is needed on the front face of the
fixing locator in a case when the core being inserted
should scratch-off some loose sand from the mould print
surfaces of the fixing locator
Fit “V”: The core is fixed in the mould in a “hanging” position.
Therefore a clearance on the bottom surface of the core
is necessary to prevent core jamming in the mould.

Further in this section some more typical core examples and the fits
applied are shown.

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General Chapters Application Manual

1 2

Figure 4.3 8302 X 0137

Size of the tight fit on the clamping surfaces of the core locator is different for light and smaller
cores (1) and heavy core assemblies (2).

B A A A A B

A ±0.1 B ±0.1 4A + 2B ±0.6

Figure 4.4 8302 X 0138

For a core assembly the total tolerance is the sum of tolerances obtainable for the single core.

Wider tolerances Wider tolerances

Core box

Closer tolerances

Figure 4.5 8302 X 0139

Core dimensions within the same half of the core box can have closer tolerances than dimensions
crossing the core box parting line.

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 Application Manual
Section 4.1 – Cores

The size of the tight fit on the surfaces of the locator depends on
many factors, such as:

• General core allowances in the foundry in question

• Core production method
• Size and weight of the core
• Complexity of the core (single core or core assembly, see Figure
4.3)
Core assemblies can consist of many pieces, which are “locked”
together without the use of glue. Each core has its production
allowance, which depends on the core blower, the quality of the
core box, core sand quality etc. Even if the dimensional tolerance
of the single core is ±0.1 mm, a core package consisting of six
single cores can have a tolerance of ±0.6 mm (Figure 4.4).
• Size of supporting surface in relation to the core size
• Location of the fixing locators in relation to the parting line of
the core. The dimension crossing the core parting line is always
subject to a greater inaccuracy than a dimension within the
same core box part (see Figure 4.5).

The tight fit “X” on the clamping surfaces of the locators is normally
0.2±0.1 mm for single cores and increases with the complexity of the
cores. Just fit “Y” on the fixing locators and all auxiliary types of lo-
cators, such as positioning, indexing or supporting locators of the or-
der of +0/-0.2 mm. The clearance for the scratched sand normally
recommended is 3-5 mm. Anti-jamming spaces between core/mould
and core/mask will be between 2 and 3 mm.

4.1.1.2 Core/Mask Fit

As already mentioned in the section on core mask production there

should be a clearance between the outer shape of the core and the
mask cavity. In other words, the core must be able to “float” slightly
in the mask in order to guide itself into the mould print with its lo-
cator even in the case of a slight machine misadjustment or pattern
inaccuracies. The usual size of this clearance is 0.3 +0/-0.1 mm. This
value will, however, be fine adjusted during the production run-in.
Figure 4.2 shows the types of fits normally applied in the core/core
mask systems:

Fit “Z”: Loose fit ensuring the clearance necessary for the guid-
ing of the core in the mould
Fit “W”: Just fit for pushing the core into its position in the
mould print

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General Chapters Application Manual

Figure 4.6 8302 X 0140

This engine block core is a typical example of a core assembly. The nine cores are assembled with-
out the use of glue, and the length of the package varies within ±0.6 mm.

A B

Core is jammed Core is free

Figure 4.7 8302 X 0141

Correct (B) and incorrect (A) way of determining core location in the mould.

Figure 4.8 8302 X 0142

Triple-fitting core designed with common locators in order to reduce the number of cores per
mould.

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 Application Manual
Section 4.1 – Cores

4.1.2 Core locator design

When designing a core, the following important rules must be ob-

served:

• The position of the core must not be defined by too many location
points. A core located by double fixing will have a tendency to
jam and to be exposed to unnecessary tension (Figure 4.7). On
the other hand, the core must be able to be inserted and fixed in
the mould repeatedly each time a new mould has been produced.
• Minimizing the number of cores to be set per mould in order to
keep the cycle time of the machine down and thus to keep a high
productivity (Figure 4.8).
• The way of core fixing in the mask and in the mould must be
determined to allow for the fragility of the core or its parts (Fig-
ure 4.9).
• The core design must ensure easy handling and transportation
of cores (Figure 4.10).

4.1.2.1 Standard core locators

The various types of core locators designed by DISA and used in

most cases are shown on Figure 4.11 and Figure 4.13.

Cores requiring particularly high stability in the core setter mask

can be supplied with a locator as shown on Figure 4.12.

The last locator is suitable for small cores only, for instance the ones
shown on Figure 4.14 and Figure 4.15.

The following can be mentioned about the design of the standard lo-
cators:

• The clamping angle for the tight fit is 2°.

• The supporting angle for the just fit is 5°-10°.
• The fillets on the corners of the core are always smaller than the
corresponding fillets in the mask in order to avoid jamming of
the core in the mask.

On Figure 4.16 a hub core provided with a core locator like a pin is
shown. In this case the front face of the locator restricts the core set-
ting stroke and provides space for the sand abraded by the core from
the mould print.

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General Chapters Application Manual

Figure 4.9 8302 X 0143

The upper core (water jacket) is very fragile, and therefore the way of fixing it in the mask and
mould must be determined with special care.

A B

Figure 4.10 8302 X 0144

This core (A) is difficult to receive from an automatic core blower, and it is difficult to store and
transport it because of its weak stud. Properly designed core locators (B) make the core more sta-
ble when stored and easier to handle and to transport.

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O:\Dtp\Manuals\Text\Application manual\General chapters\05-05\English\cores.fm

Core locator on core print on pattern Core locator on core print on sand core Core print negative
in core mask

R1 R2
R2
5-10° R1 5-10° 5-10° R2 5-10°
B B
R1
0 0 0
5-10° 5-10°
C +0.6
R2 R1 C +0

R2
2° R2

2°
+0 +0.6
D D+20 -0.4 D D+20 D +0.3
R1

2° +5 2°
H+3 H
D/2

Application Manual
Section 4.1 – Cores
B = min. 15
H = 1xD - 1.5xD
8302 X 0145-01 All dimensions in mm
4.11

Figure 4.11 8302X0145

Dimensional tolerances for locator which can be applied in most cases. On this sketch the clamping surfaces are tight fit, and the supporting ones
are just fit. However for heavier cores an opposite system may be applied.
4.12

Core locator on core print on pattern Core locator on core print on sand core Core print negative
in core mask

R1 R2
R2
5-10° R1 5-10° 5-10° R2 5-10°
B B
R1
0 0 0
5-10° 5-10° 5-10° 5-10°
C +0.6
R2 R1 C +0

R2 R2
O:\Dtp\Manuals\Text\Application manual\General chapters\05-05\English\cores.fm

2° 5-10° 5-10°

2°
+0 +0.6
D D+20 -0.4 D D+20 D +0.3
R1

2° +5 5-10° 2° 5-10°
H+3 H

D/2

Section 4.1 – Cores

Application Manual
B = min. 15
H = 1xD - 1.5xD
8302 X 0146-01
All dimensions in mm

Figure 4.12 8302X0146

Dimensional tolerances for locators applied in a case where the core requires higher stability in the core setter mask. On this sketch the clamping
surfaces are tight fit and the supporting surfaces are just fit. For heavier cores the opposite fit system may be applied.
 Application Manual
Section 4.1 – Cores

Figure 4.13 8302 X 0147

Typical core locator for cores for vertically parted moulds.

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4.14

Core locator on core print on pattern Core locator on core print on sand core Core print negative
in core mask

R2

R2
R1
+5
R1 H+3 R2 H R1
+0 +0.6
D -0.2 D D +0
d
0 0 0
+0.6 1x45°
R1 C +0
O:\Dtp\Manuals\Text\Application manual\General chapters\05-05\English\cores.fm

C
R2 +5
H+3

Possible core locator on Possible core locator on Possible core locator

core print on pattern. core print on sand core negative in core mask

Section 4.1 – Cores

Application Manual
d = 0.75D
H = 1.5D
8302 X 0148-01 D = Min. 12 All dimensions in mm

Figure 4.14 8302X0148

 Application Manual
Section 4.1 – Cores

Figure 4.15 8302 X 0149

The dowel locator stud can be used with small cores.

Surface limiting the core inset-

ting stroke during core setting Mould

Core

Space for scratched sand

Figure 4.16 8302 X 0150

There must always be a space in the front face of the core locator for scratched sand. In this way
space is provided for scratched sand, if the core locator face of the core is used as core inserting
stroke limiting surface.

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General Chapters Application Manual

A B

Figure 4.17 8302 X 0151

A core tray can be used when setting a large number of cores per mould. This will reduce the cycle
time of the machine. A: The core tray is being filled. B: Cores are transferred from the tray to the
core mask.

PP Core Mask SP
side of the mould side of the mould

Insert steel plate Vacuum hole

Steel plate inserted

in the mould

Figure 4.18 8302 X 0152

Brake drum with steel plate insert.

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 Application Manual
Section 4.1 – Cores

4.1.2.2 Locating small cores

The use of small cores can lead to a situation where the total number
of cores exceeds six, which we normally consider the maximum
number of cores to be inserted without influencing the cycle time of
the moulding machine. In such cases three things can be done in or-
der to reduce the time it takes to locate cores in the core mask:

• A multiple core with common locators can be produced and in

this way the number of cores inserted per moulding cycle will be
reduced (Figure 4.8).
• A core tray can be produced where the cores can be prelocated
(Figure 4.17).
• A mechanical core jig transportation system or a robot system
can be used.

4.1.3 Inserts

The core setter can be successfully used for dealing with other parts
than cores. Chills, threaded cast-in bushings and other inserts can
easily be set into the moulds. The principles of locator design are ex-
actly the same as for sand cores. However a higher weight due to
metallic materials in the inserts must be allowed for. Figure 4.18 il-
lustrates a steel plate insert for a brake drum, inserted in the
moulds by a core setter.

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General Chapters Application Manual

Core Core box for trials

Figure 4.19 8302 X 0153

Normally an epoxy resin core box for trial will be made first.

Figure 4.20 8302 X 0154

After adjustments, if required, a production core is built.

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 Application Manual
Section 4.1 – Cores

4.1.4 Core box production

The production of core boxes can be divided into three stages:

1. Production of a master pattern of the core. First-class material

must be used for master patterns.
2. Production of a synthetic resin core box for trial runs (Figure
4.19). During production run-in, the following corrections must
be made to the trial core box:
• Changes of core design (dimensions, drafts)
• Changes of location of blow holes
• Changes of air vent location
• Correction of sealing strips along the core outline at the
core box parting line
3. Construction of the production core box (Figure 4.20).

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General Chapters Application Manual

Wrongly located vacuum hole

No contact surface

Figure 4.21 8302 X 0096

Maximum sealing between the mask and the core must be obtained.

Inefficient vacuum
holes located too low

Figure 4.22 8302 X 0097

Location of the gravity centre of the core must be taken into consideration for correct placing of
vacuum holes.

Properly located vacuum hole

with the same vacuum hole
Properly located diameter but increased core
vacuum hole suction surface area

Figure 4.23 8302 X 0098

The core holding force may be increased by increasing the suction area (increase of the sealed core/
mask contact area.

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 Application Manual
Section 4.1 – Cores

4.1.4.1 Vacuum Holes in Core Mask

The number and size of the vacuum holes in the core setter mask de-
pend on:

• location of holes in relation to the core;

• total number of cores in the mask;
• weight and size of the core;
• vacuum tightness between core and mask.

Normally vacuum holes of 5-12 mm (0.2-0.5”) diameter are suffi-

cient. It is advisable to start with the holes of smaller size and grad-
ually increase the hole diameter, if necessary, during the practical
core holding test at the core setter.

The holes should preferably be drilled (Figure 4.21, Figure 4.22 and
Figure 4.23).

• where the cores have good contact to the core mask surface;
• where a possibility of increasing the suction surface exists due to
expected insufficient holding force;
• at the top of a single core where the holding force is most effi-
cient.

It is of great importance that as few vacuum holes as possible are

drilled. The leakage at the holes decreases the vacuum and thus the
holding force. Anyway a good rule is to let the vacuum core contact
area (cm2) be minimum 5 times bigger than the core weight (kg)..

NOTE
It is the suction area and not the vacuum hole area that holds
the core in the mask (see Figure 4.25), however, the diameter
of the holes must be sufficient to assure the proper passage of
the air.

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General Chapters Application Manual

Distance piece

Figure 4.24 8302 X 0099

Distance piece between core and mask.

Figure 4.25 8302 X 0100

Rubber sealing rings increase suction area and improve contact between core and mask.

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 Application Manual
Section 4.1 – Cores

4.1.4.2 Dressing the core mask

A ready cast core mask must sometimes be equipped with some ex-
tra parts improving the core holding or the core setting operation.

Distance Piece Sometimes it is necessary to mount a distance piece for contact be-
tween the core and the mask either to ensure better support of the
core or to drill vacuum holes where it would normally be impossible
because of lack of core/mask contact (Figure 4.24).

The distance piece can be made of resin or metal and either screwed
or glued onto the mask or simply cast into it.

Sealing of the core suction Sometimes it is necessary to obtain better sealing between the core
area and the mask or to increase the suction area to obtain better core
holding force. This can be the case with very heavy cores or cores
where the location of the suction area is unfavourable because of the
core geometry. In such cases, various rubber rings can be mounted
around the vacuum holes. We strongly recommend the so-called
V-rings (lip rings) used normally for dirt protection of rotating axles
in machine design. An example of such a solution is shown on Figure
4.25 for a core mask intended for a large core package (see details in
the chapter Pattern Equipment for the specific machine). The
mounting principle is shown on Figure 4.26. Soft rubber seals may
be applied when an irregularly-shaped suction area must be sealed
(see Figure 4.27).

1mm
Mask Mask

1mm

Core

1mm

Glued

1mm
A B
Figure 4.26 8302 X 0101

Principle of rubber lip-rings for better sealing of the cores in the core setter mask.

A = Unloaded, B = Loaded

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General Chapters Application Manual

Figure 4.27 8302 X 0102

Foam rubber seals the core/core mask contact even when the suction area is not regular.

Figure 4.28 8302 X 0103

Pneumatically controlled device for holding extreme difficult cores in the mask.

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 Application Manual
Section 4.1 – Cores

Auxiliary Holding Devices

Some very heavy cores or cores with a shifted centre of gravity re-
quire additional holding security in the mask. It is relatively easy to
mount pneumatic cylinders holding the core mechanically or as a
back-up for the traditional vacuum holding system.

The holding device can without too much effort be connected to the
control system of the moulding machines so that the holding will au-
tomatically release the core when the vacuum is released, meaning
when the core setting pressure is obtained.

Figure 4.28 shows an engine block core package mask where air cyl-
inders are acting as an auxiliary holding device to support the core.

Figure 4.29 and Figure 4.30 show core masks where exclusively
pneumatic clamps are used for retaining for the heavy cores. Figure
4.31 and Figure 4.32 demonstrate application of rubber expanders
(inflatable hoses) which successfully can replace the traditional
methods of core retaining. This method requires the cores provided
with the holes and an air hose system cast into the mask.

Figure 4.29 8302 X 0104

Heavy cores can be held in the mask by means of pneumatic retainers activated and deactivated
by the usual vacuum controls of the moulding machine.

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General Chapters Application Manual

Figure 4.30 8302 X 0105

Complex engine block core package held in the mask by pneumatic retainers.

Figure 4.31 8302 X 0106

Inflatable core retainers (expanders).

A) Expander and its fixing socket. B) Core with holes for the expanders.

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 Application Manual
Section 4.1 – Cores

A B

Approx. 1mm

Figure 4.32 8302 X 0107

A) Expander cast into the mask.

B) Sketch of non-inflated expander in the core.
C) Inflated expander inside the core.

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General Chapters Application Manual

Metal supporting ring

glued to the core mask

Vacuum hole

Mould
Core mask

Figure 4.33 8302 X 0110

The protruding core is supported by a metal ring machined out separately and fitted to the core
mask.

Figure 4.34 8302 X 0111

Core locator cavity in a core mask is most exposed to wear. This one is protected by stainless steel
strips cast in.

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 Application Manual
Section 4.1 – Cores

Miscellaneous Auxiliaries

Some cores positioned in the mask need additional support, which

cannot be obtained by casting the direct impression of the swing
plate alone. In such cases, the supporting devices can be bolted or
cast into the finished core mask. As an example, Figure 4.33 shows
a hub core.

The core is supported by the metal ring, which is produced separate-

ly and glued on the mask.

Even the highly wear-resistant resin coat on the mask surface can
be worn down after some tens of thousands of core setting opera-
tions, since the sand core is highly abrasive.

In such cases, steel plates may be cast into the areas of the mask/
core contact surface most exposed to wear (see Figure 4.34).

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General Chapters Application Manual

O
H
N
V

O
H
N

Figure 4.35 8302 X 0191

Dimensions relating to core setting.

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 Application Manual
Section 4.1 – Cores

4.1.5 Core height limitations

The following dimensions limit the maximum permissible core

height:

• core mask thickness

• delivery point of mould face
• position of the mask when aligned with the mould string just
before the core inserting stroke
• length of core inserting stroke
• swing convolute of the rear face of the swing plate
• geometry of the protective guard of the core setter

For a more detailed explanation of the core height limitation draw-

ings, the following terms will be used (Figure 4.35):

H= maximum permissible total length of core

L= shift between main and local parting line of pattern (dif-
ference between mould thickness and mould pitch)
M= core mask thickness
N= height of core outside mask
O= height of core inside mask
V= core setter stroke.

Core masks are available in two standard thicknesses. In most cas-

es, the thick mask can be applied for the production of cored cast-
ings. However where possible the thin mask should be chosen, since
it is easier to handle and cheaper to make.

The core setters for the moulding machine are designed so that the
cores of a size corresponding to the respective mould sizes have a
weight which the respective core setters can handle. There is, how-
ever, a certain maximum value (see the values in the chapter Pat-
tern Equipment for the specific machine) for the total weight of the
core setter mask with the cores which should not be exceeded. An ex-
cessive weight will cause increased wear of the core setter.

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General Chapters Application Manual

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 Application Manual
Section 4.1 – Cores

4.1.6 Examples of different types of cores fitting into

mould/core mask

The following section shows some typical examples of cores in a

mould/core/mask system and outlines the fit relations between the
three elements.

The following designations are used:

X: Tight fit on fixing locator (core/mould)

Y: Just fit on fixing locators or auxiliary locators
Z: Loose fit between the core and outer shape of the core mask
cavity
U: Loose sand clearance
V: No-contact space between core/mask or core/mould
W: Surface restricting core-setting stroke in the mould and
core-setting force transfer area on the mask

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General Chapters Application Manual

Fits in the mould/core mask system

1
Y Z Relatively light core. The upper fixing
locator is pressed into the mould on
the clamping surface and the core
X Y U “hangs” in the mould on its locator. In
this way the vertical movement of the
core is prevented. The horizontal
movement of the core is prevented by
X the auxiliary lower locator.

8302 X 0155

V The core is heavier than the previous

one and therefore has to rest on the
U Z bottom of the mould cavity with its
X lower auxiliary locator which also re-
stricts its horizontal movement. The
W
main upper fixing locator is used for
X hanging the core, and the supporting
surface of the main locator jams the
W core in the mould for a tight fit. The
clamping surfaces of the fixing locator
are just fit.

8302 X 0156

3
V A double casting core designed with
Z one round fixing locator which tight
W
fits in the mould. This restricts the
vertical core movement. The horizon-
X tal movement restriction is achieved
Z
U by the upper and lower auxiliary loca-
tors.

W
V

8302 X 0157

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 Application Manual
Section 4.1 – Cores

Fits in the mould/core mask system

V A lightweight core can be located with

a dowel fixing locator tight fit in the
X
mould for vertical and horizontal
U movement restriction. The lower aux-
X iliary locator prevents turning the
core around the fixing locator.

W
W

V Z

8302 X 0158

The core is pressed into the mould on

X the central, round fixing locator. The
upper indented auxiliary locator in-
X U W dexes the core in the certain well-de-
fined angular position.
Z

W V

8302 X 0159

W Z The core is pressed into the mould like

previously on the central dowel loca-
tor. But in this case there is no need
for any indexing locator, as the angu-
X lar position of the core in the casting
W is arbitrary.

8302 X 0160

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General Chapters Application Manual

Fits in the mould/core mask system

7
Z The core is located on the green sand
Y cod with a just fit. The angular index-
Y W ing is not necessary.

W W

8302 X 0161

A hub core is tight fit located in the

Core supporting ring (Z) mould on its dowel-fixing locator. A
ring is installed in the core mask cav-
ity to improve the positioning of the
U
core, which has a tendency to “hang
W W down” in the mask. The front face of
the fixing locator has to restrict the
V
U core setting stroke. Therefore the
X loose sand space is ring-shaped.

X Z

8302 X 0162

The dowel fixes the core vertically and

horizontally with a tight fit. The aux-
X Z iliary side locators prevent the core
from turning around the dowel. The
X Y same side locators, together with the
W
U upper one, restrict the core setting
stroke in the mould and secure the
Y core setting force transfer area be-
X
tween the core and the mask.

8302 X 0163

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 Application Manual
Section 4.1 – Cores

Fits in the mould/core mask system

10

Y Z The upper fixing locator is pressed

into the mould with its clamping sur-
U W faces and fixes the core vertically. The
Y bar, connecting the pipe cores, posi-
X tions the core horizontally.

V Z

8302 X 0164

11
Y Distance plate The core is entirely surrounded by the
casting. There are three flanges on
the mould side and two on the mask
V
X side. Locators 1 and 2 locate the core
with tight fit on their round surfaces
horizontally and vertically, respec-
tively. The front faces of locators 1, 2
and 3 restrict the core setting stroke
in the mould. The front faces of loca-
V
tors 4 and 5 as well as the distance
plate with a thickness equal to the
Y thickness of the casting assure suffi-
cient mask/core pushing surface.

8302 X 0165

12
V
The core is a package core contained
in a quadrangular boxlike case core.
U Since the package is heavy, it rests on
the bottom of the mould cavity
pressed on tight fit to its side faces.

X
Y Z W

8302 X 0166

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General Chapters Application Manual

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 Application Manual
Chapter 5 — Moulding of Green Sand Cores

5 Moulding of Green Sand Cores

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General Chapters Application Manual

Pshot Psand

Pcham

Figure 5.1 2051M1280

Figure 5.2 2051M1280 Figure 5.3 2051M1280

5.2 O:\Dtp\Manuals\Text\Application manual\General chapters\05-05\English\Moulding of greensand cores.fm

 Application Manual
Section 5.1 – Process

Introduction

This section gives a description of the DISA moulding process as

well as of the most important process parameters and their influ-
ence on the quality of the greensand cores (/cods) produced.

The hints given in the following apply to all vertical DISA moulding
machines, but due to the differences in construction from the 2110
to the 2070 machine, variations in available process parameters will
occur.

5.1 Process

The DISA moulding process may be divided into sand shot and
squeezing.

5.1.1 Sand shot

When the shot valve opens, a pressure (psand) builds above the sand
in the hopper, see Figure 5.1.

The pressure penetrates the sand, and shortly after the sand in the
sand slot collapses and starts flowing into the moulding chamber.

When passing through the slot, the sand forms a stream with a
cross-section equalling that of the sand slot.

When the sand stream collides with the bottom of the chamber (and
subsequently with the sand accumulating), a change in the direction
of the sand takes place. The extent of this change is determined by
the velocity of the sand stream. A low velocity may lead to inade-
quate filling of the pattern pockets as shown in Figure 5.2 whereas
a change of direction as illustrated in Figure 5.3 can be achieved
with a high velocity.

The velocity of the sand is mainly determined by the difference in

pressure on the sand in the hopper and the pressure in the moulding
chamber (Psand-Pcham) and to some extent by the properties of the
sand.

5.1.2 Squeezing

As soon as the chamber is filled with sand, the sand shot is stopped,
the sand hopper is exhausted, and squeezing starts.

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General Chapters Application Manual

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 Application Manual
Section 5.2 – Process parameters

5.2 Process parameters

5.2.1 Sand supply

To obtain a uniform moulding capability (i.e. the capability for fill-

ing pattern pockets with sand), the sand must be evenly (or symmet-
rically) supplied to and compacted in the hopper.

During the shot the sand in the hopper is penetrated by air.

The shot air more easily penetrates less compacted sand and there-
fore less compacted sand will fill the chamber better than the more
compacted sand. Consequently, asymmetrical supply of sand to the
hopper will cause the filling of the chamber to be uneven.

If, for example, the compaction changes from one side of the hopper
to the other, this may result in moulds which are thicker in the side
affected by the greatest penetration of air.

To avoid an excessive compaction during filling of the sand hopper,

the velocity of the sand supplied must be low. For this reason, the
vertical distance between the SSU belt and the sand valve should be
max. 800 mm.

Supply of sand to the hopper is described in the appendix, which is

a reproduction of an article appearing in After Sales News '93, no. 2.

5.2.2 Sand level

The maximum sand level in the sand hopper is determined by the

size of the deepest possible chamber.

A modest improvement of the moulding capability at the upper part

of the chamber can be achieved by lowering the sand level in the
sand hopper. As this will at the same time reduce the quality of the
filling at the lower part, however, DISA recommends that you al-
ways use maximum sand level.

5.2.3 Sand shot pressure

The pressure difference (Psand-Pcham) determines whether optimum

sand velocity through the sand slot can be achieved. You can change
the pressure difference by adjusting the shot pressure.

A high shot pressure increases the velocity of the sand and thus it
gives a better filling of the chamber and of the mould cavities. At the
same time, however, a high shot pressure will lower the compressi-
bility and thus reduce the effect of the subsequent squeezing.

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General Chapters Application Manual

Moulding capability

Figure 5.4 2051M1280

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 Application Manual
Section 5.2 – Process parameters

Normally the sand filling during the shot is considered the most im-
portant aspect of the process and this speaks in favour of using a
high shot pressure. This will reduce the cycle time, but will, on the
other hand, also result in increased wear of the patterns and of the
moulding machine.

5.2.4 Chamber depth

The chamber depth is calculated on the basis of pattern plate thick-

ness and pattern height and is normally set with the aim of main-
taining a minimum distance of 70 mm compressed sand between
mould cavities when squeezing has been completed.

If the chamber depth is increased and the shot and squeeze pres-
sures are kept constant, the moulding capability will generally be
improved, and therefore a chamber depth which is greater than the
calculated minimum depth may be preferable.

There are three reasons why the moulding capability improves with
increasing chamber depth:

• The deflection of the sand stream requires space, see Figure

5.3
• There is more time available for filling up mould cavities
• The amount of sand squeezed into the cavities is increased

When the shot pressure is kept constant, the velocity of the sand
through the sand slot will be constant. For this reason the sand level
in the chamber will rise at a slower pace with increasing chamber
depth. This leaves more time for filling up pockets before access to
the pockets is blocked by the rising sand level.

Figure 5.4 illustrates how the moulding capability increases when

the distance from the centre of the sand slot to the pattern is in-
creased. As shown it is desirable that the distance from the centre
of the sand slot to the pattern surface is more than twice the width
of the sand slot (2 x a).

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Section 5.2 – Process parameters

5.2.5 Shot time

The shot time is determined by the shot pressure and the chamber
depth (or to put it more correctly, the chamber volume).

Note that the shot times given in table 1 overleaf are only intended
as a guide. Shot times may also be influenced by variations in sand
quality.

If the shot time is too short, the hardness at the top of the mould will
be reduced due to the inadequate sand filling and the mould may be
thickest at the bottom.

A shot time which is longer than necessary to fill the chamber offer
no additional moulding advantages, and it will only prolong the cy-
cle time unnecessarily.

When you start operation with new pattern plates, DISA recom-
mends that you measure the hardness at the top and bottom of
moulds produced with varying shot times. The shortest shot time
giving the least difference in hardness from top to bottom should
subsequently be used

DMM Pshot Distance between pattern plates (mm)

(bar)
200 300 400 500 600 700

2110 2.0 0.6 0.7 0.8

3.0 0.6 0.7 0.8

2013 2.0 0.8 0.9 1.0

MK5 A
3.0 0.7 0.8 0.9
4.0 0.7 0.8 0.8

2013 2.0 0.9 1.1 1.2

MK5 B
3.0 0.9 1.0 1.1
4.0 0.8 0.9 1.0

2070A 2.0 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8

3.0 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8
4.0 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.8

Table 1: Shot times

Except for the 2110 machine, the shot times were achieved using
two ASCO valves. One Wilkerson valve was used in connection with
the 2110.

The above values are only intended as a guide as they are based on
the sand used at DISA and a pattern volume = 0.

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Figure 5.5 2051M1280

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Section 5.2 – Process parameters

5.2.6 Venting of chamber

Sand and air is added to the chamber during the shot. The air must
escape through vents in the chamber plates and vents in the pat-
terns, if any. As the chamber is being filled with sand, the air pres-
sure in the chamber rises and reaches its peak just before the
chamber is completely filled.

As previously mentioned, the pressure difference (Psand-Pcham) has

the greatest influence on the velocity of the sand through the sand
slot. As Pcham is only slightly higher than the atmospheric pressure
during the first part of the shot, the venting of the chamber has no
effect on the moulding capability at the lower part of the chamber.

The venting may, however, have some effect on the moulding capa-
bility at the upper part of the chamber if the vents are partly
clogged. Clogged vents will have a most unfortunate influence in
connection with small chamber depths as the number of available
vents is reduced as the depth is reduced.

In other words, an increased pressure in the chamber due to reduced

venting will slow down the velocity of the sand through the sand slot
and consequently reduce the moulding capability at the upper part
of the mould.

Furthermore, the reduced velocity may result in the chamber not

being completely filled within the preset shot time.

For these reasons the vents must be cleaned regularly.

5.2.7 Venting of pattern pockets

Sand can become compacted when subjected to differences in air

pressure. This means that if the bottom of a pattern pocket is fitted
with vents, the rising pressure in the chamber during the shot will
cause the sand in the pockets to be compacted.

To achieve the greatest compaction, the total venting area at the

bottom of the pocket must be as large as possible.

Vents at the inlet of a pocket, on the other hand, will have a damag-
ing effect as the pressure difference between cavity and the rest of
the chamber is thereby reduced or equalized.

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Section 5.2 – Process parameters

5.2.8 Squeezing

In order that the greatest possible amount of sand may be squeezed

into the pattern pocket, the following must apply:

• The compressibility must be high (= low shot pressure)

• The squeeze pressure must be high
• The chamber must be deep

See remarks on the shot pressure in Section 5.2.3, Sand shot pres-
sure.
H
----
For greensand cores where D is more than 1, the chamber depth
should be more than 8 x D (H: pattern height, D: pattern diameter),
see Figure 5.5.

The amount of sand which is squeezed into a pattern pocket increas-

es when the squeeze pressure rises. It is, however, important to re-
member that a high squeeze pressure may involve some
disadvantages as for instance that of spring-back. For this reason
you should avoid using a higher pressure than required.

5.2.9 Miscellaneous

A large radius of curvature at the inlet of the pattern pocket will be

useful both during the shot and during the squeezing and will re-
duce the risk of tear-off during stripping. Therefore the radius
should be as large as the casting to be produced permits. The above
also speaks for using the largest possible pattern drafts (see α, Fig-
ure 5.5).

Tear-off may also be caused by the fact that the pressure in the
chamber at the start of the stripping is higher than the ambient
pressure. In pockets with vents at the bottom there will for this rea-
son be a difference in pressure at the inlet and at the bottom of the
pocket. During stripping this pressure difference may cause the
greensand core to be torn off.

To make sure that the pressure in the chamber has dropped to am-
bient pressure when stripping starts, extended squeezing time may
be used, but this will prolong the cycle time.

The 2130/2120 DMS offers use of strip air as an alternative/supple-

ment to the above.

(Problems with tear-off may of course be due to many other factors.

These are described in Chapter 7, ‘‘Process General’’).

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Section 5.3 – Appendix

5.3 Appendix

This appendix is a reproduction of an article appearing in After

Sales News '93, no. 2. However, minor changes have been made in
the text.

5.3.1 Correct Sandfeeding for Good Castings

One of the important factors that contribute to the success of a foun-

dry is the ability to make good castings, i.e. to maintain a low scrap
rate. The DISA moulding equipment gives the user an excellent op-
portunity to obtain this with its narrow tolerances and because the
DISA is specially designed to meet this demand.

In this article we wish to illustrate by theory and practical results

that correct sandfeeding to the DISA is essential for obtaining good
quality castings.

5.3.1.1 Special demands to sandflow from the sand supply

unit

The sand must be fed into the DMM in a uniform stream with a suit-
able cross-section as explained below.

A feeding capacity of Qsand supply = 25 l/s (2013 MK5 - A/B) ensures

a minimum cross-section of the fed sandflow. Furthermore, before
entering through the sand valve, the sandflow must be directed into
a sand stream with a preferably circular cross-section. The diameter
of the cross-section should always be less than the opening diameter
of the sand valve to ensure that the displaced air volume in the
DMM sand hopper escapes without hindrance.

Sand must be supplied to the DMM in such a way that the sand hop-
per fills symmetrically. If sand flows into the sand hopper at an ob-
lique angle, the sand will be unevenly distributed in the hopper.
This may result in uneven filling of the moulding chamber. There-
fore, the sand must be fed as vertically as possible into the sand hop-
per. This is especially important when the sand hopper is filled at
right angles to the centre line of the DMM.

The vertical distance between the sand feeder and the DMM sand
valve should be max. 800 mm. If the distance between the top of the
SSU belt and the sand valve of the DMM is too large, the sand will
compact excessively in the sand hopper.

Figure 6 shows the best possible sand feeding: the sand falls verti-
cally down into the sand hopper with a small space around the inlet
to allow air to escape from the sand hopper during filling.

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Figure 5.6 2000U0050 Figure 5.7 2000U0020

Figure 5.8 2000U0040 Figure 5.9 2000U0030

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Section 5.3 – Appendix

Explanation to the figures

The impact from an asymmetrical and too wide sand stream on the
mould is illustrated in Figure 5.7.

Here the SSU belt feeds the sand with too wide a stream. The sand
hits the chute on the one side, thus causing precompaction on that
side. This results in the sand being denser in the sand hopper.

When air shoots the sand down into the chamber, the less compact-
ed sand will fill the chamber better than the more compacted sand,
because the shot air more easily penetrates the less compacted sand.

After squeezing, the mould will have a tendency to be irregular,

which may result in iron run-through or mismatch. On the figure,
the irregularity is strongly exaggerated for clarity.

Figure 5.8 and Figure 5.9 illustrate other possible inadequate sand
filling methods. Figure 5.8 shows sand feeding with too high a speed
on the belt conveyor. At the same time, the belt conveyor is placed
too close to the chute. Figure 5.9 shows the denser sand in the mid-
dle of the hopper, because the sand stream is too wide and hits the
chute.

Practical experience

Recently we worked with a customer running his DISA with high ef-
ficiency and with a low scrap rate.

One specific casting, however, had a scrap rate of 0.8% which was
significantly higher than average. The sand feeding systems were
adjusted according to the above directions with the result that the
scrap rate was reduced to 0.2%.

Conclusion

By following the simple directions in this article, you should be able

to feed your DISA in the best possible way. Please contact us if you
would like more information.

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Chapter 6 — Feeding & Gating

6 Feeding & Gating

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Section 6.1 – Feeding

6.1 Feeding

6.1.1 Summary of feeding

A rational approach to the task of designing feeders offers many ad-

vantages:

• Better casting quality

• High yield from the mould
• Reduced melting costs
• Higher pattern plate utilisation
• Minimum work on feeder removal and grinding

This is due to the fact that a well-designed feeding system will nor-
mally reduce the numbers and sizes of the necessary feeders.

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Volume Liquid
contraction

Solidification
contraction

Solid contraction
Solidification
range

Temperature
T2 TS TL T1
Ambient Solidus Liquidus Pouring
temp. temp. temp. temp.

Figure 6.1 8303 X 0106

Purely contracting alloys. Volume of the casting in dependence of the temperature during cooling
from pouring temperature to ambient temperature.

Shrinkage A1
AL

A2 A2

Figure 6.2 8303 X 0107

Shrinkage porosity formation in a casting.

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Section 6.2 – Solidification shrinkage

6.2 Solidification shrinkage

6.2.1 Shrinkage formation

6.2.1.1 Purely contracting alloys

The metal will normally contract during

1. Liquid cooling
2. Solidification
3. Solid cooling

Except for irons having graphite precipitation during solidification,

the contraction v/s temperature graph is shown in Figure 6.1. The
formation of shrinkage porosity is illustrated in Figure 6.2.

When the casting on Figure 6.2 has been poured up to the level A1
at a pouring temperature of T1, the liquid metal starts to contract
because of the liquid contraction illustrated in Figure 6.1. When the
casting has reached the liquidus temperature TL, the metal has
sunk to the level AL.

Now the metal begins to solidify from the contact surfaces of the
mould wall as the heat is extracted there, so the casting solidifies in-
wards. But, since the solid metal is denser than the liquid metal, a
further contraction occurs during the solidification until the solidus
temperature TS is reached.

The solid metal finally contracts as it cools down to ambient temper-

ature T2, and the casting pulls slightly away (A2) from the mould
wall.

If we imagine that no additional molten metal was allowed to enter

the cavity during the liquid and the solidification cooling process,
and that the solidified shell close to the mould wall was strong
enough to withstand the inside and outside forces, shrinkage cavi-
ties would be formed due to the contractions.

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Section 6.2 – Solidification shrinkage

There are basically two types of shrinkages

1. Microshrinkage, which occurs in the spaces between tree-like

metal crystals called dendrites which form from the melt dur-
ing solidification.
The liquid metal entrapped between the branches of the den-
drites cannot get a supply of extra metal during contraction
and solidifies with a microscopic shrinkage, the shape of which
most often follows the shape of the dendrites; this shape
resembles a net or a sieve.
This phenomenon is most pronounced for alloys with a wide
temperature range TL - TS between beginning and end of solid-
ification.
Microshrinkage is difficult to remove by means of feeders.
2. Macroshrinkage is macro void in the casting or also occurring
as a sink on the surface of the casting.
Normally macroshrinkage is occurring in the part of the cast-
ing which solidifies the last and hence is the slowest cooling.
This happens in local heat centres (hot spots) in the casting
e.g. where higher moduli are present.
Active control of the solidification and cooling behaviour can
influence the macroshrinkage process so that shrinkage will
only occur outside the casting in a feeder.

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Volume

A
B

C
Secondary contraction
(Dimension change)

Primary contraction
Contraction

(shrinkage)

(shrinkage)
Expansion
(pressure)

Temperature °C

Figure 6.3 8303 X 0108

Expansion-contraction alloys. Volume of a casting in dependence of the temperature during cool-

ing of the casting from the pouring temperature.

°C

1600

1400

4.26
1200 1152
2
1145 4.30

1000 + Fe 3 C
Fe 3 C

800
738
0.8 723
+ Fe 3 C
600
Fe 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 %C

Figure 6.4 8303 X 0129

Iron-carbon/iron-cementite (Fe3C) equilibrium diagram.

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Section 6.2 – Solidification shrinkage

6.2.1.2 Expansion - contraction alloys

Iron alloys, which have graphite precipitation during solidification,

will expand in this period; water is for example also expanding dur-
ing solidification for other reasons. The expansion and contraction
periods for irons will be:

1. Liquid cooling with contraction

2. Solidification with expansion
3. Solidification with contraction
4. Solid cooling with contraction

The expansion/contraction v/s temperature graph is shown in

Figure 6.3.

The liquid contraction is similar as for purely contracting alloys.

The degree of contraction in the temperature range between liquid-
us and solidus temperatures depends on whether the iron is hypo-
or hypereutectic.

The solidification at eutectic temperature starts with an expansion

period mainly due to graphite solidification and the metal builds up
internal pressure, if the mould walls are able to withstand it.

The final solidification is mainly austenite solidification, so the re-

sult is again contraction.

The solid solidification is similar as for purely contracting alloys.

In Figure 6.3 schematic curves A, B and C are shown. A could rep-

resent grey iron, B compacted iron and C ductile iron, but overlap-
pings are to be expected depending on the quality of the iron.

The point is to utilise the pressure build-up to a certain extent to

produce sound castings.

6.2.1.3 Iron-Carbon/Iron-Cementite diagram

As irons are often discussed regarding melting and solidification,

the iron-carbon/iron-cementite equilibrium diagram is shown in
Figure 6.4. The iron-carbon equilibrium lines are in dashed line
type and the iron-cementite equilibrium lines are in solid line type.

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Figure 6.5 8304X0059

Gross shrinkage.

Figure 6.6 8303 X 0120

Sub-surface shrinkage.

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Section 6.2 – Solidification shrinkage

6.2.2 Internal tensile stresses during solidification

During solidification a skin will usually form which then contains

the cooling liquid. As the liquid cools further, the volume of the liq-
uid also decreases within the skin. This means that a tensile force is
developed between the solidified metal and the liquid.

If the tensile force is higher than the strength of the solidified skin,
the skin will be drawn into the casting causing a sink. However if
the skin is stronger than the tensile strength in the liquid, the liquid
is torn apart and a cavity is formed. The degree of tensile force re-
quired to tear the liquid apart depends on the metal type and its pu-
rity.

If the skin only partly forms around the casting shape, the liquid is
not restrained and during the solidification the contracting liquid
can draw further liquid and/or gas from the area where there is no
skin, as there are hardly forces against it.

If only liquid is present in the no skin area, there is a good possibility

of feeding the casting with liquid. If only gas is present, there is dan-
ger of a shrinkage cavity, generally open to the atmosphere.

6.2.3 Shrinkage appearance (examples)

There are various types and classifications of shrinkage, but below

are shown some of the common types with descriptions found in dif-
ferent castings/foundries.

Gross shrinkage Looks like a hole in the casting, or a deep depression, often charac-
terised by a small ball in the bottom. The low melting point alloys
and/or hot liquid iron being “squeezed out” during solidification into
the emerging cavity create this small ball.

This type of shrinkage is caused by insufficient feed metal, mould di-

lation, mould gapping, high pouring temperatures and/or metal
composition. See Figure 6.5.

Subsurface shrinkage No signs on the casting surface were therefore generally found after
cutting the casting. The cavity is usually clean and shiny, possibly
with signs of dendrite growth where the dendrites have grown into
the solidifying liquid.

The feeder neck closing before the casting has fully solidified, due to
the feeder neck being undersized or the metal temperature being too
low, causes this type of shrinkage. Also if no feeders have been used
(see the above section 6.2.2, ‘‘Internal tensile stresses during solidi-
fication’’). Figure 6.6 illustrates the sub-surface shrinkage.

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Figure 6.7 8304X0058

Dendritic shrinkage (porosity).

Figure 6.8 8303 X 0121

Surface sink.

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Section 6.2 – Solidification shrinkage

Dendritic shrinkage Dendritic shrinkage looks like a lot of black needles in iron castings,
(porosity) and in non-ferrous castings it looks like needles of the same colour
as the base metal.

This type of shrinkage is caused by metals allowing dendrites to

grow without the metal to fill between them. Therefore this defect is
generally seen at the bottom of piping from feeders or when feeders
have been knocked off too soon.

Particularly in non-ferrous metals the defect can be found in the

body of the casting, caused by the rapid growth of the dendrites
which then “cut off” the path for the feed metal. See Figure 6.7.

Surface sink Looks like a depression on the surface of the casting. Generally
found on flat surfaces which can be vertical as well as horizontal, al-
though it can also be found on the top of a casting, particularly
round castings.

Caused by no feeders (see the section “Internal tensile stresses dur-

ing solidification”) or in the case of the top sink by mould dilation
and/or parting line opening, the so-called 12o clock defect appears.
See Figure 6.8.

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Figure 6.9 8303 X 0119

Gas porosity.

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Section 6.2 – Solidification shrinkage

Gas porosity Strictly speaking this is not a pure shrinkage defect. The gas-like
holes around the dendrites are easier formed than real shrinkage
holes as the gas holes are formed at lower tensile stresses.

This kind of shrinkage is caused by the formation of gas during so-

lidification. In aluminium for example the gas can come from the hy-
drogen expelled during solidification, or from the burning of gas
producing materials. See Figure 6.9.

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Section 6.3 – Feeding criteria

6.3 Feeding criteria

The modulus, volume, pressure and feeder neck criterions must be

fulfilled.

6.3.1 Modulus criterion

The feeder must be big enough to feed the casting with liquid metal
until a certain time has elapsed after pouring.

This can also be expressed in terms of the so-called moduli of the

casting and the feeder:

MF = kM x MC,

which is the modulus criterion, and where

MC is the modulus of the casting, normally in cm,

kM is a constant determined experimentally and is dependent on

the thermal conditions during feeding and the feeding characteris-
tics of the different alloys,

MF is the modulus of the feeder, normally in cm.

6.3.1.1 Cooling times versus moduli

The dependence of the cooling time on the modulus of a casting can

be expressed in the following equation:

tT = kT (MC)2, where

tT is the cooling time, normally in minutes, down to a certain cooling

temperature T, normally in °C,

kT is a dimensionless constant depending on pouring temperature,

cooling temperature, mould material, metal alloy and the units,

MC is the modulus of the casting, normally in cm.

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Simple Forms
Geometrical Form Description Solidification
Modulus M (cm)
a a
Cube a
a
6

a
Sphere a
6

a
Bar with square cross a) a
l a
section. 4
a) with infinite length
b) a* l
b) with finite length
2(a+2l)

a Bar with circular cross a

l a)
section, cylinder 4
a) with infinite length
b) with finite length b) a* l
2(a+2l)

Bar with rectangular a) ab

cross section 2(a+b)
a a) with infinite length
b) abl
l b) with finite length
b
2(ab+al+bl)

Plate
a) a
l n
a) with infinite length and 2
width
a b) anl
b) with finite length and
width 2(al+an+ln)

Bar with trapezoid cross

a
section a/2a x 2a
2a
0.43a
with infinite length
2a

a Bar with trapezoid cross

section a/2a x 4a
4a
0.55a
with infinite length

2a

Figure 6.10 8303 X 0105

Formulas for modulus calculation of simple forms.

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Section 6.3 – Feeding criteria

6.3.1.2 Modulus of a casting, MC

A cooling casting loses its heat content to its surroundings through

its surface area. This means that the more heat content, the slower
the cooling rate; think about smaller and bigger containers with for
example hot water. This also means that the more surface area the
faster cooling rate; think about fins on air-cooled engine blocks.

The volume VC of a casting is a good expression for the heat content

and the surface area AC of a casting is a good expression for the heat
extraction rate.

So the modulus of a casting, which is defined as:

VC
M C = --------
AC
is a good expression for how easy or difficult it is to get it cooled
down.

A casting can be divided into simple forms, and by doing so, the mod-
ulus of a casting can be calculated in an easier way by piecing the
moduli of the simple forms together.

Figure 6.10 shows the moduli of the most important simple forms.

For use in the modulus criterion calculations, we normally need to

calculate the most compact part of the casting, the so-called signifi-
cant modulus, so we concentrate the piecing together of moduli in
that part of the casting.

The method is somewhat inaccurate, because many other factors

such as the insulating effect of a core, the cooling effect of a cooling
fin etc. affect the cooling pattern.

However with some practical experience by comparing the values in

theory and practice, fairly accurate approximations can be obtained.

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ø35 80

Figure 6.11 8303 X 0034

Universal joint casting.

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Section 6.3 – Feeding criteria

To illustrate the determination of the modulus of a casting, a uni-

versal joint casting is selected, see Figure 6.11.

The most compact part of the casting is the cylindrical part having
a diameter D of 3.5 cm and a height H of 8 cm.

The cylindrical part can be approximated to a simple cylindrical

form, and in this case one end, the fork end, is considered non-cool-
ing.

The casting modulus is then calculated:

2 2
D 3.5
V π ------- × H ---------- × 8
C 4 4 24.5
M = -------- = ------------------------------------ = ---------------------------------- = ---------------------------- ∼ 0.79 cm
C A 2 2 28 + 3.0625
C D 3.5
πD × H + π ------- 3.5 × 8 + ----------
4 4

Notice that in this calculation that one of the ends of the cylinder is
considered as not-cooling as it is heated by the U-shaped part of the
casting.

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Section 6.3 – Feeding criteria

6.3.1.3 Modulus criterion constant, kM

Empirical values of constant kM for different alloys are:

• 0.6-1.0 for hypoeutectic grey irons

• 0.8-1.1 for ductile irons
• 1.2-1.4 for malleable irons
• 1.2-1.4 for steels
• 1.2-1.4 for Cu-alloys
• 0.8-1.1 for Al-alloys

The constant kM is to be determined by the individual foundry by ex-

perience with its own special conditions, like:

• Hot or cold feeder

• Scrap yard components
• Alloying composition
• Melting procedure
• Pouring method
• Inoculation method and materials
• Sand condition and materials
• Core method and condition
• Mould quality

6.3.1.4 Feeder shape

It is obvious that the shape which results in the lowest feeder weight
for the same modulus, is the sphere.

In principle that shape is the most economical to use, but other fac-
tors will influence the shape in practice. Other shapes will be dis-
cussed later.

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General Chapters Application Manual

~15% 10% 40% ~67%

~20%

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 6.12 8303 X 0109

Liquid metal utilization of different feeder shapes.

(a) Cylindrical feeder (b) Hemispherical feeder (c) Conical feeder (d) Exothermic sleeve feeder.

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Section 6.4 – Volume criterion

6.4 Volume criterion

The feeder must contain enough liquid metal to be able to supply at

least the volume, which can compensate for the contraction in the
casting during the cooling from pouring temperature to solidus tem-
perature and the solidification itself.

If the feeder does not contain enough liquid metal, the feeder will
dry out before the solidification of the casting is finished, and the re-
sulting shrinkage will extend from the feeder into the casting inte-
rior.

6.4.1 Feeder shapes

As illustrated in Figure 6.12 we can expect a different percentage of

liquid metal utilisation from different feeder shapes.

For example for the cylindrical feeder, the percentage of liquid met-
al utilisation increases with increasing feeder module, but for sim-
ple calculations we use a liquid metal utilisation of 15%; these 15%
are normally used for hot cylindrical feeders.

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Alloy Contraction (%) Contraction Factor

Grey cast iron (GG) 2 2:15

Ductile iron (GGG) 3 3:15

Malleable iron 5 5:15

Unalloyed steel 5 5:15

Stainless steel 6 6:15

Alloyed steel 6 6:15

Al-Si alloy 4 4:15

Al-Cu alloy 4.5 4.5:15

Sn-Bronze 6 6:15

Brass 5 5:15

Al-Bronze 6.5 6.5:15

Table 1: Alloy contraction percentage and contraction factor for different alloys.

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Section 6.5 – Pressure criterion

6.4.2 Alloys

From Table 1 we can see the different contraction percentage for dif-
ferent alloys (cylindrical feeder), and knowing that, we can use the
following equation to calculate the minimum size of the feeder:

15% x feeder volume (or weight) ≥ alloy contraction % x casting volume (or weight).
or

Feeder volume (or weight) ≥ contraction factor x casting volume (or weight).
Here the contraction factor can also be found in Figure 6.13.

6.5 Pressure criterion

The pressure inside the casting during the liquid cooling and solidi-
fication must not drop to a level where at least one of the following
situations will occur:

1. Internal porosity.
2. External surface sink.
3. Internal porosity connected to the surface.
Re 1.Internal porosity will typically occur where internal gas pres-
sure is higher than the feeding metal pressure.
It also occurs where the fluid metal feeding channel between
the feeding section and the fed section is blocked for some rea-
son.
Re 2.In this case the outside pressure is higher than the pressure in-
side the casting; the inside pressures are occasionally very low,
for example

- 1000 atmospheres ≅ - 100,000 kPa

Re 3. In this case the outside pressure through a channel compen-

sates for the low internal pressure; a sand grain, a slag particle,
weak casting surface skin etc. could for example initiate this
channel.

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Solidified metal
Liquid metal

Centre line
porosity Dendrites

Plates: 4.5s Plates: 2s

Rods: 1.8s Rods: 1.2s

Figure 6.13 8303 X 0111

Feeding lengths for plates and rods in steel. The feeding lengths are valid between a feeder and
the casting edge.

Dendrites

Solidified metal
Liquid metal

Centre line
porosity

Plates: 2s Plates: 2s
Rods: 1.2s Rods: 1.2s

Figure 6.14 8303 X 0112

Feeding lengths for plates and rods in steel. The feeding lengths are valid between feeders.

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 Application Manual
Section 6.5 – Pressure criterion

6.5.1 Top/side feeder

A good rule is to place the feeders high in order to feed downhill. This
means, if all other influences are neglected, the feeding metal sec-
tion has a higher pressure than the fed section. So if other influences
are not present, the pressure criterion is met.

Although we know that it is possible to feed uphill, namely when we

have any of the above-mentioned other influences, it is most com-
mon to use the rule of downhill feeding.

Therefore either top feeders or side feeders are mostly used; the
choice of side or top feeder is mostly determined by the casting de-
sign and the pattern plate utilisation. Standardised top and side
feeders will be shown later in this chapter.

6.5.2 Feeding length

When a casting is big in extension, it seems logical that one single

feeder will be insufficient to feed the whole casting in all parts.

This comes from the fact that the feeding channel will resist the
feeding flow, which is partly due to resistance between fluid metal
and the channel wall and partly because of the viscosity of the fluid
metal. This will of course become more pronounced when the feeding
channel is long and/or narrower.

The above-mentioned phenomenon is illustrated in Figure 6.13,

where the feeding lengths between a feeder and the casting edge are
shown; the illustrations are valid for plates and bars in carbon steel,
but the principles are valid for most metals. For other metals and
other moulding materials than silica, we shall assume that the den-
drite lengths are different.

The illustrations are valid for both vertical and horizontal mould-
ing.

As can be imagined, at the far edge of the casting from the feeder it
is a so-called directional solidification where the fluid metal has a
chance to flow between the dendrites to fill the deficits, which are
the result of the solidification. The same reasoning is valid for part
of the casting, which is close to the feeder.

In the section between those two parts the fluid metal is obstructed
from entering between the dendrites at the end of the solidification;
the result is centre line porosity.

Figure 6.14 shows an illustration of the feeding lengths between two

feeders; the illustrations are valid for plates and bars in carbon
steel, but the principles are valid for most metals. For other metals
and other moulding materials than silica, we shall assume that the
dendrite lengths are different.

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Solidified metal Dendrites

Liquid metal

Centre line
Chill porosity

Figure 6.15 8303 X 0113

Influence of chill on end zone solidification.

Dendrites

Solidified metal
Liquid metal
Centre line
porosity

Chill

Figure 6.16 8303 X 0114

Influence of chill on middle-between-feeders solidification.

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Section 6.5 – Pressure criterion

As mentioned previously the parts near the feeders have directional

solidification, which results in sound casting parts at a certain dis-
tance from the feeders.

In the section between these two parts the fluid metal is obstructed
from entering between the dendrites at the end of the solidification;
the result is centre line porosity.

It is possible to alter the solidification pattern by means of chills,

which on account of its heat capacity consume heat from the casting.
Figure 6.15 illustrates a chill’s influence on the porosity zone in the
previous example from Figure 6.13.

The chills are normally made of steel, graphite or copper, and a good
starting point is to make it as wide as the thickness of the casting
called s.

Figure 6.16 depicts an illustration of a chill’s influence on the poros-

ity zone in the previous example from Figure 6.14. Notice that the
effect of the chill between the feeders will make a longer zone sound
in relation to the effect in the end zone, because a double end zone
effect will in fact occur; so the result is more effective.

Chills are not so widely used to aid the feeding in the DISA process,
or any other high production green sand moulding process, since the
chills are somewhat difficult to handle, especially in an automatic
sand plant. However, chills are used to obtain special structures in
the metal matrix, such as in the production of camshafts.

The chills mentioned above are so-called external chills. Internal

chills, which are partially or totally melted together with the cast-
ing, are even more rarely used in connection with the DISA mould-
ing machine, although it is very well possible. Instead of chills,
cooling fins which increase the cooling area for the casting locally,
are used more frequently on DISA, and are like chills able to alter
the solidification pattern of the casting. The fins are more practical
in use and are even more effective than chills.

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Dendrites

Solidified metal
Liquid metal

Centre line
Cooling fin porosity

Figure 6.17 8303 X 0115

Influence of cooling fin on end zone solidification.

Dendrites

Solidified metal
Liquid metal
Centre line
porosity

Cooling fin

Figure 6.18 8303 X 0116

Influence of cooling fin on middle-between-feeders solidification.

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Section 6.5 – Pressure criterion

Figure 6.17 illustrates the influence of a cooling fin on the casting

from Figure 6.13, in particular on the solidification in the end zone.

The thickness of the cooling fin should not be too thick since it would
then heat the casting and in this way make the situation worse. On
the other hand, the cooling fin should not be too thin either, since it
would not be able to transport any heat through its section and
therefore have no effect.

A good starting thickness would be the casting thickness divided by

5 to 10, or use moduli and the same factors. Moreover, the fin should
not be too short since a little cooling surface area would have no cool-
ing effect. At the same time, a too long fin would not be practical. A
good and effective starting length would be the fin thickness multi-
plied by 10.

Figure 6.18 illustrates the influence of a cooling fin on the casting

from Figure 6.14, in particular on the solidification in middle-be-
tween-feeders zone. As in the case with the use of chills, the effect is
greater in that area than in the end zone. The effect of chills and
cooling fins are not always sufficient to prevent porosities, especially
in the purely contracting alloys.

In this case the required increase in modulus towards the feeder can
be increased by addition of more material to the casting towards the
feeder, so-called padding.

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Dendrites

Solidified metal
Liquid metal

Cooling fin

Padding

Figure 6.19 8303 X 0117

Influence of padding on the end zone solidification.

Dendrites

Solidified metal Liquid metal

Centre line
porosity

Cooling fin Padding

Figure 6.20 8303 X 0118

Influence of padding on middle-between-feeders solidification.

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Section 6.5 – Pressure criterion

Figure 6.19 illustrates the influence on the casting from Figure 6.17.
The casting is now sound at the cost of extra machining to remove
the padding; in some cases the padding might be allowed to remain
on the casting.

In a similar way, Figure 6.20 illustrates the influence on the casting

from Figure 6.18.

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F1

S1 S9

S3 S4 F2 F3

S2 S8

S5 S6 S7
Little feeding

Figure 6.21 8303 X 0104

Hypothetical casting and its feeding system.

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Section 6.5 – Pressure criterion

6.5.3 Summarising example

Figure 6.21 represents a hypothetical casting and its feeding system

with bad sections and good sections. The different sections and feed-
ers are numbered and marked with S and F respectively. The follow-
ing are explanations to the feeding abilities in the different sections:

The casting is divided at the dashed line, where the modulus is so

small that this area solidifies before the two remaining parts of the
casting; the two parts solidify as if they were two separate parts. If
this was unintentional, the use of padding could have been consid-
ered.

The feeder F1 is successfully feeding section S1 by solidification and

also the rest of the casting by liquid cooling. The pressure outside
the casting is entering the inside of the feeder and assists the feed-
ing process, since the metal skin is not apparent in the notch in the
feeder.

The feeder F2 successfully feeds the section S5 for the same reason
as mentioned above.

The identical sections S3 and S4 illustrate the unreliabilty of feed-

ing uphill. In S4 a pore was accidentally formed, possibly in connec-
tion with the outside, and an approximate pressure equality will
occur in the section and in the feeder.

This is not the case in section S3, where here it is possible to feed
uphill.

In section S2 there is full connection from outside to inside because

of the internal corner hot spot (no metal skin formation). Thus pres-
sure inside section S2 and feeder F2 is the same, hence the same liq-
uid level in the bottom of the pores just before solidification.

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Section 6.5 – Pressure criterion

The connection to the outside from the feeder F3 does not occur, pos-
sibly due to a notch missing in the feeder, so the sections S6, S7 and
S8 cannot be fed. Instead, when the pressure falls inside these sec-
tions during the solidification contraction, suddenly a hole through
the thin metal skin in the internal corner hot spot will be blown.
Then the casting will feed the feeder F3.

The section S6 might be reasonably sound because liquid metal is

drained down into it.

The section S7 is an isolated modulus; it might become sound by ad-

dition of another feeder and/or chill and/or cooling fin and/or pad-
ding.

The section S9 is also an isolated modulus, but it lies high in the

casting; therefore the soundness cannot be achieved by padding.

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A1 A2

B C

Figure 6.22 8303 X 0122

Influence of feeder neck on casting defects (shrinkage).

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 Application Manual
Section 6.5 – Pressure criterion

6.5.4 Feeder neck criterion

The determination of the connection between the casting and the

feeder, the so-called feeder neck, is one of the most important tasks
of the feeding technique.

As illustrated in Figure 6.22 the feeder neck size and shape have
much influence on the soundness of the castings.

If the feeder neck is too small, the metal in the neck will freeze be-
fore the liquid metal in the feeder has supplied enough liquid metal
to the casting to compensate for the superheat- and solidification
contraction, see A1 and A2.

If the feeder neck is too large, the neck will contain the highest heat
energy and therefore solidify later than the casting and/or feeder,
see C.

6.5.4.1 Moduli of necks

In order to calculate the dimensions of the necks, the relationships

between the moduli of the casting, the feeder and the feeder neck
should be considered.

It was earlier described how the feeder modulus should be calculat-

ed in relation to the casting modulus. Now the feeder neck modulus
will be calculated in relation to the feeder modulus. This also makes
sense physically as the neck should perform the function of the feed-
er.

The normal design of the feeder neck will be described in the design
section, however, a rule based on experience to calculate the feeder
neck modulus MN is that it should be at least a third of the feeder
modulus MF:
MF
M N ≥ --------
3
The modulus of the feeder neck MN should be calculated as a long
rod with the same cross section as the cross section of the feeder
neck to be used in practice. This is in agreement with what is actu-
ally taking place since the feeder neck section is heated from both
sides, and thus the metal in the neck is kept fluid for a longer time.
The real modulus would be somewhat larger than the rod shape
modulus as notched necks are used to obtain an easier break-off of
the feeder. In this way the sand near the neck will become heated
and the modulus will then increase artificially.

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40° CYLINDER
R3 No. Diameter Volume Module
5°

R5
DF (mm) VF (cm3) MF (cm)
R2
R5 1 20 9.4 0.38
D/2
2 25 18.4 0.47
3 30 31.8 0.56
30°

1.5D 4 35 50.5 0.66

R5
5 40 75.4 0.75
D 6 45 107.3 0.84
7 50 147.3 0.94
5°

8 55 195.9 1.03
D/5
9 60 254.4 1.13
R5 10 65 323.4 1.22
R3 11 70 403.9 1.31
R3 12 75 496.8 1.41
13 80 602.9 1.50
14 85 723.1 1.59
15 90 858.4 1.69
16 95 1009.6 1.78
17 100 1177.5 1.88

SPHERE
40° No. Diameter Volume Module
R3 DF (mm) VF (cm3) MF (cm)
R2
R5 1 20 4.2 0.33
D/3 2 25 8.2 0.42
3 30 14.1 0.50
22.4
30°

4 35 0.58
R5 5 40 33.5 0.67
6 45 47.7 0.75
D/6 7 50 65.0 0.83
8 55 87.1 0.92
9 60 113.0 1.00
10 65 143.7 1.08
R3 11 70 179.5 1.17
12 75 220.8 1.25
D 13 80 268.0 1.33
14 85 321.4 1.42
15 90 381.5 1.50
16 95 448.7 1.58
17 100 523.3 1.67
R3

Figure 6.23 8303 X 0123

Standard feeder shapes.

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Section 6.6 – Feeding design

6.6 Feeding design

6.6.1 Standard of feeder shapes

DISA has chosen two standard geometrical feeder shapes: a cylinder

and a sphere. The standard feeder shapes are shown in Figure 6.23
and the feeder volumes VF and the feeder moduli MF are calculated
for different feeder diameters DF according to the following formu-
las:
3π D F 3
VF(cylinder) = ----------------
8

3D
MF(cylinder) = ----------F-
16

π DF 3
VF(sphere) = -------------
6

DF
MF(sphere) = --------
6
The 40º notch in the feeders creates a “hot spot” in the middle of the
feeders. This ensures that this middle will have retarded solidifica-
tion skin formation and thus maintain the access of atmospheric
pressure (mould pressure) on the liquid metal in the feeder open for
a longer time.

It is very important that the feeders are open like this to the sur-
roundings, otherwise vacuum may occur within the feeders, thus
counteracting the feeding process.

Attention should be paid to the fact that the notch is made only on
one side of the parting line.

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Geometrical form Shape of riser neck Feeder neck module M

D
Circle D
4

Square a
4
a

b Rectangle a *b
a 2(a+b)

a Hexagon a
4

b
Trapezoid h(a+b)
h
2(a+b+2h)
a
a

2a Special trapezoid ~ 0.43a

a/2a x 2a
2a
a
Special trapezoid
4a ~ 0.55a
a/2a x 4a
2a

Figure 6.24 8303 X 0124

Geometrical forms applied for feeder necks.

A B

1-3mm Hot spot

R1-3mm

Casting
Hot spot
R1-3mm

Figure 6.25 8303 X 0038

Connor block feeder and its location in relation to the parting line (B).

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Section 6.6 – Feeding design

6.6.2 Neck shapes

The most common neck geometrical forms are listed in Figure 6.24 and
the moduli are calculated as shown.

6.6.3 Connor block feeder

A special type of feeder and feeder neck with a limited use is a Connor
block feeder. This feeder system is a very good method of avoiding casting
shrinkage where pattern plate space is limited and where at the same
time it is possible to avoid grinding off the remnant of the feeder neck.

Figure 6.25 (A) shows a sketch of a Connor block feeder and the corre-
sponding neck. The feeder neck is shaped as a lap connection which should
not exceed 3 mm because of break off problems and that is what makes the
use of the Connor block limited.

The two hot corners (Figure 6.25 (B)) ensure high feeding efficiency of the
“longitudinal” feeder neck. They must, however, have a fillet R = 1-3 mm
for moulding sand strength reasons.

For obvious reasons, the block feeder can only be used where the casting
is situated on one side of the parting line. The calculation principles for a
block feeder and neck is similar to the traditional feeder; later in this
chapter a calculation example will be shown.

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Ingate

Feeder neck

B-B
90°
30°

A-A 1/6a ~ 2

90°

a = 13
30°
15°

B D/5 B
a = 13

60 °
° 60
8-12

Figure 6.26 8303 X 0125

Feeder design to illustrate the example.

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Section 6.7 – Calculation examples of feeding

6.7 Calculation examples of feeding

6.7.1 Standard feeder

To illustrate the calculation, a feeder for a universal knuckle joint with

weight GC = 700 grams of nodular iron will be determined. The feeder and
the feeder neck determination are as follows (Figure 6.26.):

1. We already calculated the modulus in the modulus of casting (MC)

section with the following result:
MC ≈ 0.79 cm.

2. The modulus criterion factor kM for nodular iron is 0.8 –1.1. Choos-
ing 1.1, the modulus of the feeder should be:
MF ≥ KM × MC
MF ≥ 1.1 × 0.79 cm
MF ≥ 0.87 cm

3. From the table of standard feeder shapes (Figure 6.23), the nearest
biggest size of the feeder amongst the cylindrical feeders will be
selected. Size number 7 (ø50) with a modulus of
MF = 0.94 cm satisfies the above written equation.

4. The volume criterion should also be met:

GC
15% × V F ≥ 3% × --------
ρ
where ρ is the density of the metal, ductile iron, around 7 grams per cm3.
Hence:
700
15% × 147.3 ≥ 3% × ---------
7
22.1 ≥ 3
So the volume criterion is easily met by the use of size number 7 (ø50).

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Section 6.7 – Calculation examples of feeding

5. The size of the feeder neck cross-section, which is chosen to be

square, is determined by:
1
M N ≥ --- × M F
3

1
M N ≥ --- × 0.94 cm
3

M N ≥ 0.31 cm

a
For a square neck having a modulus of --- ,
4
a
--- ≥ 0.31 cm = 3.1 mm
4

a ≥ 12.4 mm ≈ 13 mm

The 13 mm x 13 mm square design should be modified with proper draft

towards the parting line, preferably 15 degrees, or according to the expe-
rience of the foundry in question.

It is possible to use the relatively small modulus of feeder neck section as

shown above when the following design recommendations are followed:

The distance between the casting and the feeder should be relatively
small, 8-12 mm, to obtain the best heat around the neck and in this way
keep the liquid metal passage open for an adequate amount of time.

A compromise should be made between the attempt to keep the neck as

hot as possible and the unwanted entrance of air through a hot spot hole
created at excessive hot areas through the surface of the neck.

Therefore a good practice is to maintain an angle of 60-120 degrees be-

tween the casting contour and the feeder contour depending on the posi-
tion of the feeder on the casting (Figure 6.26).

The notch, which also creates a hot area around it, helps to make an easier
knock off of the feeder and could have a distance of 1--- of the neck’s “a” di-
6
mension from the casting.

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8303 X 0126-01

Figure 6.27 8303 X 0126

Tree climbing iron casting with a Conner block feeder.

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Section 6.7 – Calculation examples of feeding

6.7.2 Connor block feeder

The method of calculation of a block feeder for a tree climbing iron weigh-
ing 800 grams in grey cast iron (Figure 6.27) is:

The modulus of solidification for the casting (MC), which will be approxi-
mated to an infinite bar of rectangular section, is according to Figure 6.10:
a×b 2.5 × 2.0
M C = -------------------- = ----------------------------- = 0.56 cm
2(a + b) 2 ( 2.5 + 2.0 )
In grey cast iron the kM factor could be chosen: kM = 0.9

From the modulus criterion formula: MF ≥ kM x MC

the feeder modulus should be MF ≥ 0.9 x 0.56 cm

MF ≥ 0.50 cm

As the special a/2a x 2a trapezoid feeder has MF ≈ 0.43 a, hence:

0.43 a ≥ 0.5 cm
a ≥ 1.16 cm = 11.6 mm

From the volume criterion formula:

15% x VF ≥ contraction factor (grey iron) x VC

800
15% × V F ≥ 2% × ---------
7
VF ≥ 15.2 cm3

As the special a/2a x 2a trapezoid feeder has a volume

1 2
V F = --- × 2a × ( a + 2a ) × h = 3a × h
2

3a2 x h ≥ 15.2 cm3

3a2 x 15 cm ≥ 15.2 cm3

15.2 - = 0.58 cm = 5.8 mm

a ≥ --------------
15 × 3

So a = 12 mm is chosen due to the modulus criterion.

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Section 6.7 – Calculation examples of feeding

From the feeder neck formula

MF
M N ≥ --------
3

0.5
M N ≥ ------- = 0.167 cm
3

The neck is approximated to a plate with thickness s, thus:

s
M N = --- ≥ 0.167 cm = 1.67 mm, hence
2
s = 3.3 mm

This thickness is chosen even though we were aware that this relatively
thick neck might brake into the casting during shake-out.

The above chosen 150 mm length h F of the feeder depends on the location
and size of the shrinkage porosity and are to be found experimentally dur-
ing run-in of the pattern plate set.

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Pressurized Depressurized

Non-pressurized Mixed (hybrid)

Figure 6.28 8303X0134

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 Application Manual
Section 6.8 – Gating principles and systems

6.8 Gating principles and systems

It is widely believed that three principal gating systems exist and that all
other systems are a mixture of at least two of them.

These systems are called:

1. Pressurised gating systems

2. Depressurised gating systems
3. Non-pressurised gating systems
4. Mixed (Hybrid) gating systems

These systems, their principles and their advantages and disadvantages

will be described in practice. Examples of each gating system are shown
including the corresponding system calculations.

The pattern plate layouts for the 4 systems are presented in Figure 6.29,
Figure 6.30, Figure 6.31 and Figure 6.32 and the main geometrical differ-
ences are highlighted.

The four gating systems are made for the same casting, see Figure 6.28.

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General Chapters Application Manual

Figure 6.29 8303X0130

Pressurised gating system.

Figure 6.30 8303X0131

Depressurised gating system.

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 Application Manual
Section 6.8 – Gating principles and systems

6.8.1 Pressurised gating system characteristics

See Figure 6.29 The pressurised gating system is characterised by ingate sizes, which are
calculated according to the formula for free drop with friction taken into
account.

The horizontal and vertical runners which lead the metal to the ingates
are typically increased 10-20% in cross section area each time they make
a 90° change in direction from the ingates and all the way up to the pour-
ing cup.

In this way the metal pressure, which comes from the height of the metal,
measured from the upper metal surface in the pouring cup to the ingates,
is active at the ingates just after the gating system is filled up with metal.
This occurs 1-3 seconds after start of pouring.

With this system the ingates will be the sections which determine the
pouring time (marked with circles in the illustration).

6.8.2 Depressurised gating system characteristics

See Figure 6.30 The depressurised gating system is characterised by depressurised in-
gates and often the gating parts, which are directly connected to the in-
gates.

The depressurised parts of the gating system do not have the full metal
pressure (described in the previous section) from the beginning of the
mould filling. The pressure increases during filling but not to the same ex-
tent as back pressure increases during the same period.

The rest of the gating system is pressurised all the way back to the pour-
ing cup, and it is calculated by the use of the formula for free drop in a sim-
ilar way as for the pressurised gating system.

The cross-sections leading to the depressurised gating parts are in this

way the cross-sections which determine the pouring time (marked with
circles in the illustration.)

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General Chapters Application Manual

Figure 6.31 8303X0132

Non-pressurised gating system.

Figure 6.32 8303X0133

Mixed (hybrid) gating system.

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 Application Manual
Section 6.8 – Gating principles and systems

6.8.3 Non-pressurised gating system characteristics

See Figure 6.31 The non-pressurised gating system is characterised by a metallic pressure
of zero in the major part of the system during the whole pouring operation;
the full metal pressure will of course build up at the very end of the pour-
ing operation.

For that reason the non-pressurised gating system is often called a sewer
system or even an open system.

The gating system might look like the one illustrated where the upper hor-
izontal runner is the same as for the other illustrated gating systems, but
after that the system is opened.

In that way the cross sections of the upper horizontal runners closest to
the pouring cup will be the cross-sections which determine the pouring
time (marked with circles in the illustration).

6.8.4 Mixed (Hybrid) gating system characteristics

See Figure 6.32 The mixed or the hybrid gating system is characterised by a mixture of at
least two of the three above mentioned gating systems.

One type of mixed gating system is illustrated. It shows a depressurised

gating system (calculated in that manner), but the ingates are calculated
as pressurised.

If the calculated cross section areas are well calculated then there will be
an interaction between the depressurised and the pressurised systems
during the pouring operation and consequently also between the charac-
teristic cross-sections of the systems which determine the pouring time
(marked with circles in the illustration).

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General Chapters Application Manual

Level O

H (m) g
H

Drop level H V
V

V = (m) 2gH
V = (m) 2gH

Figure 6.33 8303X0136 Figure 6.34 8303X0135

V1
H1
H2
H
G
V2 V

V1 = (m) 2gH1

V2 = (m) 2gH2
V = m 2gH

Figure 6.35 8303X0137 Figure 6.36 8303X0138

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 Application Manual
Section 6.9 – Gating system formulas

6.9 Gating system formulas

In the following formulas will be shown for gating systems.

6.9.1 The free drop and pressurised gating

The calculation of a pressurised gating system is based on the equation of

Torricelli for the ideal free drop of an object:

Formula 1 V = 2×g×H

where V is the velocity of the object after a free drop from the height H,
and g is the gravity acceleration, see Figure 6.33. The equation is derived
from the equation of Bernoulli, but this derivation is excluded here.

In practice in the case of the free drop, some losses will occur, for example
the resistance of the air, so the equation for the real free drop must be cor-
rected with a loss factor m:

Formula 2 V = m 2×g×H

where m has a value between 0 and 1. This last equation is also valid for
the velocity of a liquid flowing out of a hole in a container filled with that
liquid, see Figure 6.34. In this case the height H is from the upper surface
of the liquid to the hole.

Let us look at a container again where two holes are chosen made in
heights H1 = 100 mm and H2 = 200 mm from the liquid surface, see
Figure 6.35.

The corresponding velocities V1 and V2 excluding any losses are calculat-

ed:
V = 2×g×H = 2 × 9810 × 100 ≅ 1400mm/s
1 1

V = 2×g×H = 2 × 9810 × 200 ≅ 1980mm/s

2 1

If for example a loss factor m of 0.7 is used the corresponding calculations

would be:

V1 = 2 × g × H = 0.7 2 × 9810 × 100 ≅ 980mm/s

1

V2 = 2 × g × H = 0.7 2 × 9810 × 200 ≅ 1390mm/s

1

The pressurised gating system is supposed to resemble the situation,

which is described above in the case of the container with holes; these
holes or outlets are termed ingates in connection with gating systems, see
Figure 6.36.

As can be imagined, if the gating system is calculated correctly, then the

system behaves as if ingate F is placed on a container.

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General Chapters Application Manual

Loss factor m or friction

coefficient

Metal flow energy change Metal viscosity change

Gating geometry and location Type of metal

Casting geometry Pouring temperature

Gas pressure Metal composition

Pouring practice

Figure 6.37
Loss factor m dependence.

1-1.5 2-3 3-5

Area 100 mm2 Area 100 mm2 Area 100 mm2

High friction Less friction Little friction

Loss factor: 0.3 0.5 0.6

Figure 6.38 8303X0003

For the same ingate flow area (100 mm2), different friction losses are expected for different shapes
of ingates.

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 Application Manual
Section 6.9 – Gating system formulas

6.9.2 Derivation of formula F

k×G
F = ---------------------------
m×t× H

In order to derive the above written equation for a pressurised cross sec-
tion area F, let us first look at particular variables and constants in the
equation mentioned above (Figure 6.34 and Figure 6.36):

Formula 2 V = m 2×g×H

6.9.2.1 Loss factor m

The loss factor m describes the total decrease of velocity or flow rate which
the metal flow in the gating system is subjected to.

As mentioned earlier, the value is between 0 and 1. Figure 6.37 shows that
the loss factor, also called the friction coefficient, is mainly dependent on:

• Metal flow energy change

and

• Metal viscosity change

The metal flow energy will decrease, and hence m, when the gating geom-
etry and the casting geometry are intricate.

For an example of gate geometry, see the values of m in Figure 6.38.

The mould gas counter pressure influences the driving force of the metal
height; this would also be the case for not keeping the pouring cup full dur-
ing the pouring operation, hence a bad pouring practice.

The metal viscosity is mainly dependent on metal type, the pouring tem-
perature and the metal composition.

The loss factor has typically an empirical value and is estimated for the
calculation of the first gating systems in a specific foundry.

After the first pouring trials have been run on these gating systems, then
this estimated value can be corrected according to the results.

6.9.2.2 Gravity acceleration g

The gravity acceleration g in most places here on earth is 9810 , so g enters

in the equations as an invariable constant.

Imagine that we were going to use the equations on the Moon, on Mars,
on Jupiter or even in free space, where the gravity accelerations are
around 2700, 3700, 25000 and 0 respectively.

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General Chapters Application Manual

Top ingate Bottom ingate Side ingate

H a G G
F H
H a
b
G a
c

F
F

c b
H=a H=a- H=a-
2 2

k*G
F=
m *t* H
8303 X 0139-01

Figure 6.39 8303X0139

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 Application Manual
Section 6.9 – Gating system formulas

6.9.2.3 Metallostatic (average) height H

The metallostatic height in the container case, Figure 6.34, is defined as

the height from the upper surface of the metal in the pouring cup to the
pressurised cross section, to be calculated.

It is called metallostatic, because it is the static contribution from the met-

al. Dynamic contributions are ignored at this point.

In the case where we are going to calculate an ingate size in a gating sys-
tem, see Figure 6.36, bearing in mind that the metallostatic height in
most cases will change during the pouring operation, we need the average
metallostatic height for that ingate.

Three main gating positions are seen in Figure 6.39:

Top, bottom & side ingate.

The average metallostatic height for the pressurised top ingate is simply
the distance from the metal surface in the pouring cup to that gate.

This is because the metal is flowing out into free space from that ingate
during that period and in this way the situation is similar to the situation
in Figure 6.34, pouring out through a hole in a container full of fluid.

The average metallostatic height for the pressurised bottom ingate is

slightly more complicated.

As can be imagined, the metallostatic height for the ingate has the value
a at the beginning of the pouring operation.

The metallostatic height c of the casting counteracts the metallostatic

height a at the ingate at the end of the pouring operation.

So, the average metallostatic height for the whole pouring operation is
somewhere in between these two values in these cases.

Since the calculation of this average metallostatic height is dependent

upon the shape of the casting, it could be fairly complicated.

So, for convenience, and since the calculations do not need to be very ac-
curate, we calculate the average metallostatic height for the ingate as fol-
lows, the height to the ingate minus half of the casting height:
c
Formula 3 H = a – ---
2
The average metallostatic height for the pressurised side ingate is even
more complicated.

From the beginning of the pouring until the metal comes up to the ingate,
as can be imagined, the metallostatic height for the ingate is a. In this pe-
riod the pouring is actually made through a top ingate, top pouring.

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 Application Manual
Section 6.9 – Gating system formulas

From that point the rest of the pouring will actually take place through a
bottom ingate, bottom pouring, and at the end of the pour the metallostat-
ic height will be a – b.

For convenience, and for similar reasons as for bottom pouring, we calcu-
late the average metallostatic height for the ingate as follows, the height
to the ingate minus half of the height from the ingate to the top of the cast-
ing:
b
Formula 4 H = a – ---
2
6.9.2.4 Flow rate W [weight/time unit]

The flow rate W can be described as the weight of metal passing through
a cross section of the gating system over a certain period of time t.

For a casting cavity, see Figure 6.36, this would be the casting weight G
divided by the time t needed to fill the metal into that cavity:
G
Formula 5 W = ----
t
The same flow rate W can be described as the velocity of the metal through
the ingate multiplied by the ingate cross section F area multiplied by the
density of the metal:

Formula 6 W = ρ×F×V

Combining formula (5) with formula (6) will yield:

G
Formula 7 ---- = ρ × F × V
t
and inserting formula (2) instead of V in formula (7) will yield:
G
Formula 8 ---- = ρ × F × m 2 × g × H
t
or
G
F = -------------------------------------------------
t×ρ×m 2×g×H

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General Chapters Application Manual

A D
F G F

C
F

B
G G

Figure 6.40 8303X0140

The terms G (weight) and F (section area).

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 Application Manual
Section 6.9 – Gating system formulas

6.9.2.5 Density ρ of the metal

The density of the molten metal is chosen as follows:

Iron: ρ = 6.89 × 10-6 kg/mm3

Cu-alloys: ρ = 8.40 × 10-6 kg/mm3
Al-alloys: ρ = 2.30 × 10-6 kg/mm3
Final equation for F on different metals

Bearing in mind that g = 9810 mm/s2:

1036 × G 2 1036 × G [ kg ]
Irons: F = ---------------------- ; F [mm ]= -------------------------------------------------
t×m H t [ sec ] × m H [ mm ]

850 × G 2 850 × G [ kg ]
Cu-alloys: F = --------------------- ; F [mm ]= -------------------------------------------------
t×m H t [ sec ] × m H [ mm ]

3100 × G 2 3100 × G [ kg ]
Al-alloys: F = ---------------------- ; F [mm ]= -------------------------------------------------
t×m H t [ sec ] × m H [ mm ]

6.9.2.6 The weight G

See Figure 6.40 The weight G is the total amount of metal flowing through a calculated
section F during the whole pour, for example as seen on Figure 6.40:

A). F is leading the metal into a casting cavity without feeder.

B). F is leading the metal into a casting cavity including feeder.
C). F is leading the metal into a common feeder for two casting cavities.
D). F is leading the metal through a runner to three casting cavities.

6.9.2.7 Pouring time t

The total pouring time t should be shorter than the time available for
pouring, since this would otherwise slow down the moulding machine.

The cycle time of the moulding machine consists of the mould resting time
and the mould transport time, the latter being 1- 2 seconds, and it is very
difficult to pour during the transport phase.

Consequently, the total pouring time should be less than the cycle time
minus the transport time.

On the other hand, the pouring time should not be longer than the pouring
time, which just causes cold shut and mis-run on the castings.

As will be seen later, the pouring time should not be too short either. That
would make it more difficult to avoid turbulent metal flow, which again
would increase the weight of the gating system. The gases should also be
allowed time to escape.

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 Application Manual
Section 6.9 – Gating system formulas

Many formulas for the pouring time t have been suggested in the various
literature available. Be aware that t signifies the pouring time into the
casting cavity only. The formula chosen for expression of the maximum
pouring time t allowed (avoidance of misrun), is:
t max = B G

where G is, as mentioned above, the weight subsequent to the calculated

section in question.

B is dependent on the thinnest wall thickness or the corresponding solid-

ification modulus as follows:

Thinnest Wall thickness mm Factor B

3-5 3 for G≤1kg and 1.5 for G≥4kg

5-10 4 for G≤1kg and 2.0 for G≥4kg

10-20 5 for G≤1kg and 2.5 for G≥4kg

>20 6 for G≤1kg and 3.0 for G≥4kg

The factors for B in the chart are valid for heavier metals like iron and Cu-
alloys. For light metals the factor B should be multiplied by 1.5-2.0.

For economical reasons the cycle time of the moulding machine should not
be influenced by the pouring time, which in most cases will be the total
pouring time limiting factor.

The pouring time t into the casting cavity will be around 1.5 sec shorter
than the total pouring time t0 since it takes around that time to fill the to-
tal gating before the metal enters the casting cavity.

A gating system becomes heavier the shorter the pouring time is set, so in
some cases for economical reasons the moulding speed might be slowed
down by the pouring time.

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6.72

General Chapters
FE
m: H = Ferrostatic height (mm)
G 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2
W= kg/sec.
100 t 50
70 70
100

)
10

kg
50
40

F(
200
1036 * G 30 7

on
F= 300

cti
t*m* H 20 5 500

-se
4 700
1000

ss
10 3 F:

cro
7 mm²
2
gh
5 2000
4
rou
3
th

2 1
tal

1000
me

0.7
1 700
t
as

0.5

F = Cross section (mm2)

0.7
fc

0.4 500
0.5
to

400
0.4 0.3
h

0.3 300
eig

0.2
=w

0.2
200
O:\Dtp\Manuals\Text\Application manual\General chapters\05-05\English\General feeding.fm

0.1
0.1
100
0.07
70
0.05
0.04 50
40
1.5 0.03
30
2
0.02
t = Pouring time (sec) 20
3
4
5 10
6 8 10 15 20 25
0.7
Note: Loss coefficient m 0.6 7
0.5
using 1.0 will give the theoretical ingate area + 0% loss factor 5
0.4
using 0.9 will give the theoretical ingate area + 15% loss factor 0.3

Application Manual
using 0.8 will give the theoretical ingate area + 25% loss factor
using 0.7 will give the theoretical ingate area + 43% loss factor m = Loss coefficient 0.2
50 70 100 200 300 500 700 1000
using 0.6 will give the theoretical ingate area + 66.6% loss factor
using 0.5 will give the theoretical ingate area + 100% loss factor
using 0.4 will give the theoretical ingate area + 150% loss factor
using 0.3 will give the theoretical ingate area + 233.3% loss factor
using 0.2 will give the theoretical ingate area + 400% loss factor

Figure 6.41 8305X0003

Gating nomogram for iron.

O:\Dtp\Manuals\Text\Application manual\General chapters\05-05\English\General feeding.fm

CU
m: H = Metallostatic height (mm)
G 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2
W= kg/sec.
t 50
100
70
70 100

)
10

kg
50

F(
40 200
850 * G 7
300

on
F= 30
t*m * H 5

cti
20 500

-se
4 700
1000

ss
10 3 F:

cro
7 mm²
2
gh
rou 5 2400
4
3
th

1
tal

2 1200
me

0.7
840
1
t
as

0.5

F = Cross section (mm2)

0.7 600
fc

0.4
0.5 480
to

0.4 0.3
h

360
eig

0.3
0.2
=w

0.2 240
G

0.1 0.1
120
0.07
85
0.05
0.04 60
50
1.5 0.03
35
2

Section 6.9 – Gating system formulas

0.02
25
t = Pouring time (sec) 3
4
5 12
6 8 10 15 20 25
0.7
0.6 8
Note: Loss coefficient m 0.5
using 1.0 will give the theoretical ingate area + 0% loss factor 0.4 6

using 0.9 will give the theoretical ingate area + 15% loss factor 0.3

Application Manual
using 0.8 will give the theoretical ingate area + 25% loss factor 0.2
using 0.7 will give the theoretical ingate area + 43% loss factor m = Loss coefficient 50 70 100 200 300 500 700 1000
using 0.6 will give the theoretical ingate area + 66.6% loss factor
using 0.5 will give the theoretical ingate area + 100% loss factor
using 0.4 will give the theoretical ingate area + 150% loss factor
using 0.3 will give the theoretical ingate area + 233.3% loss factor
using 0.2 will give the theoretical ingate area + 400% loss factor
6.73

Figure 6.42 8305X0005

Gating nomogram for CU-alloys.

6.74

General Chapters
AL
m: H = Metallostatic height (mm)
G 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2
W= kg/sec.
t 50
100
70
70 100

)
10

kg
50

F(
40 200
3100 * G 7

on
F= 30 300

cti
t *m * H 5 500
20

-se
4 700
1000

ss
10 3 F:

cro
7 mm²
2
gh 5
rou
4 5000
3
th

4000
1
tal

2 3000
me

0.7
2000
t

1
as

0.5

F = Cross section (mm2)

fc

0.7 0.4
to

0.5
0.3 1000
h

0.4
eig

0.3
700
=w

0.2
0.2
O:\Dtp\Manuals\Text\Application manual\General chapters\05-05\English\General feeding.fm

500
G

400
0.1 0.1
300
0.07
200
0.05
0.04
1.5 0.03 100
2 70
0.02
t = Pouring time (sec)
3 50
40
4
5 30
6 8 10 15 20 25
0.7
Note: Loss coefficient m 0.6 20
using 1.0 will give the theoretical ingate area + 0% loss factor 0.5
0.4
using 0.9 will give the theoretical ingate area + 15% loss factor
0.3

Application Manual
using 0.8 will give the theoretical ingate area + 25% loss factor
using 0.7 will give the theoretical ingate area + 43% loss factor m = Loss coefficient 0.2
50 70 100 200 300 500 700 1000
using 0.6 will give the theoretical ingate area + 66.6% loss factor
using 0.5 will give the theoretical ingate area + 100% loss factor
using 0.4 will give the theoretical ingate area + 150% loss factor
using 0.3 will give the theoretical ingate area + 233.3% loss factor
using 0.2 will give the theoretical ingate area + 400% loss factor

Figure 6.43 8305X0004

Gating nomogram for AL-alloys.

 Application Manual
Section 6.9 – Gating system formulas

6.9.2.8 Standard Gating Nomogram for quick calculation of F

DISA has developed nomograms for quick calculation of:

1036 × G 2 1036 × G [ kg ]
See Figure 6.41 Irons: F = ---------------------- ; F [mm ]= ------------------------------------------------- ,
t×m H t [ sec ] × m H [ mm ]
850 × G 2 850 × G [ kg ]
See Figure 6.42 Cu-alloys: F = --------------------- ; F [mm ]= ------------------------------------------------- ,
t×m H t [ sec ] × m H [ mm ]
3100 × G 2 3100 × G [ kg ]
See Figure 6.43 Al-alloys: F = ---------------------- ; F [mm ]= ------------------------------------------------- ,
t×m H t [ sec ] × m H [ mm ]

6.9.2.9 Metallostatic and metallodynamic pressures

In the above mentioned formulas for F only the contribution from

the static pressure of the metal is taken into account.

Without going into further detail, there could also be a contribution

from the velocity in the streaming metal.

For example when a stream of metal is brought to a complete stop,

the contribution of dynamic pressure is ½ρV.

It is a good idea to bear this in mind when some of the parts of the
gating system are discussed later.

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General Chapters Application Manual

Laminar flow Turbulent flow Non-turbulent flow

Figure 6.44 8303X0141

Laminar, turbulent and non-turbulent flow in channel.

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Section 6.9 – Gating system formulas

6.9.2.10 Laminar, turbulent and non-turbulent flow in gating systems

See Figure 6.44 Laminar flow occurs when fluid particles flow in layers in such a way that
no transport of material takes place perpendicular to those layers.

Turbulence flow takes place when fluid particles flow randomly between
each other.

Non-turbulent flow occurs when the fluid particles display flow patterns
between laminar flow patterns and turbulent flow patterns.

Foundrymen would normally prefer the metal flow to be laminar or non-

turbulent. Turbulence disturbs the metal film at the metal/mould inter-
face. Since such turbulence gives rise to slag/oxide-inclusions, gas inclu-
sions, sand inclusions and metal penetration, it is obvious that this
phenomenon is undesirable.

The aim is to control the gating system so that turbulent situations do not
occur in vital parts of it.

Some claim, that the so-called Weber number, We, secures non-turbulence
at the metal/mould interface, when the number is less than approximately
1:

2
V ×ρ×r
We = -------------------------
γ

where V is velocity, ρ is density, r is the surface radius in the disturbed

surface and γ is the surface tension.

Since this We number is still at the research stage at least within the foun-
dry industry, it is, although very much in demand, considered to be too dif-
ficult to utilise.

Other more practical controls of the turbulence/non-turbulence situation

are the calculations of velocities V and Reynold´s number. They will be de-
scribed in the following.

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 Application Manual
Section 6.9 – Gating system formulas

6.9.2.11 Velocities in pressurized gating systems

Maximum velocities

Velocities in a pressurised gating system are calculated according to the

formula mentioned above:
V = m 2×g×H

The only way to regulate the velocities is by changing the values of at least
one of the following:

1. The loss factor m by changing directions of the metal stream, geome-

try of the gating system and/or viscosity of the metal.
2. The gravity acceleration g, is difficult to change here, although the
centrifugal casting process utilises acceleration.
3. The metallostatic height H, which can be changed within limits on
the ingate positioning.

Some thumb rules have been experienced for the maximum allowed veloc-
ities in the ingates in order to avoid turbulence:

Alloy MAXIMUM Velocities

V[mm/sec] at ingates

Aluminium 500

Alubronze 250

Bronze 750

Grey iron 1000

Ductile iron 600

Steel 750

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Section 6.9 – Gating system formulas

Reynold’s Number

The Reynolds number Re is defined as:

V×D×ρ
Re = ------------------------
μ

where V is the velocity of the metal in the actual flow channel in a gating
system, D is the hydraulic diameter of the channel, ρ is the density of the
metal and μ is dynamic viscosity of the metal.

The Re number has no dimension. This formula could also be written:

G×k
Re = -------------
t×P

where G and t are described earlier, k is a constant depending on the met-

al in question and P is the perimeter (length of the extent) of the flow
channel cross section.

For different metals the formulas will be

5
G×k G [ kg ] × 10 × 1 sec × cm/kg
Irons: Re = ------------- , Re = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
t×P t [ sec ] × P × [ cm ]
5
G×k G [ kg ] × 10 × 1.37 sec × cm/kg
Cu-alloys: Re = ------------- , Re = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
t×P t [ sec ] × P × [ cm ]
5
G × k G [ kg ] × 10 × 1.09 sec × cm/kg
Al-alloys: Re = ------------- , Re = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
t×P t [ sec ] × P × [ cm ]

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Section 6.9 – Gating system formulas

The criteria for laminar, non-turbulent and turbulent flow are shown in
Table 2.

G = Weight of casting (kg)

G×k t = Pouring time (sec)
Re = -------------
t×P
P= Perimeter (cm)

Re <2300 2300<Re<13800 Re>13800

Laminary Non-turbulent Turbulent

Table 2: Definition of Reynold’s formula and criteria for type of flow.

Laminar flow The bulk laminar flow through a channel cross section is not likely to be
found in a foundry gating system as the channel will have a large cross
section. In that way the gating system will be too expensive and in practi-
cally all cases, bulk laminar flow is not necessary.

Turbulent flow The bulk turbulent flow through a channel cross section is be avoided be-
cause of the disturbance of the metal/mould and/or the metal/core inter-
faces.

Non-turbulent flow The non-turbulent flow, which is a transition situation between laminar
and turbulent flow, through the channel cross section is accepted when
there is no disturbance of the above-mentioned interface.

To be on the safe side, Re = 6000 should be used for ingates and

Re =12000 for the channel leading to the ingate.

It is even seen, that Re = 9000 has been used for ingates and

Re = 18000 without causing casting defects.

6.9.2.12 Losses in channels and ingates

So, velocities and/or Reynold´s numbers can be calculated, but what can
be done, if the values are too high and the castings are scrapped?

The most practical possibility is, as mentioned among other possibilities

above, to change the geometry of the gating system.

So, let us design a gating system and discuss the geometry possibilities.

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Traditional pouring cup

Anti roll-out pouring cup

Light anti roll-out pouring cup

Figure 6.45 8303X0142

Metal fill-in pattern for different pouring cups.

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Section 6.10 – Design of gating systems

6.10 Design of gating systems

Let us look at the basic gating lay-outs shown in Figure 6.29, Figure 6.30,
Figure 6.31 and Figure 6.32. We will follow the path of the metal stream.

6.10.1 Pouring cups

It is essential for obtaining sound castings that the pouring cup be filled
as quickly as possible and kept full during the rest of the pouring opera-
tion. If this is not the case, the rest of the gating system will not behave as
expected from the gating system calculations.

The transition time, which passes from start of pouring until the pouring
cup is full is a critical time where the filling process is out of control; many
gating systems are necessarily designed to repair the damages done in
this transient time. These designs will be dealt with later.

In general, it can be said that a correctly designed and dimensioned pour-

ing cup requires less precision on the part of the pourer and in this way
makes it easier to obtain a fully reproducible casting result from one
mould to another.

The characteristics of a good pouring cup are:

1. It should be easy to start pouring i. e. the metal should not splash

out of the cup even at rather high start-out pouring speeds; these
speeds are necessary to fill the pouring cup as quickly as possible.
2. It should transfer the metal to the rest of the gating system, so that
the metallostatic pressure, which was essential to determine the
sizes in the gating system, can be obtained as quickly as possible.
3. It should have a size so when it is full then during the continued
pouring it is able to let impurities and slag rise to the surface. An old
thumb rule is to let it have a weight, which has approximately the
same value as the pouring speed in weight per second, but that rule
is subject to discussion as shall be seen later.
4. It should have as little weight as possible for economical reasons.

DISA has developed standard pouring cups over the years. The first ones,
which we could call traditional types, were of the type shown in
Figure 6.45. At the time they were developed, the pouring speeds were not
so high as today, so they were working well. Today, where the pouring
speeds are higher, so called metal splash-out or roll-out will occur as
shown in the figure, both when pouring is vertical and angled.

So, this pouring cup type is not recommended for higher pouring speeds,
although useful when the distance from the outlet of the pouring device to
the cup is less than approximately 80 mm.

To avoid metal splash / roll out, the so called anti roll out pouring cup was
developed, see Figure 6.45. As can be seen, the lips counteract turbulence
and metal splash / roll out.

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C+30

B+30

10
5°

4
R10 R10
A
R10
A A

R8
B 3
3 C

Geometry of pouring cups

Cup Measurements in Pouring Weight Approx.
No. millimetres speed (kg) Efficien-
up to ... cy
A B C (kg/sec)
1 65 65 65 1.0 1.8 0.6
5° 5° 2 70 65 65 1.2 2.0 0.6
3 70 70 65 1.5 2.2 0.7
4 70 70 70 1.7 2.4 0.7
5 75 70 70 1.8 2.6 0.7
6 75 75 75 2.0 3.1 0.7
A-A
7 90 75 75 2.5 3.6 0.7
Wear plate
8 90 90 75 3.0 4.5 0.7
9 90 90 90 3.7 5.3 0.7
10 105 90 90 4.5 6.3 0.7
11 105 105 90 5.5 7.0 0.8
12 105 105 105 6.5 8.2 0.8
13 120 105 105 7.5 9.7 0.8
Pouring cup
14 120 120 105 8.5 10.6 0.8
15 120 120 120 10.0 12.5 0.8

Figure 6.46 8303X0025

Anti roll-out pouring cup.

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Section 6.10 – Design of gating systems

The anti roll out pouring cup is dimensioned for pouring speeds up to
10 kg/sec on Figure 6.46.

The parting line can be placed randomly in the vertical direction as

shown. The last column called efficiency is calculated as the pouring speed
possible for the individual cup divide by its weight.

This efficiency is pretty low for these kinds of pouring cups; and that is
why the light anti roll out pouring cup was invented.

The light anti roll out pouring cup is, as can be seen on Figure 6.45, more
slender, but still has the kind of lips, which are counteracting turbulence
and metal splash/roll out.

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D
B-10 1

10°

84
R3

10
G
C
M6x16 0 R4 R4
2
R3
M

E
F
B B

E F
4

F
H

B-B

J A-A B
1.5 A
A
ø6.5

90°
10

ø12 L
M6
K

A 3
1 Wear plate: PUR
2 Pouring cup: PUR
3 Bushing - Screws: M6x16 DIN 7991

Geometry of pouring cups

Cup Area M Pouring Weight Effi-
Measurements in millimetres 2
No. L (mm ) speed (kg) ciency
2
(mm ) up to ...
A B C D E F G H J K (kg/sec)
1 8 33 66 ø86 8 16 50 58 46 25 221 192 1 1.0 1.0
2 11 36 72 ø92 10 20 54 66 53 28 419 300 2 1.6 1.3
3 14 39 78 ø98 12 24 58 74 60 31 678 432 3 2.0 1.5
4 17 42 84 ø104 14 28 62 82 67 34 1000 588 4 2.7 1.5
5 20 45 92 ø110 16 32 68 90 74 37 1384 768 5 3.3 1.5
6 23 48 100 ø116 18 36 74 98 81 40 1830 972 6 4.2 1.4
7 26 51 108 ø122 20 40 80 104 86 42 2163 1200 7 4.9 1.4
8 29 54 116 ø128 22 44 86 112 91 45 2811 1452 8 5.6 1.4
9 32 57 124 ø134 24 48 92 120 96 48 3422 1728 9 6.4 1.4
10 35 60 132 ø140 26 52 98 128 101 50 4094 2028 10 7.0 1.4

Figure 6.47 8303X0024

Light anti roll-out pouring cup.

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Section 6.10 – Design of gating systems

The light anti roll-out pouring cup is dimensioned for pouring speeds up
to 10 kg/sec (see Figure 6.47).

If the pourer has difficulties in hitting the pouring hole in the middle of
the pouring cup, then a pouring cup size number 1 or 2 higher than the
calculated should be chosen.

For both anti roll out pouring cups special exchangeable wear plates on
top of the cups are invented to provide

• easy exchange of the wear plate when damaged and/or worn.

• a shelf on the top to catch loose sand from the moving action between
the wear plate and the moulding chamber top plate.
• extra metal reservoir for better safety for preventing the metal from
flowing over.

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X X

X
DISA 2110 40
DISA 2013 50
DISA 230 50
DISA 240 70
DISA 250 80
DISA 270 100
DISA 280 100

Figure 6.48 8303X0026

Pouring cup location on the pattern plate.

2a R2
Simple trapezoid - F = 3a2
2a a

4a R2

Slender trapezoid - F = 6a2

2a a

R2
2a

Tall trapezoid - F ≅ 6a2

6°

4a
6°

Figure 6.49 8303X0143

Standard runners and their cross-section areas.

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Section 6.10 – Design of gating systems

6.10.2 Pouring cup location on pattern plate

For mould stability reasons minimum distances from the pouring cup
edge to the mould side are recommended. See these distances in
Figure 6.48.

6.10.3 Runners

Runners are all the channels, which lead the metal from the pouring cup
to the ingates.

Runners have other functions than just leading the metal, such as pre-
venting slag, oxide, sand and gasses incl. air from entering the mould cav-
ities.

DISA has chosen three different kinds of standard runner shapes, which
are illustrated in Figure 6.49 together with the formulas for calculation of
their cross section areas.

The practical use of these runners will be described in detail in the follow-
ing sections, but stated briefly:

• Simple trapezoid runners used as vertical runners

• Slender trapezoid runners used as horizontal runners in general
• Tall trapezoid runners used as upper horizontal runners

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Correct pouring Correct pouring

Incorrect pouring Incorrect pouring

Incorrect pouring Correct pouring

Figure 6.50 8303X0146, 8303X0145, 8303X0144

Vertical runner connection to anti roll-out pouring cup.

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Section 6.10 – Design of gating systems

6.10.4 Vertical runner connection to the pouring cups

Vertical runners should guide the metal downwards as gently as possible

without any creation of vortex.

The square cross section shape is the most ideal, therefore with addition
of draft the trapezoid runner is chosen.

Various simple possibilities of vertical runner connection to the anti roll-

out pouring cups are shown in Figure 6.50. The design can of course be var-
ied widely to suit the individual foundry.

Figure 6.50 also illustrates how to pour in a pouring cup with a vertical
runner (downsprue) connected. Unless the ladle lip is very close to the
pouring cup, it is advisable not to pour directly down in the vertical run-
ner. The reason is that the velocity of the metal stream is transformed to
a velocity-dependent dynamic pressure, and as the velocity normally var-
ies depending on the distance from the pouring cup to the ladle lip, then
the dynamic pressures will also vary accordingly. This again will vary the
pouring speeds and that is of course not recommendable.

So, as shown in Figure 6.50, it is recommended to pour in a position in the

pouring cup where the velocity of the metal is reduced as much as possible
by pouring into a cavity corner in the pouring cup.

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Figure 6.51 8303X0153, 8303X0152, 8303X0151

Vertical runner connections to the light anti roll-out pouring cup.

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Section 6.10 – Design of gating systems

Different simple possibilities of vertical runner connection to the light anti

roll-out pouring cups are shown in Figure 6.51. The design can of course
be varied widely to suit the individual foundry.

Because this pouring cup is quite slender, it is difficult to pour into it and
at the same time avoid pouring directly into the vertical runner as well.

This is not recommended as it was described above, so connection of ver-

tical runners to this kind of pouring cup is not recommended accordingly;
for pouring speeds less than approximately 1 kg/sec (iron) some foundries
could use them successfully.

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Figure 6.52 8303X0150, 8303X0149, 8303X0148, 8303X0147

Horizontal runner connections to the light anti roll-out pouring cup.

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Section 6.10 – Design of gating systems

6.10.5 Horizontal runner connection to the pouring cups

Similar connection methods as described previously are possible for the

horizontal runner connections to the pouring cup, see Figure 6.52 for the
light anti roll out pouring cup.

For the anti roll out pouring cup, the connections would be very similar.
Again, precaution should be taken to avoid pouring directly into a runner.

6.10.6 Upper horizontal runners

As mentioned earlier and seen in Figure 6.49, we have a choice between 3

standard runners.

The upper horizontal runner has, besides the main purpose of bringing
the metal from one place to another, the other important purpose of clean-
ing the metal of loose sand and slag as much as necessary. Two cleaning
operations are taking place:

1. Avoid the first and normally dirty metal to progress further in the
gating system.
2. Catch sand and slag during the whole pouring operation.

In that respect the three standard runners have the following grades in
the main abilities, again used horizontally:

RUNNER, Simple Slender Tall

upper hori- trapezoid trapezoid trapezoid
zontal

transport ability GOOD PLUS GOOD GOOD

catch first metal FAIR BAD GOOD

ability

sand and slag FAIR GOOD FAIR

trapping ability

Transport ability

For the same cross section area, the simple trapezoid runner has the high-
est modulus hence the lowest temperature loss per length unit. This run-
ner should then be used where temperature loss is a greater problem than
sand and slag, for example with thin walled castings. Also where sand and
slag trapping is difficult or impossible, for example with vertical runners.

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Simple runner Slender runner Tall runner

l l

Overlapped “Fill area”

Figure 6.53 8303X0154

Horizontal runner connection to vertical runner also overlapped (fill area is shown).

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Section 6.10 – Design of gating systems

Catch first metal ability

A cross section through the upper horizontal runner and the vertical run-
ner could look as shown in Figure 6.53.

The reason for making the overlapping of the runners from one mould half
to the other is to delay the metal as much as possible in the horizontal run-
ner before the metal starts to run vertically. The metal passes at least par-
tially by the overlapping before it runs vertical.

In principle it would be perfect if the horizontal runner was completely

filled with metal before the metal starts to run vertically. Then the metal
would have adequate time to settle and the dirt to float and to stick to the
upper part of the runner because of gravity. Since this is not realistic, we
should at least ensure that the metal level in the horizontal runner rises
as quickly as possible past the overlapping part.

This task is done best by the use of the tall trapezoid runner as illustrated
for the same cross section areas and the same overlapping l.

Sand and slag trapping ability

Sand and slag are normally lighter than the metal, aluminium is an ex-
ception, and stick easily to the mould surface when they get close to it and
its velocity is low. So the ideal way to trap them is to have low flow rate
and a large upper surface on the runner. So a large slender trapezoid run-
ner is the best solution.

So, normally the tall runner is preferred

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Bypass flow

Main flow

Figure 6.54 8303X0155

Simple flow from horizontal to vertical.

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Section 6.10 – Design of gating systems

6.10.7 Overlap between upper horizontal runner and vertical

runner

The simplest change from horizontal to vertical flow is shown in

Figure 6.54. But as can be imagined and based on the earlier mentioned
considerations, overlapping will reduce the amount of the first entered
metal in a better way.

The design of the extension of the upper horizontal runner beyond the ver-
tical runner is also shown in Figure 6.54. The purpose is to catch the first
cold and dirty metal. The reason for the reduction of the cross section re-
duction towards the end of the extension is to gradually decelerate the ve-
locity. The shown design is also valid for the horizontal runners in
connection with other overlap solutions.

The connection design for the simple, the slender and the tall trapezoid
runners is seen in Figure 6.55.

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b = max c/4
b R2
R2

6°
R2

c
SIMPLE

2b
R2

4b
R5-10
b = max c/4

b R2
R2 R2
6°

R2
c

SLENDER
2b

R2 R2
4b

R5-10

R2
b = max c/6

b
6°

R2
c
6°

R2
2b

TALL
6°

R2
4b

R5-10

Figure 6.55 8303X0156

Design of overlap between upper horizontal runner and vertical runner for normal, slender, and
tall horizontal runners.

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Section 6.10 – Design of gating systems

6.10.8 Vertical runners

The simple, the slender and the tall trapezoid runners can also be used
vertically.

Used like that the three will have the following grades in the main abili-
ties, as can be seen from the horizontal runner discussion mentioned
above:

RUNNER, Simple Slender Tall trapezoid

vertical trapezoid trapezoid

transport ability GOOD PLUS GOOD GOOD

catch first metal BAD BAD BAD

ability

sand and slag BAD BAD BAD

trapping ability

Since the simple trapezoid runner has the highest modulus for the same
cross section area, it loses the least amount of temperature.

Therefore the simple runner is usually preferred and should be tapered ac-
cording to calculations.

Flat runners, such as a x 10a could be used to reduce the loss factor and
thus the metal velocity (turbulence); this is, as mentioned earlier, impor-
tant for oxidising metals like aluminium.

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Splashing
Aspiration
Turbulence

Figure 6.56 8303X0161

Simple connection from vertical to horizontal runners.

Chokes

Figure 6.57 8303X0160

Simple connection from vertical to horizontal runners with chokes.

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Section 6.10 – Design of gating systems

6.10.9 Vertical runner connections to horizontal runners

The simplest change from vertical to horizontal flow is shown in

Figure 6.56. But as can be expected, the first metal will splash, and more-
over the splashing goes directly into the horizontal runner. Droplets of
metal are formed and should later reunite, which will cause cold shot and
cold shut where polluted metal surfaces meet.

The rest of the metal will be turbulent because the velocity of the metal is
too high and the simple directional change is too abrupt. The latter is also
the reason why air is sucked/aspired into the metal because of negative
pressure.

An improvement is to choke the horizontal runner close to the connection

as seen on Figure 6.57. The additional cross section area of the two chokes
matches the cross section area of the downsprue exit.

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Well

Figure 6.58 8303X0159

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Section 6.10 – Design of gating systems

When a well is included and the horizontal runner is moved into the other
mould part as seen in Figure 6.58, the design is normally sufficient for
producing sound castings.

For further improvement in this case, chokes can also be included as de-
scribed above for simple connection.

If there are intermediate horizontal runners between the upper horizontal

and the lower horizontal runner, then the connection at the lower should
be copied for the intermediate ones.

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Chokes

Figure 6.59 8303X0158

Runners with chokes, asymmetrical (horizontal) and symmetrical (vertical).

Sticking

Flotation

Dirt

Simple Slender Tall

Figure 6.60 8303X0157

Intermediate and lower horizontal runners.

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Section 6.10 – Design of gating systems

6.10.10 Chokes and reductions on runners

If the above mentioned chokes are to be used on vertical and/or horizontal

runners, they should be designed as shown in Figure 6.59. This design en-
sures that the flow is relatively smooth.

6.10.11 Intermediate and lower horizontal runners

Once again we have the choice between a simple, a slender and a tall run-
ner as shown on Figure 6.60.

Used like this, the three will have the following grades in the main abili-
ties scheme:

RUNNER, Simple trapezoid Slender trapezoid Tall trapezoid

intermediate and
lower horizontal

transport ability GOOD PLUS GOOD GOOD

catch first metal abil- BAD BAD BAD

ity

sand and slag trap- FAIR GOOD BAD

ping ability

The ability to catch the first metal as earlier described by means of overlap
does not function here, as an overlap does not work that way going from
vertical to horizontal. All the runners will catch some first metal in that
part of the runner, which runs past the last ingate.

The most important ability for these horizontal runners is the sand- and
slag (dirt) trapping ability.

The dirt trapping ability is illustrated in Figure 6.60, where the dirt is
represented by 4 particles at the centre line of all three kind of runners;
they have the same cross section area. The best runner to catch dirt would
obviously be the one where the distance from the centre to the upper
(sticky) mould surface is shortest and at the same time the one which has
the greatest upper mould surface.

Therefore the slender trapezoid runner is to be preferred.

If there are intermediate horizontal runners between the upper horizontal

and the lower horizontal runner, then the lower should be copied for the
intermediate ones.

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8-12
3-6°

s 6-12° 12-18°
6-12° 6-12°

15-20

15° =
=
2/3 a 1/3 a
40-50 Metal flow
Ingate

Runner

Figure 6.61 8303X0163

Ingate and the connection to the horizontal runner.

Metal
impingement

Break-off

LAP SLOT

Figure 6.62 8303X0162

Laps and slot gates.

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Section 6.10 – Design of gating systems

6.10.12 Ingates

In general ingates similar to the one illustrated in Figure 6.61 should be

used. These sorts of ingates have the following advantages:

• The thin section s and a proper flow length of 8-12 mm enables dirt to
stick to the mould wall.
• The 3-6° increase in thickness away from the casting makes the
break-off easier.
• The 12-18° further increase after that ensures that the metal from the
runner does not run cold.

The ingate thickness s could vary from 25% to 100% of the maximum cast-
ing modulus. Less than 25% would affect liquid shrinkage because the in-
gate freezes before the casting has cooled down to solidification
temperature. This is most important for castings without feeder in all
metals. More than 100% would create a local hot spot in the casting in
front of the ingate; a local shrinkage would be the result. Thickness less
than 1 mm would hardly be used due to the risk of mis-run.

As also can be seen in Figure 6.61, the design is able to catch the first dirty
metal for the following reasons:

1. The extension of the runner beyond the ingate is 40-50 mm; the
reduction in cross-section towards the end is to reduce the velocity of
the metal.
2. The ingate start at the middle of the runner to let the first metal
pass under it.
3. The ingates and the horizontal runners each have a mould half so
some first metal passes by the ingate.

Besides the above described slot gates, lap gates are also possible as can
be seen in Figure 6.62. The lap gates have the following features:

• If the metal impinges on the mould wall and sand erosion occurs,
then the lap smooths out the flow as indicated.
• Up to around 2 mm overlap causes the ingate to break from the
casting quite nicely as indicated, so no grinding is necessary. More
patterns would be possible on the same pattern plate
• The lap design might cause jet formation of the metal, as the choke
length is very short. That turbulence would normally not be toler-
ated by stronger oxide film-forming metals such as aluminium
bronze and manganese bronze. To a lesser degree nodular iron and
aluminium alloys could be mentioned.
• For higher moduli, greater than 0.25 cm, the sand gets hotter near
the overlap and gas holes might occur near the area.

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General Chapters Application Manual

Figure 6.63 8303X0164

Outlets.

Flow Flow

Dross
particles

Foam Extruded

Figure 6.64 8303X0174

Filters in foam ceramics and extruded ceramics.

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Section 6.10 – Design of gating systems

6.10.13 Outlets

Although gases produced during the pouring have a good chance of escap-
ing through the vertical parting face, it has become common practice to let
the gases escape through outlets. The reason is that pouring times have
become shorter so the back pressure of the gases, both from cores, green
sand and the entrapped air have increased.

Fortunately it is very easy to make all kind of shapes with proper draft off
course and direct them all vertical directions because of the vertical part-
ing face.

The cross section of the outlets might vary from flat to square and trape-
zoid depending on the job.

If possible, the shape should be made so dirt and metal do not penetrate
the mould cavity, for example as shown in Figure 6.63.

Outlet from cores should have a cross section area, which is at least 15%
of the cross section area of the core print. Outlet from castings should have
a cross section, which is at least 15% of the cross section area of the ingate
if pressurized; if the ingate is not pressurized, then one should be calcu-
lated.

The outlet thickness t could vary from 50% to 150% of the maximum cast-
ing modulus. Less than 50% would cause liquid shrinkage because the
outlet freezes before the casting has cooled down to solidification temper-
ature. This is most important for castings without feeder in all metals

More than 150% would create local hot spot in the casting in front of the
outlet; a local shrinkage would be the result.

6.10.14 Filters

In spite of the careful effort, which is normally made to calculate a com-

plete gating system including slag traps and non-turbulent flow, some
castings still contain sand, slag, dross, oxides etc., after the first pouring
trials.

Some foundrymen do not give up at this point, but continue to make pour-
ing trials until the castings are acceptable. In some cases it is easier and/
or quicker to obtain acceptable castings by the use of some filter.

The filters normally used are so called ceramic block filters because they
are made of ceramics and the geometrical forms are blocks or boxes. In
practice two types are used, the foam filter and the extruded filter shown
in Figure 6.64. These filters have the ability to filter the following from the
melt:

• Pieces of refractory from melting furnace and ladle.

• Sand grains
• Reaction products from metal treatments
• Other slags and oxides

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R2-5 R2-5

Figure 6.65 8303X0165

Fillets around the gating system.

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Section 6.10 – Design of gating systems

The 3 working principles are also shown in Figure 6.64.

1 Screening
Dross (dirt) particles or inclusions which are larger than the hole/pore size
will be held back at the entrance of the filter.

2 Cake Formation

When larger dross is caught at the entrance of the filter, smaller dross
particles adhere to the larger ones.

3 Deep Bed Filtration

The smallest dross will stick in the filter holes/pores during the flow
through them.

There is no doubt that the filters clean the metal better than not using fil-
ters for the same gating system and there is no clear evidence that one
product is to be preferred to the other; in practice many foundries are
working with both kinds.

If possible it should be considered during planning of the gating system to

have space for possible later insertion of filter. Locally near the filter the
cross section area of the runner is 4-8 times greater than normal.

As sand and slag can be created behind the filter, it is obvious that the fil-
ter should be as close to the casting as possible. This would normally be at
both sides of the well in the intermediate and/or lower horizontal runners.
But, for economical reasons the next best solution where the filter is
placed in the vertical runner is normally chosen.

The pattern print for the filter is normally obtained from the supplier.

6.10.15 Fillet around the whole gating system

Finally, when the complete gating system is calculated and manufac-

tured, a good practice is to provide it with a fillet R=2-5 mm around it to
avoid sharp sand edges, see Figure 6.65.

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Section 6.11 – Calculation of the 4 different gating systems

6.11 Calculation of the 4 different gating systems

6.11.1 Common considerations for the gating systems

Regardless of the kind of gating system to be used for a certain casting,

the following considerations should be made.

• Choice of gating system between the 4 gating systems.

• Distance from casting cavities and mould edges depending on the cast-
ing modulus and/or casting wall thickness. This is described in Chap-
ter 2, ‘‘Pattern Equipment General’’.
• Feeding with proper feeder(s), single or common feeding, and/or feed-
ing with the runner. This is described in Section 6.1, ‘‘Feeding’’ on
page 6.3.
• How to hang possible cores in the mould and the core mask. This is
described in the Chapter 4, ‘‘Cores’’
• Orientation of the castings depending on the above mentioned feeding
and coring.
• Yield, which is the castings weight divided by total poured weight.
• Number of patterns on.
• Casting quality.

The outcome is a result of an iteration process among the above mentioned

consideration points.

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VERTICAL GATING
Pressurized vs. depressurized vs non-pressurized vs mixed

Feature Pressurized Depressurized Non-pressurized Mixed

(hybrid)

Stability in cavity filling High High Low High

Yield from the mould High Middle Low Middle

Pattern plate utilization High Low Middle Low

Sensitivity in inclusion defects:

— Sand High Low High Low

— Slag High Low High Low

— Dross (SG-Iron) High Low High Low

— Oxides (AL-alloys) High Low High Middle

Sensitivity to metal penetration High Low Middle Low

and rough surface formation

Risk of sand erosion (washing High Low High Middle

defects)

Risk of cold shut Low Middle High Middle

Running-in time Long Short Long Middle

Defects curing time Long Short Long Middle

Sensitivity on bad or inconsistent High Low High Middle

process

Casting cleaning economy Good Bad Middle Good

Table 3: Comparison table for vertical gating systems.

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Section 6.11 – Calculation of the 4 different gating systems

6.11.2 Choice of gating system between the 4 gating systems

The choice is affected by many factors. The list of factors starts with cast-
ing quality requirements, quality of the raw materials, job size, reliability
of the process and ends with alloys and melting prices.

The comparison table shown in Table 3, where the most important fea-
tures are evaluated for the gating systems, can be used to choose the gat-
ing system.

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Figure 6.66 8303X0167

Filling sequence: Just after the metal has filled the gating systems.

Figure 6.67 8303X0166

Filling sequence: 3.5 sec pouring time.

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Section 6.11 – Calculation of the 4 different gating systems

The filling sequence “Just after the metal has filled gating systems” is
shown in Figure 6.66 for the 4 systems. In Figure 6.67 is shown a se-
quence after 3.5 seconds pouring time.

The pictures are self-explanatory regarding many of the feature evalua-

tions made in Table 3.

The following calculations for the 4 gating systems are based on following
common facts and pre-calculations:

• Moulding machine DISA 230 A (480x600 mm)

• Mould production rate 480 moulds/hour.
• Casting name is connection disc.
• Grey cast iron.
• Casting geometry see Figure 6.68, resulting in an approximate casting
weight of 700g and a casting modulus of 0.67cm.
• Safety distances from casting cavities and mould edges depending on
the casting module and/or casting wall thickness are taken from the
table on Figure 6.70, which is an extraction of the table in Chapter 2,
‘‘Pattern Equipment General’’.
• The safety distances are illustrated on the pattern plate in
Figure 6.68.
• The location of the patterns within the rectangle resulting from the
safe distance considerations is chosen as common to the 4 gating sys-
tems for convenience, see Figure 6.69.

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70
80

Thickness 20

50
60

Figure 6.68 8303X0168

Safety distances and pattern distribution.

600

200 200

135 135

70 70

135

260

385
177
480
53

77

88
218
288
358
488

Figure 6.69 8303X0175

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Section 6.11 – Calculation of the 4 different gating systems

Casting wall Modulus of Total pattern height Top edge Side edges Bottom edge
thickness solidification (without pattern A B C
plates)

mm in. cm in. mm in. mm in. mm in. mm in.

0 - 100 0 - 3.9 30 - 40 1.2 - 1.6 30 - 40 1.2 - 1.6

0 - 10 0 - 0.4 0 - 0.50 0 - 0.2 100 - 200 3.9 - 7.9 70 2.8 50 - 60 2.0 - 2.4 50 - 60 2.0 - 2.4
200 - 300 7.9 -11.8 70 - 80 2.8 - 3.2 70 - 80 2.8 - 3.2

0 - 100 0 - 3.9 50 - 60 2.0 - 2.4 40 - 50 1.6 - 2.0

10 - 15 0.4 - 0.6 0.50 - 0.75 0.2 - 0.3 100 - 200 3.9 - 7.9 70 2.8 70 - 80 2.8 - 3.2 60 - 70 2.4 - 2.8
200 - 300 7.9 -11.8 90 - 100 3.5 - 3.9 80 - 90 3.2 - 3.5

0 - 100 0 - 3.9 60 - 70 2.4 - 2.8 50 - 60 2.0 - 2.4

15 - 20 0.6 - 0.8 0.75 - 1.00 0.3 - 0.4 100 - 200 3.9 - 7.9 70 2.8 80 - 90 3.2 - 3.5 70 - 80 2.8 - 3.2
200 - 300 7.9 -11.8 100 - 110 3.9 - 4.3 90 - 100 3.5 - 3.9

0 - 100 0 - 3.9 70 - 80 2.8 - 3.2 60 - 70 2.4 - 2.8

20 - 25 0.8 - 1.0 1.00 - 1.25 0.4 - 0.5 100 - 200 3.9 - 7.9 70 2.8 90 - 100 3.5 - 3.9 80 - 90 3.2 - 3.5
200 - 300 7.9 -11.8 110 - 120 4.3 - 4.7 100 - 110 3.9 - 4.3

Figure 6.70 8302X0023

Safety distances cavity to mould.

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F5 runner 10/20 x 20

135

Pouring cup no. 3 57 F4 runner 8/16 x 16

37

78 F3 ingate 10.5 x 3

145

273
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F2 ingate 7.5 x 3

399
435

F1 ingate 6 x 3

Application Manual
Figure 6.71 8303X0169

Detailed pressurized gating layout.

 Application Manual
Section 6.11 – Calculation of the 4 different gating systems

6.11.3 Calculation of the pressurized gating system

The detailed dimensioned pressurized gating lay-out is shown in

Figure 6.71. The pressurized system is normally meant to bring the metal
as simply and directly as possible to the casting cavity so simple trapezoid
runners are used. Improvements like slag traps, wells etc. could follow af-
ter the first pouring trials if necessary. The calculations are as follows:

6.11.3.1 Ingates

As mentioned earlier, the ingates in a pressurized gating system are the

pouring time determining cross sections, which are marked on the draw-
ing with small circles.

To calculate the sizes F1, F2 and F3 of the 3 levels of ingates, the standard
formula
k×G
F = ---------------------------
m×t× H

k for iron is 1036.

G is the weight of the casting, 0.7kg.

Ingate thickness is chosen between 25% and 100% of the casting modulus,
which is 0.67cm, hence a choice between 1.7mm and 6.7mm, so it could be
3mm. From Figure 6.38 m should be 0.5.

t is the pouring time for each cavity and is determined as follows, where
the two previously mentioned criteria should be fulfilled:

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Figure 6.72 8303X0170

Design of vertical runners.

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Section 6.11 – Calculation of the 4 different gating systems

1 Cycle time criterion

tmax = Cycle time – mould transport time – gating system filling
3600
time = ------------ – 1.5 – 1.5 ≅ 4.5 sec
480

2 Mis-run criterion

t max = B G = 5 0.7 ≅ 4.2 sec

So, t = 4 sec is chosen for simplicity and to have a little safety margin.

The average ferrostatic heights H1, H2 and H3 are approximately:

H1 = 135 mm
H2 = 260 mm
H3 = 385 mm

The resulting ingate sizes will be

1036 × 0.7 2
F 3 = ------------------------------------ = 31.2mm ≅ 3 × 10.5 mm
0.5 × 4 × 135

1036 × 0.7 2
F 2 = ------------------------------------ = 22.5mm ≅ 3 × 7.5 mm
0.5 × 4 × 260

1036 × 0.7 2
F 1 = ------------------------------------ = 18.5mm ≅ 3 × 6 mm
0.5 × 4 × 385

6.11.3.2 Vertical runners

As a compensation for the flow losses due to changes in metal direction,

the cross section area F4 of the vertical runner should be 10-20% bigger
than the total cross section area of all the ingates connected to it. In this
case 15% is chosen.
2
F 4 ≥ ( 31.5 + 22.5 + 18 ) × 2 × 1.15 = 165.6 mm

This calculated value is rounded up to the value of 172 mm2, which corre-
sponds to a simple trapezoid runner size 8/16x16.

The vertical runner could be designed tapered or stepped as shown in

Figure 6.72. to compensate for the high pressure build-up in the bottom of
the runner and the low pressure in the top. The calculation of the now dif-
ferent cross section areas in the vertical runner could be done similarly to
the calculation of F4.

6.11.3.3 Horizontal runners

The size of the horizontal runner will normally be chosen so the a-value is
two sizes bigger than the connected vertical runner. In this case a simple
runner of size F5 (10/20x20)=300 mm2 is chosen.

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Pouring cup no. 3

135 135
F6 runner 15/7.5 x 30
57 F5 runner 10.5/21 x 21

F7 runner 72.5 x 4 37
F4 runner 9/18 x 18

78
F3 runner 7/14 x 14

192.5

317.5
F9 16 x 3 F8 runner 5/10 x 10
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430
442.5 F2 runner 5/10 x 10
F9 16 x 3

F1 runner 3/6 x 6

20 F9 16 x 3

23°

Application Manual
16
Thickness 20
20

Figure 6.73 8303X0171

Detailed depressurized gating layout.

 Application Manual
Section 6.11 – Calculation of the 4 different gating systems

6.11.3.4 Pouring cup

The standard cup sizes are classified according to the pouring rate (kg/sec)
they can provide. The total poured weight G t is, if 70% yield is assumed:
0

0.7 x 12
G t = ------------------- =12kg and the total pouring time is
0 70%
t0 = 4 +1.5 = 5.5sec, so the average pouring rate is
12
------- ≅ 2.2kg/sec
5.5
so pouring cup no 3 is chosen.

6.11.4 Calculation of the depressurized gating system

The detailed dimensioned depressurized gating lay-out is shown in

Figure 6.73. This kind of system is supposed to avoid turbulence and/or
slow down velocities in all other parts than the vertical runner in order to
clean possible dirty metal and/or to prevent formation of new dirt. That is
also the reason why ingates are put in the bottom of the casting. The cal-
culations are as follows:

6.11.4.1 Vertical runners

The vertical runners are now pressurized, so the formula

k×G
F = ---------------------------
m×t× H

should be used on them, see of F4, F3, F2 and F1 on Figure 6.73.

The only parameters, which will change in the calculations, are G and m.
m is chosen to be 0.7 because losses are smaller in the wider runners than
in the thinner ingates, see also Figure 6.38.

The calculations of the runner sizes are as follows:

1036 × 0.7 × 6 2 2
F 3 = ------------------------------------ = 133.8 mm ≅ 7/14 × 14 mm = 147 mm
0.7 × 4 × 135

1036 × 0.7 × 6 2 2
F 2 = ------------------------------------ = 64.3 mm ≅ 5/10 × 10 mm = 75 mm
0.7 × 4 × 260

1036 × 0.7 × 2 2 2
F 1 = ------------------------------------ = 26.4 mm ≅ 3/6 × 6 mm = 27 mm
0.7 × 4 × 385

Due to heat loss and increase of flow loss over long distances, vertical run-
ner size less than 4/8 x 8 is not recommended, so:
2
F 1 = 4/8 × 8 mm = 48 mm

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Section 6.11 – Calculation of the 4 different gating systems

The upper part of the vertical runner at distance 78mm should be a size,
which brings at least the same flow rate as F3, so in theory the size would
be:
1036 × 0.7 × 6 192.5
F 4 = ----------------------------------- × ----------------- , where 192.5mm is the actual
0.7 × 4 × 78 135
ferrostatic height to position 3 and 135mm is the average ferrostatic
height for position 3. As F3 is chosen to be 147mm2 then the size will be:

192.5 2 2
F 4 = 147 × ----------------- = 230.9 mm ≅ 9/18 × 18 mm = 243 mm
78

As can be seen, a simple solution, where less dirt is caught in the upper
horizontal runner, is chosen in the right part of the lay-out, and a better
solution is chosen at the left.

6.11.4.2 Upper horizontal runner (right side)

The method of calculation is the same as for the vertical runner, but this
case the ferrostatic height is chosen to be 40 to ensure that it is sufficiently
large. The reason is that small variations in the metal level in pouring cup
are affecting the metal flow to the system a lot when the runner is too
small.

192.5 2 2
F 5 = 147 × ----------------- = 322.5 mm ≅ 10.5/21 × 21 mm = 330.8 mm
40

or

192.5 2 2
F 5 = 147 × ----------------- = 322.5 mm ≅ 7.5/15 × 30 mm = 337.5 mm
40

The choice should be between the simple and the slender trapezoid run-
ner.

6.11.4.3 Upper horizontal runner (left side)

The calculation is the same as for the right side runner, so

192.5 2 2
F 6 = 147 × ----------------- = 322.5 mm ≅ 15/7.5 × 30 mm = 337.5mm
40

In this case the tall trapezoid runner is chosen.

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Section 6.11 – Calculation of the 4 different gating systems

6.11.4.4 Overlap between upper horizontal runner and vertical run-

ner

The calculation of the overlap cross section is the average between the up-
per runner size and the top of the vertical runner, hence:

F7 = ½(F6 + F4) = ½(337.5 mm2 + 243 mm2) = 290 mm2

1
Since the overlap may not exceed --6- of the vertical dimension 30 of the up-
per horizontal runner, then 72.5 x 4mm could be chosen.

6.11.4.5 Intermediate and lower horizontal runners

The highest velocity in the system is at F1, where the velocity is:

V 1 = m 2 × g × H 1 = 0.7 2 × 9.81 × 0.385 = 1.9 m/sec

As only 1m/sec is allowed before the entry into the casting cavity, the in-
termediate and lower runners must be so big in cross section area that this
maximum is not exceeded.

The 2 runners that lead the metal away from F1 must therefore have to-
gether a cross section area, which is 1.9 timers greater than F1. Hence,
each of them:
2
F 8 ≥ F 1 × 1.9 = ½48 × 1.9 = 45.6 mm

Here again for the same reason as for vertical runners, horizontal runners
should not be smaller than 5/10 x 10mm, so

F8 = 5/10 × 10 = 75 mm2

Again for heat loss reasons, a simple trapezoid runner is chosen instead of
the recommended slender type.

The calculations were made for the lower horizontal runner, but as the
cavities are meant to be filled simultaneously, then the runner size should
be the same for the intermediate horizontal runners.

6.11.4.6 Ingates

For the same reasons as for intermediate and lower horizontal runners:
2 2
F 9 ≥ ½F 1 × 1.9 = ½48 × 1.9 = 45.6 mm = 16 × 3 mm = 48 mm

The ingate thickness of 3mm is chosen as before. The calculations were

made for the lower ingates, but as the cavities are meant to be filled simul-
taneously, then the ingate size should be the same for all ingates.

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Section 6.11 – Calculation of the 4 different gating systems

6.11.4.7 Wells

The wells illustrated in Figure 6.73 are designed for the lower vertical
runner connection to the horizontal runner, but as the cavities are meant
to be filled simultaneously, the well size should be the same for all the oth-
er similar connections.

6.11.4.8 Pouring cup

The gating system is approximately 350g heavier than the pressurized

system and the total pouring time is still 5.5 sec, so the average flow rate
is:
12.35
------------- ≅ 2.25 kg/sec
5.5

so the pouring cup number is still 3.

The connections of the horizontal runners to the pouring cup are shown in
Figure 6.52.

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General Chapters
F5 runner 10.5/21 x 21

135

Pouring cup no. 3 57 F4 runner 12.5/25 x 25

37

F3 ingate 31 x 3
78

F2 ingate 31 x 3
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435
F1 ingate 31 x 3

Application Manual
Figure 6.74 8303X0172

Detailed non-pressurised gating layout.

 Application Manual
Section 6.11 – Calculation of the 4 different gating systems

6.11.5 Calculation of the non-pressurized gating system

The detailed dimensioned non-pressurized gating lay-out is shown in

Figure 6.74. This kind of system is initially thought merely to guide the
metal from one point to another without concerns about how it is treated
during that trip.

The colloquial expression “sewer system” is fairly apt since this also trans-
ports material from one place to another with varying flow rates; the sys-
tem is normally also over-sized so the material never has full contact with
the system walls. Similarly the pourer in the foundry is sometimes unable
to keep the pouring cup full during the pouring operation because the met-
al drains away from it; he cannot pour with sufficient pouring speed from
his pouring device.

The shown non-pressurized system is slightly more accommodating since

the upper horizontal runners are calculated for the same flow as the de-
pressurized system. The design of the system after the horizontal runner
could be a combination of all the designs previously described, only that it
is over-sized in relation to the upper horizontal runner.

In this case a pressurized design is chosen, but it is actually calculated as

reversed pressurized!

The following are a few calculations:

6.11.5.1 Upper horizontal runner

Same as for the depressurized system:

F5 = 10.5/21 × 21 mm = 330.8 mm2

6.11.5.2 Vertical runner

The vertical runner is twice as large as the upper horizontal runner,

hence:

F4 = 12.5/25 × 25 = 468.8 mm2

6.11.5.3 Ingates

Total ingate area could be 20% bigger than the vertical runner and all are
of equal size, so:

468.8 × 120% 2 2
F 3 = F 2 = F 1 = --------------------------------- = 93.8 mm ≅ 31 × 3 mm = 93 mm
6

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Section 6.11 – Calculation of the 4 different gating systems

6.11.5.4 Pouring cup

The gating system is approximately 1000g heavier than the depressurized

system, and the total pouring time is still 5.5 sec, so the average flow rate
is:

13.35
------------- ≅ 2.43g/sec,
5.5

so the pouring cup number is still 3.

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General Chapters
Pouring cup no. 3

135 135
F6 runner 15 / 7.5 x 30
57 F5 runner 10.5/21 x 21
F7 runner 72.5 x 4 37
F4 runner 9/18 x 18

78
F3 runner 7/14 x 14

192.5

317.5 F11 10.5 x 3 F8 runner 5/10 x 10

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430
442.5 F2 runner 5/10 x 10
F10 7.5 x 3

F1 runner 3/6 x 6

20 F9 6 x3

23°

Application Manual
16
Thickness 20
20

8303 X 0173-01

Figure 6.75 8303X0173

Detailed mixed (hybrid) gating layout.

 Application Manual
Section 6.11 – Calculation of the 4 different gating systems

6.11.6 Calculation of the mixed (hybrid) gating system

The detailed dimensioned mixed (hybrid) gating lay-out is shown in

Figure 6.75. These kinds of systems, which are a mixture of at least 2 of
the 3 earlier described systems, have been invented because they have
been successful compared to the 3 other types.

The type shown in Figure 6.75 is a mixture of pressurized and depressu-

rized systems, where the vertical runners are balanced with the ingates
with respect to the pouring rate and velocity. In this way the ability of the
lower horizontal runner to catch dirt is combined with the relatively small
ingate to hold the dirt back. The areas marked with small circles are the
most important control points.

The calculations are as follows:

6.11.6.1 Pouring cup, upper horizontal runners, vertical runners,

wells and intermediate and lower runners

The calculations are the same as for the depressurized system.

6.11.6.2 Ingates

If the ingates must balance the vertical runner, then F11, F10 and F9 are
found using the usual formula for F:

1036 × 0.7 2 2
F 11 = ------------------------------------ = 31.2 mm ≅ 3 × 10.5 mm
0.5 × 4 × 135

1036 × 0.7 2 2
F 10 = ------------------------------------ = 22.5 mm ≅ 3 × 7.5 mm
0.5 × 4 × 260

1036 × 0.7 2 2
F 9 = ------------------------------------ = 18.5 mm ≅ 3 × 6 mm
0.5 × 4 × 385

Note that the ingate thickness is chosen 3mm as earlier and that the re-
sults of course are the same as for F3, F2 and F1 in the pressurized system.

It is usual that each foundry finds its relationship between the cross sec-
tion areas of the vertical runner F1, the lower horizontal runner F8 and the
ingate F9, for example as in this case:

F1 : F8 : F9 = 1 : 1.9 : 1.4

It is good to have some rules of thumb, but exercise caution since as can
be gathered from the calculations the cross sections are based on choice of
m and H.

m and H can vary greatly depending on the loss in the specific vertical
runner and the specific ingate as well as the mould height. See the Section
6.9.2.1, ‘‘Loss factor m’’ on page 6.63 and consider the different moulding
machine heights!

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Figure 6.76 8303X0176

Example of computer aided pouring and solidification simulations.

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Section 6.12 – Pouring trials and simulations

6.12 Pouring trials and simulations

After the pattern plate lay-out and gating system has been made, then
there are mainly 3 pouring trials to choose between:

• Computer aided pouring and solidification simulations

• Mould aided simulated pouring trials
• DISA moulding machine pouring trials

6.12.1 Computer aided pouring and solidification simulations

Advanced commercial computer software is available for making simulat-

ed calculations on mould filling and solidification, see example of mould
filling on Figure 6.76.

Based on the simulations the pouring time can be checked as well as tur-
bulent/laminar flow, flow distribution, solidification times, possible
shrinkage and temperatures as the most basic information.

It should be stressed that this computer aided simulation provides an-

swers to many questions, but cannot give any or little information about:

• Real casting quality

• DISA machine settings
• Mould transport
• Melting praxis
• DISA moulding
• Core setting
• Pouring method

A condition for the simulation is that the casting drawing and the corre-
sponding gating system drawing must be in 3D CAD format.

Input to the simulation is among others the pouring temperature, metal

composition and pouring rate.

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Figure 6.77 8303X0031

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Section 6.12 – Pouring trials and simulations

6.12.1.1 Mould aided simulated pouring trials

This method of making a simulated pouring trial patterns is normally per-

formed by moulding the DISA patterns and gating system horizontally
and pouring them vertically as seen in Figure 6.77.

It should be stressed that this mould-aided simulation answers many

questions, but cannot provide any or little information about:

• DISA machine settings

• Mould transport
• Melting practice
• DISA moulding
• Core setting
• Pouring method

A condition for the simulation is that the complete set of DISA pattern
equipment incl. possible cores is available.

Registration of the following should be done:

• Metal data
• Moulding and core sand data.
• Gating data
• Pattern equipment data
• Process data
• Mould quality data
• Casting quality, casting rejection

For the above please refer to, Chapter 9, ‘‘Tables’’

DISA machine settings are of course not possible in this case as it is for
the next described pouring trial.

This way of simulation is not widespread used since the appearance of the
computer-aided simulation.

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Section 6.12 – Pouring trials and simulations

6.12.2 DISA moulding machine pouring trials

This is the kind of pouring trial which is the most realistic. But it is also
the most expensive since trial time means no production time and the
whole set of pattern equipment must be available.

Registration of the following should be done:

• Metal data
• Moulding and core sand data
• Gating data
• Pattern equipment data
• Process data
• DISA machine settings, production data
• Mould quality data
• Casting quality, casting rejection

Each foundry finds its own data, which they consider important among
the comprehensive amount of data seen in the sheets. Then it should cre-
ate its own pouring trial report sheet like the one shown in Chapter 9, ‘‘Ta-
bles’’.

6.12.3 Evaluation of pouring trial results

When the data has been collected and the castings and the gating systems
are available, then the detective work can begin.

It is very important to make this work very systematically, so afterwards

proper measures can be taken to improve the quality of the castings. The
casting defects come from at least one of the areas described in the previ-
ous section.

References

It has been a great inspiration to read the foundry technology book Cast-
ings written by John Campbell, University of Birmingham, England.

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Chapter 7 — Process General

7 Process General

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CHARGING
FURNACE OPERATION MATERIALS

NON-METALLIC
MELT CONTROL
MAINTENANCE
PREPARATION

AUXILIARY
FURNACE

METALLIC
MELTING
FURNACE

RECORDING ON
MELTING SHEET WEIGHING AND
TEMPERATURE AND MEASURING
COMPOSITION CONTROL

TEMPERATURE AND
COMPOSITION CORRECTON

TEMPERATURE AND
COMPOSITION CONTROL

MELT TREATMENT

METAL

PROPER AND CONSISTENT PROPER AND CONSTANT

COMPOSITION TEMPERATURE REQUIRED MELTING RATE

Figure 7.1
Flow diagram for melting furnace operation.

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Section 7.1 – Metal pouring practice

7.1 Metal pouring practice

Before high-quality molten metal can be poured, it will be subjected

to several operations. The most important ones are listed below:

• charging and melting

• metal tapping
• metal inoculation and alloying
• slag skimming
• transport

7.1.1 Charging and melting

It is obvious that the metal melting plant must fulfil the following
objectives:

• provide metal of proper and consistent composition

• provide metal of constant and proper temperature
• supply metal at the required melting rate

The three features mentioned are the output features of the metal
melting furnace operation depicted as a flow diagram on Figure 7.1.

The same three features are the input from the melting plant to the
casting production process. It definitely does not mean that control
of all aspects of the melting process is not required to achieve good
production results. In particular, control of charging materials and
practice has significant influence on the casting quality.

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Section 7.1 – Metal pouring practice

7.1.2 Metal tapping

The ladles must be of proper design and size. They must be equipped
with a cover, preferably insulated. This contributes to minimizing
the metal temperature loss. For instance, a 1000 kg filled iron ladle
loses approx. 6°C/min. when uncovered, and only 4°C/min. when
covered by a lined cover.

The size has also strong influence on the heat losses. For example,
a full 500 kg ladle loses approx. 12°C/min. which is twice as much as
the 1000 kg ladle.

Generally the cooling rate for an uncovered ladle is:

2.3 x metal top surface area (cm2)
Cooling rate (°C/min) =
metal weight (kg)

and for a covered ladle:

1.1 x metal top surface area (cm2)
Cooling rate (°C/min) =
metal weight (kg)

Even a well-designed and sizable ladle will never be a good trans-

port device, if not:

• properly relined and repaired every day

• dried completely after relining
• completely emptied of metal residue from previous use
• cleaned of slag remainders
• preheated to correct temperature before refilling

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Section 7.1 – Metal pouring practice

7.1.3 Inoculation and alloying

The purposes of inoculation are to

• reduce chilling tendency and carbide formations

• increase strength properties of low carbon irons.

It must be stressed, however, that improper inoculation can have

negative effect on casting quality. The positive effect is obtained by
the use of:

• proper inoculant
• proper degree of dispersion of the inoculant taking into account:
metal temperature
bath movement
waiting time between inoculation and pouring
• short metal distribution time before the inoculation effect fades
• proper amount (an overinoculation can cause increased shrink-
age tendency etc.)
• dry inoculant

Different makes of inoculant dispensers are available on the mar-

ket, some of which dispense the inoculant pneumatically or mechan-
ically. They do so into the stream of iron, either when being
transferred to a transport ladle or later, directly into the metal jet
during pouring into the moulds by the automatic pouring device.

A good inoculant dispenser has many advantages, such as:

• well-measured amount of inoculant

• good reaction efficiency due to inoculation in the metal stream
• optimal reaction time
• minimum temperature loss
• high consistency of the inoculation

The purposes of alloying are to:

• increase strength properties

• improve machinability
• obtain better heat resistance properties
• increase hardness etc.

The addition of alloys must be controlled very accurately. Improper

addition is metallurgically dangerous and uneconomical (most al-
loys are expensive).

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Section 7.1 – Metal pouring practice

7.1.4 Skimming

Metal skimming should be introduced as a routine after each metal

transfer from ladle to ladle and after any type of melt treatment.
The less slag entering the gating system the less necessity to equip
the gating system with slag dams, slag traps, slag filters etc.

7.1.5 Transport

There are some fundamental principles which have to be observed

in good iron transportation:

• correct iron tapping temperature

• minimum number of iron transfer operations from ladle to ladle
• high moving speed of the ladles
• short transport distance from furnace to mould string.

Our main purpose is to get hot, clean and properly treated iron to
the mould string, ready for pouring and as quickly as possible. The
heat loss is large during the entire metal handling process between
tapping from the furnace or receiver until the last mould is poured
from the ladle in question. Heat is lost due to the following factors:

• metal tapping from the furnace

• skimming operation
• metal treatment
• iron transfer from one ladle to another (up to 100°C for each
transfer)
• iron transfer from one transport device to another
• pouring of each mould (time of one moulding cycle multiplied by
the number of moulds poured from each ladle)

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Cupola 1450°C

50°C
Time of transfer 5- 10 min Loss 40°C 40°C
Re-filling loss 30°C 30°C
1330°C

A pouring device maintains

the temperature

Time of transfer 5- 10 min. Loss 40°C

Hand pouring temperature loss
8-12°C/min.

Loss 40-50°C

1400-1450°C
Temperature loss
12°C/min.

Temperature loss
6-8°C/min.

Figure 7.2 8304 X 0002

Metal being transferred from a melting furnace to the mould string might be cooled down to a tem-
perature which is much too low for pouring (example).

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Section 7.1 – Metal pouring practice

Hence, the transportation time must be as short as possible, consid-

ering that in most cases the pouring temperature must be high
enough, also for the last moulds being poured from a ladle. Figure
7.2 shows how fast the iron temperature may decline during trans-
porting from the cupola furnace to the first mould poured at the
moulding machine. In the table below some guidelines for the rec-
ommended pouring temperatures for some iron alloys are shown:

GUIDELINES FOR IRON POURING TEMPERATURES

Thin sect. castings Thick sect. castings

<6 mm >6 mm

°C °F °C °F

Grey Iron 1430 ±10 2610 ±18 1420 ±10 2590 ±18

Ductile Iron 1450 ±10 2640 ±18 1430 ±10 2610 ±18

Malleable Iron 1460 ±10 2660 ±18 1440 ±10 2625 ±18

7.1.6 Pouring the metal

The pouring operation is intended to introduce hot and clean metal

into the properly produced mould cavities through a well-designed
gating system and in the shortest possible time; in the cavities the
metal will solidify to form a high-quality casting. However, use of
clean, hot metal and an ideal gating system or even properly pro-
duced moulds is of no use if the pouring method is incorrect.

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Section 7.1 – Metal pouring practice

7.1.6.1 Manual Pouring

Of course, the old saying that a good pourer does not spill metal and
does not seem to work hard, still holds true, but today it would be
expressed differently; a good pourer realizes the importance of his
contribution to the casting production process. It is, after all, easier
to pour properly by means of a good pouring device than to pour
manually. That is why the first part of this section is devoted to
manual pouring.

There are few fundamental principles to be followed by a good pourer:

a. always hold the spout of the pouring ladle as close as possible

to the pouring cup
b. hit the pouring cup as close as possible to dead centre
c. never tilt the ladle all the way back after each poured mould
(it takes time to tilt it forward again)
d. fill the gating system and pouring cup as quickly as possible
e. follow the changes of metal requirements of the gating system
during the entire pouring operation
f. keep the pouring cup full during the entire pouring operation
g. use the push-button switch, blocking the moulding machine
before the mould transport operation, with care and release it
immediately after the mould has been poured.

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A B C
a2 a1 a

RIGHT WRONG

Ladle in pouring position Ladle in mould transport position

Figure 7.3 8304 X 0003

After pouring (A), the ladle must be tilted back only slightly (B) so that the iron level does not
withdraw too much from the spout tip (C). In other words, a2 – a1 must be as little as possible.

A B

H1 H1

H2 I H2 I

II II

Figure 7.4 8304 X 0004

It takes too long to fill the gating system (A); all kinds of impurities flow into the casting II and
have no chance of rising to the cup surface. The metal flow in the gating system (B) is continuous
and ingate areas act in accordance with the ferrostatic heights on which they are based. The filling
of both cavities is almost simultaneous.

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Section 7.1 – Metal pouring practice

Re a) The spout of the ladle should stay as close as possible to the pouring
cup. There are two reasons:

• An excessively long pouring stream has a high velocity and cre-

ates more turbulent flow in the upper area of the gating system,
which in turn may cause sand erosion and inclusion defects.
• Excessive distance from the spout to the pouring cup makes it
more difficult to hit the right area.

Re b) The flow losses are increased when the metal flow does not hit the
pouring cup neck centrally. This can cause an increase of gating sys-
tem filling time, which in turn prolongs total pouring time. It will
also make it difficult to keep the cup full during pouring, and finally
it can result in metal splash over the mould surface.

Re c) The metal level in the ladle must stay as high as possible (Figure
7.3) during mould transport when the moulding machine moves the
mould string by one pitch. This ensures that immediately after ar-
rival of the new mould ready for pouring, a minimum tilting move-
ment of the ladle is sufficient to start. Any unnecessary movement
of the pouring ladle extends the machine cycle time and reduces pro-
ductivity.

Re d) Only a gating system which is filled up to the top of the pouring cup
can work in accordance with the calculations; this means that the
ingate areas are determined on the basis of the respective ferrostatic
pressure heights. If the heights are not obtained, the ingate areas
are too small. This results in improper mould filling sequence (Fig-
ure 7.4), which in turn causes:

• extended pouring time

• inclusion defects in castings
• short-poured top parts of the upper castings due to lack of iron
pressure in the last phase of the pouring operation.

Re e) Each gating system has its own pouring rate characteristics as a

function of time. The changes of iron demand during the entire pour-
ing operation depend on:

• type of gating system (top, side or bottom)

• design of gating system
• geometry of casting

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A B

Figure 7.5 8304 X 0005

A sudden drop of the metal level in the system from (A) to (B) will extend the pouring time and
press any impurities rising to the surface into the nearest casting cavity.

Pouring speed kg/sec

Time

Pouring speed kg/sec

Time

Pouring speed kg/sec

Time

Figure 7.6 8304 X 0006

Illustration of metal requirement changes as a function of time, caused by the difference in the
type of gating system.

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Section 7.1 – Metal pouring practice

One of the tasks of a good pourer is to comply with this demand so

that the gating system is continuously filled with metal.

Supposing that the system was filled during the initial stage of the
pouring operation (Figure 7.5 (A)) and the ingate areas worked in
accordance with the ferrostatic heights on which their calculation
was based and that the possible impurities at this initial stage were
rising to the surface of the cup, a sudden drop of metal level in the
sprue would reduce the filling speed of the casting cavities and press
the impurities while on their way up into the nearest casting cavity
(Figure 7.5 (B)).

Even if the pourer notices the fall in the iron level and corrects it,
the impurities will never leave the casting again due to the pressure
difference between the pressurized gating system and the casting
cavity.

It is difficult to predict how casting geometry affects metal flow

changes during pouring, but Figure 7.6 shows how different types of
gating systems influence the profile of the flow curve.

Just as underfilling the mould can cause trouble, overfilling will also
give rise to such problems as metal overflow. This will result in:

• metal spillage
• flow of the metal resting on the top face of the mould to the sub-
sequent pouring cup during mould string transport.

Re f) The aspect of keeping the pouring cup full during pouring has been
explained under items (d) and (e).

Re g) The moulding machine has a terminal which can be connected to a

switch for starting the mould transport operation when the pouring
operation is finished. This is mainly used when automatic pouring
is applied. However a push-button switch can be connected to the
same terminal for manual pouring. The pourer can then stop the
moulding machine before starting the mould transport operation if
the pouring has not been completed. This may not cause reduced
productivity. The pourer must realize that the entire moulding
plant is waiting for the switch to be released when pouring is com-
pleted.

Therefore, when using the switch, release it immediately after the

mould is full (preferably slightly before) and long before you tilt the
pouring ladle back to its initial position. The tilting can be carried
out during mould string reindexing.

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Chamber front

B T

100-200

Figure 7.7 8304 X 0083

Recommended location of the pouring position for a DMM.

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Section 7.1 – Metal pouring practice

7.1.6.2 Pouring Position

It is necessary to secure that the moulds do not separate due to pour-

ing and hence that the metal is escaping along the parting face. The
string of unpoured moulds between the pouring position and the
DMM must be able to withstand the pressure from the pouring op-
eration (Figure 7.7). By means of the mould friction against the
AMC/PMC the necessary mould string length can be calculated. But
first the static force from the pressure of the metal:

FH = KW x KH x MU x g x HA x ρM,

where
FH = Horizontal metallostatic force [kp].
KW = Moulding chamber width [m].
KH = Moulding chamber height [m].
MU = Mould surface area utilization (see chapter “Pattern
Equipment”) 0 < MU ≤60%.
g = Gravity acceleration 9.81 [m/sec2].
HA = Average metallostatic height (see Figure 7.8).
Density of the metal. [----------------------------
kp × sec ]- 2
ρM = = ( [ kg/m 3 ] × g )
[m ]
4

Secondly, the friction force between mould string and the AMC/
PMC:

FF = μ x KW x KH x L x VU x g x ρS,

where

FF = Friction force [kp].

μ = Friction coefficient between moulds and AMC/PMC.
KW = Moulding chamber width [m].
KH = Moulding chamber height [m].
L = Length of mould string between moulding machine and
pouring position [m].
VU = Volume utilization of the moulds [%].
ρS = Density of squeezed moulding [ kp × sec 2 ]
----------------------------- = ( [ kg/m 3 ] × g )
sand [m4]

The volume utilization is the real volume of a mould compared to the

volume of a mould without patterns and gating system on the pat-
tern plates.

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70
HA
II

II

Figure 7.8 8304 X 0089

Average metallostatic height HA calculation. The hatched area is considered to be the most likely
area in which the patterns and the gating system are placed.

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Section 7.1 – Metal pouring practice

As we would rather work with the sand/metal ratio SM, we substi-

tute VU with SM by the expression:

ρM 1
V U = ------- × -----------------------
ρS 1 ρM
--------- + ------ -
SM ρ S

so, to avoid mould opening by the pouring operation, we should have

FF ≥ S x FH

where S is a security factor which is taking the internal mould gas

pressure, pouring chock pressure etc. into account

or
ρM MU H
L ≥ S × ------- × -------- × ----------
ρS VU μ

or
MU ρM
L ≥ S × -------- × ⎛⎝ --------- + -------⎞⎠ × H A
1
μ SM ρ S

Calculations for individual machines, please see the Process chapter

for the specific machine.

7.1.6.3 Automatic Pouring

It is highly recommended to apply automatic pouring devices for

mass production on automatic moulding plants. In addition to the
obvious advantages, such as:

• reduced costs
• improved casting quality
• better safety and environmental conditions
• serving as a buffer store for molten iron at the pouring station

there is another fundamental advantage:

• correct and repeatable pouring technique.

All the aspects mentioned in the section, ‘‘Manual Pouring’’ on page

7.13, will be fully observed when applying a good automatic pouring
device.

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Section 7.1 – Metal pouring practice

• The correct filling rate ensures short filling time of the gating
system and serves to keep the pouring cup full.
• Accurate positioning of the spout over the pouring cup ensures
that the metal jet hits its centre, and prevents metal splashing
and ensures the minimum flow losses in the cup.
• An accurate metal measuring system prevents overflow of metal
on the top face of the mould.
• Changes of metal demand during pouring can be obtained with
many types of automatic pouring devices.
• Release of the transport operation of the moulding machine
takes place immediately after the mould has been fully poured.
• Slag entry into the gating system will be reduced due to mini-
mized turbulence in a constant, well-controlled metal stream
and various slag eliminating provisions, such as syphon systems
(pressurized types of pouring devices), natural slag elimination
by floating on the metal bath surface (bottom stopper rod types
of pouring devices), or slag trap systems (tilt ladle types of pour-
ing devices).

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A A (min.100 mm)

Reverse Forward

100-200 mm
As little as possible
Figure 7.9 8304 X 0010

Transverse positioning of a pouring device.

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Section 7.1 – Metal pouring practice

The following aspects must be considered when purchasing an auto-

matic pouring device:

1. Compliance with capacity demands.

2. Proper longitudinal movement along the mould string to meet
dimensional demands listed in Figure 7.7.
3. Does it ensure sufficient length of the transverse movement so
that the spout can reach sufficiently into either side of the
mould string centre line?
It is recommended to ensure the proper transverse movement
of the pouring device in order to be able to position the spout or-
ifice over the pouring cup centre. The ideal solution ensures the
same travel (A) in both directions from the mould string sym-
metry line (see Figure 7.9). The size of the stroke depends on
the type of the DISA. See the Process chapter for the specific
machine for value A.
However design of some pouring devices does not allow the
same size of the stroke in the forward and reverse movement.
In such cases the reverse stroke must still have the size “A” but
the forward stroke may be reduced to a minimum of 100 mm.
4. Minimum distance between the spout and the upper face of
the mould string (normally between 100 and 200 mm). We rec-
ommend as little distance as physically possible although
place for e.g. stream inoculation, level control rays etc. should
be taken into consideration.
5. Easy accessibility for metal supply and maintenance.
6. Reliable metal metering system.
7. Sufficient pouring temperature.
8. Longitudinal positioning system should be simple and require
minimum arrangements on the pattern plate at the mould
parting line.
9. Possibility for applying a metal jet inoculant dispenser.

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Castings

Sand Mould sand

Reconditioning

Metal

Shake out

Pouring
Moulding

Mould transport Core setting Patterns

Cores

Figure 7.10 8304 X 0011

Typical DISA automatic casting production line.

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

7.2 Process Control

After having run in the automatic moulding line, some production

control routines should be established to ensure:

• maximum utilization of existing equipment

• maximum utilization of personnel
• consistent casting quality
• good working and environmental conditions
• optimal general economy of the foundry.

7.2.1 Process downtime

Figure 7.10 shows a typical castings production line. Moulding, core

setting, pouring, mould transport, casting shake-out and recycling
of the moulding sand must work in perfect coordination to ensure
correct automatic production. On the other hand, a short stoppage
in one of the mentioned elements will cause a complete installation
stop. Automatic equipment operates best when run continuously, a
short stoppage can cause huge increases in production costs and can
strongly influence casting quality.

For example, a sand recycling plant which cannot supply sand at the
required rate causes a stoppage in mould production, which in turn
stops pouring, and after a short time the iron-filled ladle (if not heat-
ed) has to be sent back and emptied because of metal temperature
loss.

Therefore, it is absolutely necessary to record causes of stoppage to

more easily determine where the “weakest link” of the process lies
and thereby allow elimination of the causes.

The recording of the correct stop cause must be made randomly and
at unexpected times during the shift.

DISA recommends use of a special sheet for recording stop causes

(see Table 1 on page 7.30).

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

7.2.2 Staff training

To utilize the skilled personnel who run the moulding line to advan-
tage, it is important to instruct them in production activities. These
should include the individual’s working routine and how every sin-
gle worker’s area is connected to the other processes. In order to
make sure that the production cycle is continuous, working routines
must be prepared for each worker and for every specific activity re-
quiring such.

The staff of moulding production line normally consists of:

• a moulding machine operator acting also as the core setter oper-

ator
• a pourer

The foreman coordinates the work of these two workers and organ-
izes the work around the production line.

The two workers are backed up by two others:

• a sand plant operator

• a shake-out operator

The core supply depends only on the core shop supervisor and the
metal supply on the melting plant supervisor. The duties of these
two persons will not be discussed here as they normally supervise
other production lines as well as the DISA.

All these people must be properly instructed through routine de-

scriptions. The description must be as detailed as possible in order
to minimize the risk of human error in the production process. It is
obvious that the higher the safety factor is built into each routine
the better. Once introduced, the routine is easy to maintain, al-
though it could be slightly amended from time to time to suit local
conditions.

The general rule must be that the production line should be estab-
lished to only make good castings. These can be counter-weight cast-
ings, where the type of metal used is fairly immaterial with regard
to dimensional accuracy and the extent of surface imperfections or
inclusions tolerated. Perhaps are the dimensions of an automotive
casting like a cylinder head or an engine block, where the metal
composition must be correct, within close tolerances, and no casting
defects are accepted. These types of castings require widely differing
quality control arrangements and methods, but production methods
and personnel routines may be very similar.

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FOUNDRY FIELD REPORT

RECORDING OF STOP CAUSES

Customer

Project No: DISA type Date Sign.:

Causes

Time Recording

Other plant causes

Remarks
Pouring method

Metal supply
Sand supply

Core supply

Patterns
DISA

From To Interval
(sec.)

Total stop Stop time grouped according to causes

time Sheet No. _________ of ____________

Table 1: Recording of stop causes helps find the “weakest link” in the process.

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

7.2.2.1 Production Routines

The following section discusses control routines for various people

and different activities essential to obtain a smooth production proc-
ess. Attention must be paid to the fact that the following routines
deal with main aspects only. Each foundry will have to expand the
suggested routines with emphasis on their particular needs, e.g.:

• production programme
• special auxiliary equipment
• local labour and environmental regulations
• other conditions due to foundry installation layout etc.

The routines described below may be broken down as follows

(Table 1):

1. Moulding routine
a. Pattern change }
b. Mould string preparation }
c. Mould production } sub-routines
d. Core setting }
e. Mould transport }
2. Pouring routine
3. Shake-out routine
4. Sand recycling routine

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DISA MOULDING LINE

PRODUCTION ROUTINES

MOULDING POURING SHAKE-OUT SAND

RECONDITIONING

PATTERN PLATE CHANGE

MOULD STRING PREPARATION

MOULD PRODUCTION

CORE SETTING

MOULD TRANSPORT

Figure 7.11
Division of the production process into routine areas.

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

Moulding Routine

The moulding machine foreman must go through the following

items before production can start:

1. Start the DISA machine.

2. Reset the mould counter.
3. Make sure that the pattern plates and core masks to be used
in the production are available:
a. by the machine (the first item to be produced)
b. in the preheating cabinet (the next items).
4. Make sure that the patterns have no scratches and show no
signs of damage.
5. Check scraper strips and protecting strips for damage.
6. Check the wear plate on the pouring cup for wear (no draft on
top surface) and scratches.
7. Check the guide pins/bushings for wear.
8. Check the tightness of the pattern locking screws.
9. Make sure that the core racks are filled with the proper
amount of quality cores
• no cracked cores
• sufficient core sand strength (the sand must not “crumple
away” when rubbed between the fingers)
• the skin on the surface of the core is not damaged. Special
attention should be paid to imperfections at the parting
line.
10. Check if the lining of the pouring ladles and/or spout of the
automatic pouring device is repaired and preheated, and if the
slag dams of the ladles fit well. The spout head orifice size on
the automatic pouring device must be properly selected.
11. Check that a sufficient number of pyrometer cartridges are
available by the machine.
12. Fill up the dispenser with the correct inoculant.
13. Make sure that the DISA hopper is filled with fresh moulding
sand.
14. Make sure that dirt is blown off the moulding machine, espe-
cially in the area next to the moulding chamber. Dirt hanging
over the mould string can fall down into the mould cavity dur-
ing moulding, thus causing casting defects. In general it is a
good practice to keep the machine clean.

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QPC
PP

SP

Figure 7.12 8304 X 0094

Placement of pattern plates for QPC.

Pattern plate
squeeze side

Pattern plate
swing side

Figure 7.13 8304 X 0102

The pattern plates for the moulding machine must be placed so that the right end faces the ma-
chine in the pattern-plate rack prior to changing plates.

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

Pattern Change Subroutine

The following must be observed when changing pattern plates:

1. Make sure that the plates are properly preheated and that the
patterns are free from mechanical damage.
2. Check that the pattern locking screws are tightened.
3. Blow off all dirt carefully from the rear of the pattern plates
and from the PP and SP on the machine.
4. Before pattern change, make sure that the correct ones will be
mounted on the swing and the squeeze side. If QPC/PPC is
used, they should be placed as shown in Figure 7.12 and Fig-
ure 7.13.
5. Before a new set of plates is installed on the machine, new pro-
duction data must be supplied. The most important settings
are compiled on a PRODUCTION SHEET. The production
sheet is a document which contains the pattern plate data and
optimum values (for running a particular pattern plate set),
e.g. moulding machine settings and pouring data. This is a
sheet belonging to a particular set of pattern plates. See
details of the production sheet in the Process chapter for the
specific machine.
A booklet with a set of Production Sheets for all patterns in
production should be handed over to the moulding machine
foreman.
6. Change the plates according to the Instructions for Use.
7. Make sure that the pattern plates mate tightly with the PP
and SP over their entire surface.
8. Adjust the separating fluid nozzles so that their positions com-
ply with the pattern requirements.
9. After producing a mould with the new set of plates, stop the
machine before the mould is pushed out of the chamber and
carefully examine both sides for:
• tear-off and cracks
• loose sand
• even hardness distribution.
10. Complete the core setting cycle, check core setting results and
then close the mould carefully and adjust the mould retainers.
They must not hit pouring cup surfaces, overruns etc. and
should be sufficiently far away from the parting lines of the
moulds.
11. Mark the mould properly in order to establish the beginning of
a new mould string part.

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

Mould String Preparation Subroutine

When patterns have been mounted and mould quality controlled,

mould string production can start.

1. Produce a specified length of the mould string (called retaining

moulds). These moulds will not be poured, but act as a firm
block against which the poured moulds will engage. The length
of the retaining mould string depends on the type of casting,
pattern plate utilization, sand/metal ratio in the mould etc. as
mentioned during the calculation of the pouring position. In
principle, the length of the retaining moulds should be the
same as the length of the moulds between the pouring position
and the moulding machine. See the actual lengths in the Proc-
ess chapter for the specific machine.

NOTE
A too short mould retaining string may cause mould gapping
at the parting lines.

When producing the retaining moulds, the maximum chamber

depth may be used. This contributes to
• more stable, thicker retaining moulds
Make sure that no core setting is made in the retaining
moulds.
2. Observe the quality of the moulds produced as retaining
moulds. This will indicate whether the moulding is satisfac-
tory.
3. Adjust the mould retaining cylinders so that they step between
the parting lines and do not press the top face of the mould at
its weakest point.
4. After having obtained positive results from the examination of
moulds and after having produced a sufficient length of retain-
ing moulds, production of moulds to be poured can start, so
chamber depth is adjusted to production chamber.
5. Mark the first mould to be poured.
6. Produce the next moulds as fast as possible while observing
the mould quality. Continue until the marked mould has
reached the pouring position.

The mould string is now ready for production.

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

Mould Production Subroutine

The moulding machine is an automatic unit, but nevertheless re-

quires constant supervision. It must be borne in mind that its high
production capacity applies not only to quality castings, but also to
rejects. The moulding process must be sufficiently supervised.

The machine operator is responsible for the following:

1. Every 10-15 moulds use a good portable torch, mirror or other

equipment to check the following:
• both side of the mould cavities for tear-off and cracks
• pattern plates for sticking sand or sand cod pull-out
• both sides for loose sand, both in casting cavities and in
runners and pouring cups
• whether the parting fluid nozzles spray properly
• mould retainer shoes for proper operation
• whether excessive parting spray is being used.
2. If any moulding defect is discovered, the machine should be
stopped immediately; the cause of the defect should be reme-
died, and the defective moulds must be marked to avoid pour-
ing into these moulds.
When producing a trial casting, any deterioration of mould
quality can only be allowed to be temporary, such as caused
by:
• sudden aggravation of the moulding sand quality
• sudden pattern damage due to wear of metallic residual
blown into the chamber together with the moulding sand
• foreign particles, such as dirt or core lumps, in the mould-
ing sand.
3. Remove all sand lumps from the bottom plate after each mould
break-off or core drop. Unwanted left over sand lumps will be
pushed in between the mould parting surface during close-up
and mould string indexing, causing mould string cracking and
irregular mould string transport.
4. Check the consistency of the moulding sand quality by control-
ling the consistency of mould thickness.
The mould thickness tolerance should not exceed ±3% corre-
sponding to compactability tolerance of ±2%, depending on the
pattern configuration and machine settings (see Chapter 1,
‘‘Moulding Sand’’).
5. Any substantial deviation from the above figures must be
reported to the foreman, who in turn should immediately
report to the sand plant operator. This will ensure that neces-
sary steps will be taken as quickly as possible.

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

Core Setting Subroutine

The moulding machine operator running the core setter is responsi-

ble for the following:

1. Eliminating defective cores, such as:

• cracked or broken cores
• cores with damaged skin, especially at the parting line.
2. Ensuring that loose sand is blown off the core-setter mask.
3. Observing the moulding process to avoid core setting into a
mould marked as defective.

NOTE
It is recommended that the first core setting cycle for each job
will be carried out through stepwise operation.

Mould Transport Subroutine

The moulding machine foreman is responsible for the following:

1. Supervision of mould marking.

2. Watching mould close-up operation for:
a. careful touch-up of the parting lines
b. pull-back of the recently produced mould by the retracting
ram.
3. Observing probable mould mismatch visible on the top surface
of the mould string.
4. Checking pouring cup cavities for dirt from the environment
(sand conveyors, dust from dirt deposits on various parts of the
installation etc.).
5. Ensuring that production downtime does not exceed the criti-
cal stand-still time of the mould string left on the mould con-
veyor (AMC/PMC).
The critical stand-still time of the mould string is the maxi-
mum time that the poured string can be left on the conveyor
without causing transport troubles.
• The moulding sand, which is thermally shocked by the hot
metal, loses its strength properties after some time causing
the mould to disintegrate.
The first stage of disintegration - mould side fall-off - does not
destroy casting metallurgy or mould string transport, as it is
strictly superficial.

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

Further mould collapse takes place in the next stage reducing

rigidity, integrity and the contact area of the mould parting
lines, thus hampering transport conditions.
• The moulds into which the hot metal is poured are fairly
damp because of the moisture content of the sand. The
effect of pouring hot metal castings is to cause condensa-
tion on the conveyor rails, as heat from the castings trans-
fers moisture through the moulds.
This results in:
• reduced strength of the mould so that the rails of the con-
veyor cut into the mould bottom, preventing further mould
string transport
• sticky sand in the bottom of the moulds adheres to the con-
veyor rails.
The critical mould string stand-still time depends on many fac-
tors, such as:
• casting geometry
• gating system geometry
• distance from the casting and gating system to mould sides
• pattern plate utilization
• sand/metal ratio
• etc.

Hence it is difficult to determine it theoretically. Every foundry

must determine it by trial and error.

If production on the moulding line has to stop for a period of time

that cannot be determined, a critical stand-still time must be consid-
ered and the mould conveyor should be emptied (as far as the SBC)
in good time.

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

Pouring Routine

To ensure a continuous production process, the foreman of the

moulding machine must make sure that:

1. There is a continuous, fast and regular flow of metal transport

ladles between the melting plant and the mould string (or
automatic pouring device).
2. Slag is skimmed properly before pouring.
3. Metal temperature is checked and recorded when any new
metal transfer is made at the mould string, and that it stays
within the specified tolerances.
4. Any ladle containing metal which is too cold is returned imme-
diately for emptying; for example, an installation stoppage
could make the metal too cold during pouring.
5. The inoculant dispenser works properly and the inoculant is
impinging on the pouring stream of metal.

The pourer is responsible for:

1. Slag skimming:
• Before metal transfer from the transport ladle to the pour-
ing ladle (or automatic pouring device).
• Before pouring the first mould from a manual ladle.
• Currently, if any new slag has been produced at the pour-
ing spout of the iron surface of the ladle.
2. Metal temperature measurement of each new ladle (when
pouring with unheated ladles), and half hour measurements in
the spout (when pouring with a heated pouring device).
3. When pouring:
a. Keep the ladle spout as close to the pouring cup as possi-
ble.
b. Fill the pouring cup as quickly as possible and keep it full
during the entire pouring process.
c. Hit the pouring cup with the metal jet as centrally as pos-
sible.
d. Do not return the ladle to its full upright position until it
is empty.
e. Follow the metal demand fluctuations of the gating sys-
tem during the whole pouring process: do not pour short
and do not overfill the pouring cup. When using moulding
stop switch for pouring, release the button immediately
after the metal jet has been interrupted.
f. Keep the ladles moving: fill, drain and refill the ladles as
rapidly as possible to minimize tem-perature loss. The
faster the ladle turn-around time, the hotter they will
remain, and the lower the scrap percentage.

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

Casting Shake-out Routine

The responsibility of the shake-out operator is:

1. To make sure that the sand is well separated from the cast-
ings.
2. To watch the moulds for a proper degree of breakdown.
3. To make sure that any sand lumps run through the grids and
do not go along the shake-out and end up in the castings con-
tainer.
4. To check that the castings are well separated from the gating
system.
5. To make sure that no castings jam together on the shake-out
grid and accumulate, blocking the passage of further incoming
castings.
6. To avoid rough handling of the castings.

Sand Plant Operating Routine

The sand plant operator or the maintenance worker are responsible

for:

1. Testing the sand at the muller for every 3-5 charges (if no
automatic sand controlling device is used), and once an hour (if
a device is sued) for:
• Compactability (or riddled density)
• Moisture content
independent of the routine laboratory test described in the sec-
tion on moulding sand.
2. Recording the compactability and moisture content figures.
3. Regular control that the bentonite and coal dust metering and
feeding systems are clean and give the expected output flow
(kg/sec.). Recalibration if necessary. The feeding speed
depends on many factors such as degree of dispersion, air
humidity, cleanliness etc.
4. Making sure that the sand mixer is cleaned after every shift.
5. Regular adjustment of the ploughs, wheels, rollers, scrapers
etc. in the sand mixer.
6. Cleaning of all sand deposits built up in return sand hoppers.
7. Regular check of sand disintegrators and aerators for correct
operation.
8. Controlling that the magnetic separators are operationable
and clean.
9. Cleaning the sand conveyors.
10. Checking the cup elevator shafts for sand build-up. Mainte-
nance of the elevator cup.

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

7.2.3 High Density Moulds without Excessive Pressure

The manufacture of high density moulds requires moulding sand of

high quality, but does not require an extremely high squeeze pres-
sure. The blow pressure should be just high enough, but not higher
than necessary, to provide uniform distribution of sand in the pat-
tern cavities and over the “shadows”. The subsequent squeeze pres-
sure applied should be kept to the minimum necessary in order to
obtain a stable mould.

Even if it is possible to produce an extremely hard mould, it is not

correct to do so. When producing extremely hard moulds, the green
compression strength, the dry compression strength and the hot
compression strength will gradually increase. This will result in
more difficult shake-out and a decrease in permeability. Should the
sand be compressed to too high a pressure and then suddenly re-
leased, there is a risk of extending the mould under these condi-
tions. The effect of too high a squeeze pressure is that the moulding
sand from the area of plastic deformation passes into the area of
elastic deformation. This is called “spring-back”, an expression for
the elasticity of the sand.

It may lead to dimensional inaccuracies of the castings, to concave

parting lines and mould defects during pattern stripping.
“Spring-back” also depends on the pattern geometry and also varies
over the whole parting line. Variations of the pattern height cause
various compression, i.e. various compacting work at different spots
on the pattern. All these problems can be avoided by running the
machine with a squeeze pressure of 10 ±2 kp/cm2 measured on the
mould face.

Increased addition of active bentonite to the mould sand can im-

prove its resistance to the spring-back phenomenon by increasing
the plasticity of the sand. The internal movements of the mould
walls will then be better compensated for by a more plastic sand.

There is a general rule for new, untested pattern plates, saying that
the initial squeeze pressure to be set on the moulding machine
should be 10 kp/cm2, and the blow pressure 3 kp/cm.

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Mould production Core setting Mould transport

Mould stick to the

Uneven hardness

Non-parallelity of
Shear, break off,

rails of conveyor
Poor core mask

string transport
Mould crush at

Mould crush at
Poor core hold

Poor core hold

Dirt in cavities

deformations

Open parting
mould faces

Core crush
distribution
Mismatch

Joint face
Soft cods

in mould

close-up
in mask

delivery
tear off

Sticker

lines
z z z z z z Strength properties

Moulding sand
z z z Moisture content

properties
z z z Too many inactive fines

z Sand temperature

z Sand recycling

z z z z z z z z Plates distorted

z z z Guide pins or bushings worn down

z Pattern plates or wear plate worn out

Patterns
z z z z Counter draft, scratch or wear

z z z z Air evacuation

z z z z z z Plate/PP and SP contact

z Mask guide bushings or pins worn down

z z z z Mould/core fit

z z z Mask/core fit

Cores
z Suction surface

z z z z z Core out of dimension

z z Core sand strength

z z Blow pressure

z z z z z z z Squeeze pressure

z z z

Machine settings
Close-up pressure

z Retainer pressure

z z Blow time

z z Chamber depth

z z PP stripping speed/sand buildup under PP

z z Mask speed/pressure

z z z z Misalignment DMM/mould conveyor

z z z z z z Non-parallel PP and SP

z z Pattern plate guide bushings/guide pin

blocks in SP and PP alignment

z z Core setter/DMM adjustment

z Mask guide pins

z Pattern spray

z Pattern heating
Machine maintenance and adjustments

z Mould blow-off

z Wear on bottom plate

z z z Misalignment bottom plate/rail

z z z SP plate bearings

z z z Tie rod and tie rod bushings

z Machine cleaning

z z z z z Mould conveyor adjustment

z z z PP speed profile

z z z Chamber vents plugged

z z Guide bars improperly adjusted

z z z PP guide blocks improperly adjusted

z SP pressure/stop pads improperly adj.

z z z Core setter decellerator adjustment

z Core setter vacuum unit

z AMC forward pressure too low

Table 2: Mould defect troubleshooting.

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

7.2.4 Mould Production Trouble Shooting

As is often the case, even the most severely looking moulding prob-
lems can be solved relatively easily by simple means. In this section
we will try to give some hints on how to get rid of troubles which may
occur when preparing a mould string for pouring. A troubleshooting
cross-check table is shown in Table 2. Some further explanations in
addition to the table are given below.

7.2.4.1 Mould Production

Shear- and Tear-off

Possible reasons:

• Poor moulding sand strength properties

• Too high content of inactive fines makes the sand brittle
• Distorted pattern plates
• Vertically shifted positioning of the plates due to excessive wear
of guide pins of bushings
• Counterdraft, scratches or wear on the patterns
• Bad air venting of the deep pattern pockets causing vacuum cre-
ation during pattern stripping and thus tear-off. Use air vents
• Pattern plates positioned inclined (see “Pattern Equipment”)
causing a counterdraft on the patterns
• Bad core/mould fit can cause mould break-off during core setting
• Incorrect core dimensions can be the reason for mould break-off
• Too high squeeze pressure causes sand “spring-back” and thus
tear-off
• Sand build-up under the pattern plate (scraper strip damaged).
An increased stripping speed will aggravate the situation
• Non-parallelism of the PP causes counterdraft on the patterns
where otherwise the draft would have been correct
• The pattern plate guide pin blocks if SP and/or PP are out of
alignment with pattern plate bushings
• Bottom plate worn
• Misalignment between bottom plate and rail
• Main bearings of the SP are worn or out of alignment
• Tie rod and tie rod bushings worn
• Plugged chamber vents
• Improperly adjusted guide blocks

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Mismatch Mismatch

Mismatch

Figure 7.14 8304 X 0092

Examples of mismatch.

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

Mismatch

Mismatch is measured as shown in Figure 7.14. Mismatch might be

measured by utilizing the by DISA designed ring pattern test plates
in accordance with the following instructions described in Table 3
and Figure 7.15.

Possible reasons: • Pattern plate distortion

• Excessive wear on the guide pins/bushings of the plates
• Misalignment between the moulding machine and the mould
conveyor
• PP and SP out of parallelism
• Guide/pin blocks on SP are misadjusted in relation to pattern
plate bushings
• Misalignments between bottom plate and rail
• SP main bearings worn or misadjusted
• Tie rod and tie rod bushings worn
• Guide bars improperly adjusted
• PP guide blocks improperly adjusted

Soft Sand Cods (deep pockets in patterns)

Possible reasons: • Too high sand moisture content reduces flowability and causes
poor sand compaction during the blowing operation
• Poor air evacuation from the deep pattern pockets during sand
blowing. Use air vents with large venting area
• Too high or too low blow pressure
• Too low squeeze pressure
• Poor sand distribution during sand blowing operation. Chamber
depth increase creates more space for the sand which - blown
into the chamber - can be better distributed over the deep pat-
tern pockets. Distance minimum 75 mm from edge of sand slot
to deep pattern pocket. Minimum chamber depth: 8 x diameter
of pocket. The pattern radius at pocket entrance should be as big
as possible
• Plugged vents in chamber plates.

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RING PATTERN TEST PLATE 12

A

9 3
RING CASTING TEST
6

Customer

Serial no. DISA type: Date: Sign:

A B

12 (12)

(A) (B)

9 3

6 (6)

(9) (3)

A B A B
No. of moulds
(3) (9) (3) (9) (6) (12) (6) (12)
1
2
3
4
5
6
Mismatch 1. 4. 1. 4. 1. 4. 1. 4.

2. 5. 2. 5. 2. 5. 2. 5.
3-9 or 6-12
2 2 3. 6. 3. 6. 3. 6. 3. 6.

Average

Range

Table 3: 8305X0051

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

Sand stickers

Possible reasons: • Poor strength properties of the moulding sand

• Too wet sand tends to stick to the pattern
• Too high content of inactive fines makes sand sticky
• Water from too hot sand at mould surface condenses on the
colder pattern plates and causes stickers
• Excessive wear, marks or scratches on the patterns
• Too high squeeze pressure leads to sand “spring-back” and
increases the risk of stickers
• The pattern spray system must be adjusted and the proper
spraying time interval chosen
• Temperature of the patterns must exceed the temperature of the
moulding sand by approx. 5°C. This does not always apply to
resin patterns

Uneven Mould Hardness Distribution

Possible reasons: • Low degree of sand lump dispersion and sand aeration
• Insufficient air evacuation from the deep pattern pockets and
from the “shadows” under the patterns
• Incorrect setting of blow pressure causes poor sand distribution
before squeezing
• Too low squeeze pressure
• Too short sand blowing time causes too little sand supply in the
top of the chamber resulting in a softer top part of the mould
• A larger chamber depth gives the blow sand a possibility of bet-
ter distribution
• Plugged vents in chamber plates

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RING PATTERN TEST PLATE 12

A

9 3
RING CASTING TEST
6

Instruction for use

INSTRUCTION FOR USE OF

RING PATTERN TEST PLATES

1. Clean the PP and SP on the DMM thoroughly before mounting the test
plates.
2. Mount the two plates according to the symbol markings on the corner of
the plates.
3. Set the DMM Chamber depth to give a mould of 200 mm ± 5.
4. Produce three moulds and pour as normal.
5. Mark the three moulds by 1 - 2 - 3.
6. Change to the production patterns in question, mould and pour the
wanted number.
7. Change to the ring test plates and make three moulds, marked 4 - 5 - 6.
8. Collect the rings in sets just before shake-out.
9. Mark the 6 sets with the numbers 1 through 6 and clean the rings as
other castings.
10. The rings are measured with a calliper (vernier) at the marks 3 - 6 - 9 - 12.
11. The results are listed.
12. The difference divided by 2 indicates the mismatch horizontally and
vertically.

Figure 7.15
Instruction for use of ring pattern test plates.

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

Dirt in the Mould Cavities

Possible reasons: • Worn out pattern plate top edge and pouring cup wear plates
cause creation of sand brims which, if broken off, can contami-
nate the mould cavity
• There must be room in the core locator of the mould for both the
sand scratched off the mould and the core during core setting
• The mould blow off system should be correctly adjusted
• Sand mixed with excess sprayed separation fluid as well as dry
sand will always be deposited in various places of the machine.
Flakes of dirt can easily fall off and enter the mould cavity

Non-parallelism of the Mould Faces

Any kind of non-parallelism of the mould faces is not acceptable. It

can be caused by:

a. Distorted pattern plates

b. The pattern plates do not have contact with PP and SP over
the whole surface
c. Too long or too short sand blowing times
d. Non-parallelism of the PP and SP
e. Excessive wear or misadjustment of the SP bearings
f. Improper adjustment of guide blocks on PP
g. Pressure pads and stop pads on the SP

Deformation on the Joint Face

Possible reasons: • Too low compression strength of the moulding sand

• Too low squeeze pressure
• Too high mould close-up pressure
• Excessive joint face wear causes reduced transport surface
between the moulds
• Misadjusted mould conveyor

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

7.2.4.2 Core Setting

Poor Core Retention in the Mask

Possible reasons: • Too loose a fit between the core and the mask. The suction forces
are insufficient because of bad vacuum sealing
• Too small vacuum holes in the mask
• Uneven suction surface on the core
• Changed core/mask fit because of core distortion or core out of
dimension because of worn core box
• Too rapid mask movement, creating extra inertial forces
• Filter in vacuum unit needs cleaning

Poor Core Retention in the Mould

Possible reasons: • Poor green sand strength properties

• Excessive wear of the pattern causing too tight mould/core fit
• Incorrectly designed mould/core fit
• Core jamming in the mask
• Core out of dimension because of core box wear
• Poor core sand strength

Core Crush

Possible reasons: • All reasons for misalignment between the core mask and mould
string will result in inaccurate core setting and thus core crush:
• Pattern plates distortion
• Guide pins/bushings wear on PP
• Excessively worn patterns create incorrect mould/core fit
• Poor contact between the pattern plates and the PP and SP
• Core mask guide/bushing worn down
• Too tightly designed mould/core fit
• Too tight mask/core fit
• Core out of dimension
• Poor strength of the core sand
• Too high squeeze pressure
• Non-parallel PP and SP
• Core setter/moulding machine not adjusted mutually
• Misadjustment of mask guide pins
• Misadjustment of core setter decellerator

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

Poor Core Mask Delivery

Possible reasons: • Any defect causing inaccurate mask/mould contact (see trouble-
shooting table, Table 2) at the moment of the core delivery
results in poor core setting. The actual mask/mould contact can
be checked by covering the mask surface with pulverized chalk
or similar and checking the chalk imprint on the mould surface
after running a core setting cycle
• Core out of dimension
• Core mask speed and/or pressure too low on decelerator
• The core setter mask console is not perpendicular to the mould
string
• Wrongly adjusted core setter

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

7.2.4.3 Mould Transport

Mould Crush at Close-up

Possible reasons: • Poor moulding sand strength properties

• Poor contact surface between the moulds
• Too low squeeze pressure
• Close-up pressure too high
• Misalignment between the moulding machine and the mould
conveyor
• Incorrect PP speed profile

Mould Crush at Mould String Transport

Possible reasons: • Poor moulding sand strength properties

• Poor contact surface between moulds
• Close-up pressure too high
• Misalignment between the moulding machine and the mould
conveyor
• Misalignment between the bottom plate and the rails
• Uneven mould conveyor
• AMC/PMC forward pressure too low

Gap of Parting Lines

Possible reasons: • Distorted pattern plates

• The PP draws the mould back during pattern stripping, caused
by vacuum creation in poorly vented pattern pockets
• Misadjusted mould retainer or incorrect setting of retainer pres-
sure
• Too high stripping speed
• Misalignment between moulding machine/mould conveyor
• Uneven mould conveyor
• Guide bars improperly adjusted

Mould Sticks to the Rails

Possible reasons: • Too high moisture content in the green sand. The water con-
denses on the conveyor rails, especially where coldest
• Too much inactive fines in the moulding sand causing excessive
water demand
• Too short a distance between the casting and the mould bottom

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 Application Manual
Section 7.2 – Process Control

7.2.5 Cooling the Castings

The cooling rate of the casting strongly affects its quality, such as:

• Machinability
• Hardness
• Geometry
• Dimensional tolerances
• Mechanical defects

but also some production parameters:

• Durability of the moulding sand

• Casting handling and transportability of the moulds
• Etc.

It is therefore necessary to be able to determine or at least to be able to

estimate the cooling rate necessary for a certain casting type. The cooling
rate influences the length of the cooling conveyor, providing a specified
mould thickness, production speed (moulds/hour) and the required
shake-out temperature.

To determine the cooling time of the casting, it is sufficient to determine

the cooling time of its most compact section. The cooling time can be de-
termined in two ways:

1. Experimentally, by measuring the cooling time and directly plotting

a cooling curve of the casting in question.
2. From a knowledge of its maximum solidification module (MC) - see
the section on risering techniques (“Feeding and Gating” chapter).

The second method is faster and cheaper, but not very accurate.

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Figure 7.16 8304 X 0044

Crankshaft pattern plate with patterns of thermocouple cavities for experimental determination
of the cooling time of the different parts of the casting.

Figure 7.17 8304 X 0045

Thermocouples installed in the casting cavity.

Figure 7.18 8304 X 0046 Figure 7.19 8304 X 0047

Thermocouples and their compensation cable The plotter for depicting the cooling curves.
connection.

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

7.2.5.1 Experimental Determination of Cooling Time

The experimental method aims at building a cheap pattern (Figure 7.16),

moulding a short string and installing thermocouples in the parts of the
casting where the cooling time is going to be measured (Figure 7.17), con-
necting the thermocouples to a plotter (Figure 7.18). The cooling curves
will automatically be depicted in temperature/cooling time coordinates
(Figure 7.19 and Figure 7.21).

The method can also be applied successfully by means of simulated trials,

but caution has to be exercised as variations in mould density have a
strong influence on the cooling power of the mould.

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Solid-state
Casting
transformation
module (cm)
End of solidification temperature
T1 800°C
T2
2.5 700°C Temperatures
600°C
2.0 500°C
400°C
1.5

1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3

0.2
Cooling time (min.)
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 20 30 40 50 60 80 100 150 200
70 90 *Length of
200 cooling time (m)

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30

20
Production speed
(mould/hour)
10
500
400 *To obtain total length of
300 transport/mould conveyor, add:
200
2110 minimum 3.1 m
2013-A minimum 3.5 m
100
90
2013-B minimum 3.9 m
80
70 230-A minimum 3.5 m
60
50
230 B/X minimum 3.9 m
40 230-C minimum 4.1 m
30 240-A/B/C minimum 4.4 m
250-C minimum 4.7 m
20
270-A minimum 5.1 m
270-B/C minimum 5.9 m
280-B minimum 6.2 m
10
800 600 400 200 100
700 500 300 150 Mould thickness (mm) To the determined length of
8305 X 0007-01 cooling zone.

Figure 7.20 8304X0229

Nomogram for cooling zone determination.

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

7.2.5.2 Estimated Evaluation of Cooling Time

The module of solidification is calculated for the most slowly solidifying

part of the casting. Using the upper diagram from the cooling nomogram
(Figure 7.20) and applying the modulus (M) and the required shake-out
temperature (T) as input, the cooling time (t) can be found as the required
output.

The cooling time can be converted into the length of the cooling zone of the
mould conveyor (AMC or PMC + SBC). The input is the mould thickness
calculated as (see Figure 7.22):

Mould thickness = P + Q + S

and the production speed (moulds/hour): When using the lower diagram
of the nomogram on Figure 7.20, the length of the cooling zone can be
found.

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Temperature (°C)

1300

1200

T1 T2 T4 T6
1100 T3 T5 T7

1000

900

800 T4
T5
T3
T7
T2
T6
700
T1

600
0 5 10 15 20 25 Time (min.)

Figure 7.21 8304 X 0048

Cooling curves for different parts of the crankshaft plotted in a temperature/cooling time coordi-
nate system.

Safety distance:
Minimum S = 70 mm
for DMM 2110:
Minimum S = 60 mm
P S O

Figure 7.22 8304X0049-00

Fast method of mould thickness determination.

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

As an example, the universal joint casting (Figure 6.11) mentioned in

“Section 6.3, ‘‘Feeding criteria’’ on page 6.17” has the previously calculated
solidification module (see Chapter 6, ‘‘Feeding & Gating’’):

M C = 0.79 cm

If the required shake-out temperature is about 720°C, the cooling time can
for instance be determined from the upper diagram of the nomogram. It is
approx. 19 min.

Assuming that the production speed is 250 moulds/hour and the necessary
mould thickness is 225 mm, a point coordinating these two figures can
easily be found on the lower diagram of the same nomogram. A value for
the required length of cooling zone can be found from the coordinate of the
following position: a sloping line from the point previously mentioned,
drawn downwards to cross an extrapolation of the cooling time figure. In
the case of the universal joint casting, the length will be approx. 12 m.

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

The opposite problem can also be solved: how quickly can you produce
(moulds/hour) a casting of the modulus

MC = 1.5 cm

requiring a shake-out temperature of

720°C

with a mould thickness of

350 mm

when a fully defined cooling zone length of 39 metres is available (for in-
stance, the moulding line in the foundry was installed earlier).

The solution (approx. 100 moulds/hour) can be found by means of the cool-
ing nomogram (Figure 7.20) when the dotted line is followed. This way of
using the nomogram can help to solve certain economical tasks when the
foundry wants to add a new product to its production programme and
needs some preliminary calculations.

If the cooling time for a specified casting is determined experimentally,

the use of the cooling time diagram from the cooling nomogram is not nec-
essary, but the rest of the cooling zone lengths determination remains un-
changed.

NOTE
1. The moulds may not be transferred from the mould conveyor
(AMC/PMC) to the belt conveyor (SBC) before the castings
have reached the solidification temperature (for iron marked
T1 on Figure 7.20).
2. Any calculated cooling time should be confirmed by a practical
temperature test

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FOUNDRY FIELD REPORT

CASTING REJECTION SHEET

Customer:

Project No: DISAMATIC type: Date: Sign.:

Casting description: Alloy:

Number of moulds poured:

Remarks about progress of the production test:

As cast After machining

Defect description Mould side Core side Causes
pcs. % pcs. %
Penetration
Surface defects

Shiny spots

Sand erosion

Sand inclusion

Slag inclusion

Shrinkage

Hard spots

Sand
Inclusions

Gas

Slag

Micro porosites

Ovality
Geometrical defects

Distortion
Variation of wall
thickness
Mismatch

Fillets

Shrinkage defects
Dimensional defects

Total scrap percentage:

Table 4: Example of casting quality recording form.

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

7.2.6 Quality Assurance

All previously mentioned reasoning and measures suit one purpose and
one only: to produce castings of the highest possible quality as cheaply as
possible. The all-important purpose of quality assurance is to indicate re-
jection and to prevent its occurrence.

There is no shortage of literature on the organization of quality assurance

systems in casting manufacturing. It is quite tempting to speak about
well-organized foundry quality assurance, but management models are
far beyond the framework of this present section. It will therefore be re-
duced to basic guidelines.

Table 4 shows a CASTING REJECTION SHEET used at the first stage of

quality assurance analysis.

The castings are tested as soon as they are produced, on some specified
day. The defect diagnosis will be made on the basis of this record, and the
proper decision on the process improvement will be taken.

In general, quality improvement consists of the following stages:

1. Examination of the defective castings.

2. Classification of the defects according to the main process branches
(an example of the process division is shown on Figure 7.25).
3. Finer classification of the defects according to process areas.
4. Listing possible causes of the defect (if the cause cannot be deter-
mined unequivocally) in descending order of probability.
5. To ensure that the scrap diagnosis will be transformed into the right
decision by a change in the production process and carrying it
through correctly.

The first three items mentioned vary considerably depending on the type
of castings, alloys used, requirements of the user, the foundry’s own or-
ganization and management etc. Some remarks on the last two items will
therefore be given.

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Foundry Process
Branches

Pouring and Gating Moulding and Pattern

Equipment
Metallurgy Technique Core Sand Equipment

Iron Ingate Sand Pattern Melting

Temperature Location Composition Layout Plan
Pouring Ingate Strength Pattern Sand
Method Geometry Properties Dimensions Plant
Areas

Iron Gating Pattern Moulding

Consistency
Composition Dimensioning Venting Machine
Melt Risering Permeability Core box Core
Treatment Dimensions Shop
Charge Moisture Core Miscellaneous
Composition content Mask
Raw Maintenance
Materials
Mixing

Figure 7.23
Example of the foundry process division into branches and areas.

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

7.2.6.1 Recording Casting Defects

Every single foundry has its own casting defect occurrence model or, in
other words, the frequency of appearance of certain casting defects de-
pends on the local conditions in each foundry such as production pro-
gramme, materials used, production equipment, manpower etc.

Therefore, the way of recording the casting defects may vary from one
foundry to another. DISA will, however, recommend its own model of cast-
ing defect recording.

The main steps toward a well-organized quality control are:

1. To establish the casting selection and rejection criteria based on the

requirements of the customers.
2. To establish a proper control organization consisting of the right per-
sonnel and equipment.
3. To determine casting sampling and quality classification rules.
4. To ensure accurate casting diagnostics and recording methods for
the examined samples and hold regular discussions amongst the
staff (scrap meetings) about the causes of defects.
5. To determine which process changes to be undertaken and to intro-
duce changes one at a time.
6. To record carefully the course of the production after the changed
condition.

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Ca

Water Sand Cooling New Na

Bentonite
addition

New
Sand Mulling New
sand
coal dust
addition

Blow DISA Squeeze

pressure pressure

Sand Casting Defect: Pouring

control Metal Penetration

Process data Control Metal

recording control

Diagnosis direct:
1. Reduce moisture content.
2. Tool low total fines content
Indirect:
1. Reduce pouring temperature.

Figure 7.24
Graph of the casting quality improvement process to eliminate metal penetration.

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

Figure 7.24 shows an example of the defect improvement graph. The cast-
ing defect discovered was metal penetration on the casting surface. After
some consideration during the “scrap meeting”, three most likely reasons
were established:

Directly: • Too high moisture content of the moulding sand

• Too open sand structure caused by too low fines content (AFS-clay
content)

Indirectly: • Too high pouring temperature

In the next step respective changes were introduced to the process and
new results observed and recorded.

Scrap recording covering longer periods of time must be carried out for
better definition of the responsibility for action and for more efficient allo-
cation of the technical control staff. A weekly, monthly or yearly scrap
summary based on the previously mentioned classification of the produc-
tion process divided into branches and areas should be made. An example
of the yearly scrap recording forms divided in accordance with the graph
from Figure 7.23 is shown on Figure 7.25.

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Reason for rejections Current year

Deviation from

Deviation from
September

November

December
Last year

February

Remarks
Standard

standard

last year
Average
January

October
August
March

June
April

May

July
Reason for rejections Current year
Main reasons for
% % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % %

Deviation from

Deviation from
rejection

September

November

December
Last year

Remarks
Standard

February

standard

last year
Average
October
January

August
March

June
Pouring and metal

April

May

July
Gating technique
Pattern equipment Reason for rejections Current year
Moulding sand and Pouring and

Deviation from

Deviation from
core sand % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % %
metallurgy

September

November

December
Last year

February
Standard

Remarks
standard

last year
Average
October
January

August
March
Equipment

June
April

May
Iron temperature

July
Pouring method
Iron composition
Melt treatment Gating Technique % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % %
Charge compositionIngate location
Total rejection
Ingate geometry
Dimensioning of the
gating size
Risering
Total rejection

Total rejection

Reason for rejections Current year

Deviation from

Deviation from
September

November

December
Last year

Remarks
Standard

February

standard

last year
Average
October
January

August
March

June
April

May

July

Reason for rejections Current year

Pattern equipment % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % %
Deviation from

Deviation from
September

November

December

Pattern plate layout

Last year

February

Remarks
Standard

standard

last year
Average
October
January

August
March

June
April

May

July

Pattern dimensions
Pattern venting
Core box Reason for rejections Current year
dimensions Moulding sand and
Deviation from

Deviation from

% % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % %
core sand
September

Maintenance
November

December
Last year

Remarks
Standard

February

standard

last year
Average
January

October
August
March

June
April

May

Sand composition
July

Consistency
Permeability
Water content Equipment % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % %
Total rejection Raw materials Melting plant
Mixing Sand plant
Moulding machine
Core shop
Miscellaneous
Total rejection

Total rejection

Figure 7.25
Example of yearly scrap recording forms, classified according to the branches and areas of the pro-
duction process.

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

Figure 7.26 8304 X 0053

Metal penetration caused by explosive vapour development in the hot corner of the casting.

Figure 7.27 8304 X 0054

Metal penetration caused by a too high flow rate of the metal jet entering the casting cavity
through the encircled lowest ingate. Cause: too large ingate area in relation to the ferrostatic
height.

Figure 7.28 8304 X 0055

Too high pouring speed through the ingates results in sand erosion defects.

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

Casting Defects

Much literature is available on the subject of casting defects and their

remedies. For this as well as many other reasons the defects described in
the present section do not cover the whole area. The section concentrates
on the most likely and troublesome defects. They can be listed as follows:

1. Surface defects:
a. Metal penetration
b. Sand erosion
c. Misrun
2. Porosities:
a. Microshrinkage
b. Macroshrinkage
3. Inclusions:
a. Sand inclusion
b. Slag inclusion
4. Gasholes:
a. Small spherical holes
b. Larger rounded holes.

Re 1a) By definition metal penetration is described as any kind of sand burnt on

the surface of the casting, where the molten metal for one reason or anoth-
er forces its way into the sand grain structure of the castings/mould inter-
face. Figure 7.26 shows a typical penetration defect caused by excessive
moisture content in the moulding sand, resulting in violent vapour devel-
opment in a hot corner of the casting. The vapour bubbles from the sand
next to the hot casting were pressed into the molten metal forcing equiv-
alent metal portions to penetrate the spaces between the sand grains.

Result: rough surface of the casting.

Another type of penetration is shown in Figure 7.27. The lowest ingate

area (encircled) was calculated to be too large in relation to the ferrostatic
pressure height above the gate, resulting in a too high flow rate through
the ingate. The metal jet could easily penetrate the sand structure in the
lowest part of the casting, causing a rough casting surface.

Re 1b) Sand erosion defects are normally defined as superficial marks on the
casting which are caused by sand grain displacement brought about by a
high-speed metal jet filling the casting cavity. Figure 7.28 illustrates a
typical sand erosion defect.

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Figure 7.29 8304 X 0056

Shiny spot - sign of the beginning stage of misrun.

Figure 7.30 8304 X 0057

Incomplete casting - a product of misrun.

Figure 7.31 8304 X 0058

Typical microshrinkage defect (A). Distinctive dendrite shape (B). Magnified 32x.

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

Re 1c) Misrun occurs when the metal viscosity is too low in relation to the geom-
etry of the gating area and the casting cavity volume. The initial stage of
misrun appears as a shiny spot on the part of the casting where the last,
coldest metal was concentrated before solidification (Figure 7.29). In ex-
treme cases, the metal will never come to fill the mould completely, caus-
ing discontinued castings (Figure 7.30).

The most usual reason for misrun is a too low pouring temperature or too
long pouring time. Incorrect metal distribution caused by incorrect loca-
tion of the gates can also be the cause of misrun defects.

Re 2a) Molten metal entrapped between branches of dendritically solidifying

metal shrinks during solidification, and as other shrinking material it
needs a fresh supply. If there is no access for the fresh metal at the mo-
ment of interdendritic solidification, a microporosity will be created (Fig-
ure 7.31). As it is almost impossible to supply fresh metal to the
interdendritic spaces, the best way to correct the defect is either to adjust
the metal composition thus decreasing the interval of solidification (differ-
ence between the temperature at the start and at the end of the solidifica-
tion) or to pour at a lower temperature. Sometimes a change of ingate
location can cause a better heat distribution and remedy the problem.

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Figure 7.32 8304 X 0059

Typical macroshrinkage pit, also called top shrinkage.

Figure 7.33 8304 X 0060 Figure 7.34 8304 X 0061

Sand inclusion. Slag inclusion.

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

Re 2b) The expansion and the contraction of the solidifying metal makes it nec-
essary to feed the freezing casting. An insufficient feeding (risering) of
very thick sections of the casting which naturally solidify latest will cause
shrinkage defects. The shrinkage tendency depends on pouring tempera-
ture, metal composition, mould stability etc. A typical macroshrinkage on
the top of the casting is shown in Figure 7.32.

Re 3a) and 3b) Slag or sand trapped in the molten metal will result in inclusions. It is
normally very difficult to distinguish between the sand and slag inclu-
sions, even if they are due to different causes. A sand inclusion example is
shown in Figure 7.33 and a slag inclusion in Figure 7.34.

Re 4a) These small spherical holes are again divided in locations:

1. On the top surface, revealed during machining; these are sometimes

discovered underneath a core. They are clear and bright; they might
also be irregular in shape and have inclusions of slag.
2. On casting faces adjacent to moulds; these are again revealed on
machining. The holes are smaller than the previous ones and very
shiny.
3. On cored faces, sometimes seen prior to machining. The holes are
often revealed just after shake-out and they tend to be elongated
compared to the previous ones and even irregular types can be
found.

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Refractory

z z
z z

z z
Equipment &

Scrap composition

z
z

z
materials

Mould blow-off

z
Squeeze and blow

z
pressure
Patterns

Friable sand edges

z
Sand tear off

z
Gas evolving material
z

z
Sand temperature
z z

New sand addition

Sand and cores

Active bentonite
z

content
Grain size
z z z z

Inactive fines content

z z

Sand compaction
z
z z

Moisture content

z z
Venting
z

Risering
z z
z

Pouring time
z
z

z
Gating

Metal treatment
z
z

(ingate location)
Gating area
z

z
z

(Pouring speed)
Melt treatment &
z

composition
Metal and
pouring

Pouring practice
z

z z

z z z

Slag skimming
Pouring temperature
z

z
Macroshrinkage

Larger, rounded
Sand inclusions
Microshrinkage

Slag inclusions
Sand erosion

Small, bright

Small, shiny
penetration

Elongated,
irregular
Misrun
Metal

Surface
Porosity Inclusions Gas holes
defects

Figure 7.35
Table showing the most likely casting defects and their most probable causes.

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

7.2.6.2 Casting defect troubleshooting

The most likely casting defects previously mentioned, and their possible
causes, are marked in the table Figure 7.35. The table must be treated as
a guideline only, as only the most typical reasons of defects are listed.

Metal Penetration Possible causes:

• Excessive pouring temperature

• Excessive pouring rate
• Ingate(s) located too close to critical area of the casting cavity
• Too short pouring time
• Excessive moisture content
• Poor sand compaction
• Excessive content of inactive fines makes mould cavity surface too
weak
• Insufficient content of inactive fines makes the sand structure too
open
• Too coarse moulding or core sand
• Insufficient active bentonite content makes the mould cavity surface
too weak
• Insufficient fresh sand addition does not suppress the inactive fines
sufficiently, thus demanding a higher moisture content
• Too hot moulding sand has deteriorated strength properties

Remedies: • Pour colder

• Decrease ingate areas, recalculate them according to the respective
ferrostatic height pressures
• Move away or remove the ingate from the most exposed location of the
cavity
• Decrease the pouring time and thereby the time of exposure for the
casting cavity to the hot metal jet
• Increase blow and squeeze pressure
• Adjust the content of inactive fines
• Add some finer sand as new sand during recycling
• Adjust the active bentonite content
• Increase the new sand addition
• Install a moulding sand cooler
• Increase the sand/metal ratio, increase the production rate (moulds/
hour) (short time of sand burning by the castings)

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Sand Erosion Possible causes:

• Too high pouring rate through the eroding ingate

• Incorrectly located ingate
• Excessive pouring time
• Too dry sand
• Too loose core and moulding sand structure
• Excessive sand temperature

Remedies: • Decrease the area of the eroding ingate

• Remove the ingate causing trouble
• Decrease the pouring time and thereby the time of exposure of the
casting cavity wall or the core to the destructive action of the metal jet
• Increase the moisture content
• Increase the sand compaction by using higher blow and squeeze pres-
sures
• Install a sand cooler, increase sand/metal ration, increase the produc-
tion rate (moulds/hour)

Misrun Possible causes:

• Too low pouring temperature

• Poor pouring practice
• Incorrect gating area
• Improper ingate distribution
• Excessive pouring time
• Too low sand compaction causing deformation of the mould at the
parting line and thereby reduction of ingate heights and subsequent
reduction of ingate area
• Gas pressure too high in the cavity

Remedies: • Pour hotter

• Fill the gating system more quickly and keep the pouring cup full. Hit
the cup centrally with the metal jet
• Recalculate the gating areas. The areas are too small
• Move one of the ingates to a location where it will inject some fresh hot
metal into the coldest place in the latest stage of pouring
• Decrease the compactability of the sand by reducing the moisture con-
tent and increase the blow and squeeze pressures
• Establish better venting of the cavity and/or reduce gas-evolving
material in cores and mould

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

Microshrinkage Possible causes:

• Too high pouring temperature making the solidification range too

wide and the metal expansion too heavy
• In the case of iron
Too high an amount of inoculant
Too low carbon equivalent
Too high phosphorous content
Too high a percentage of alloying additions (Cr, Mo etc.)
• Uneven metal and heat distribution in the casting
• Insufficient risering
• Contaminated scrap

Remedies: • Pour colder

• Decrease or change the type of inoculant
Increase carbon content
Lower phosphorous content
Decrease alloying additions
• Provide better metal distribution by distribution of ingates and higher
ferrostatic pressure on the castings
• Increase the riser or/and the riser neck
• Better scrap composition and control (less steel scrap)

Macroshrinkage Possible causes:

• Too hot metal

• The metal level in the pouring cup sinks during pouring
• Too high inoculant addition increasing the amount of eutectic cells
• Too high phosphorous content
• Excessive alloying addition (Cr, Mo etc.)
• Too long pouring time due to too small gating areas
• Uneven metal distribution
• Insufficient risering
• Poor sand compaction decreasing mould rigidity
• Contaminated scrap

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

Remedies: • Pour colder to decrease the temperature range of freezing

• Keep the pouring cup full during the entire pouring process to
increase the ferrostatic pressure on the castings and for better pressu-
rizing of the riser
• Decrease inoculant addition or change type of inoculant
• Increase the carbon content
• Decrease the phosphorous content
• Decrease the addition of alloying elements
• Adjust the gating areas
• Provide better metal distribution by distribution of the ingates
• Increase the riser and riser neck, supply more hot iron on the riser,
increase the “notch” in the riser
• Increase compressibility and blow and squeeze pressure
• Better scrap composition and control (less steel scrap)

Sand Inclusion Possible causes:

• The gating system is not kept full, hence not allowing the sand parti-
cles to float to the upper surface of pouring cup and runners
• Incorrectly sized gating area makes it impossible to keep the gating
system continuously filled with metal
• Incorrectly located ingates wash the sand from the mould or core wall
• Poor sand compaction
• Too high content of inactive fines makes the sand brittle and weak
• Sand tear-off or cracks during moulding or on the cores
• Friable sand edges
• Poor mould and core mask blow-off

Remedies: • Reinstruct the pouring personnel

• Recalculate the gating system
• Remove or move the ingates from the location causing the trouble
• Increase the moisture content in order to obtain better compactability.
Increase blow and squeeze pressure
• Add more new sand for better suppression of inactive fines
• Check the moulding operation, the patterns and the core quality
• Decrease sand friability by increasing active bentonite content, intro-
duce fillets at sharp sand corners on the pattern and the core box,
increase core sand strength
• Improve the blow-off system or correct the direction of the blow-off
nozzles

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

Slag Inclusion Possible causes:

• Poor slag skimming

• Bad pouring practice by not keeping the gating system full and
thereby not allowing the slag particles to float to the surface of pour-
ing cup and runners
• Excessive inoculation or wrong inoculant
• Incorrect gating area makes it impossible to keep the pouring cup full
during the entire pouring process
• Contaminated steel scrap

Remedies: • Improve skimming practice

• Reinstruct the pouring personnel
• Decrease inoculant addition or change the inoculant
• Recalculate the gating system
• Install a slag trap
• Better scrap control

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

7.2.7 Gasholes (small, clear and bright)

Possible causes:

• Low pouring temperature

• High sulphur in metal
• High manganese in metal
• Dirty ladles
• Pour refractory
• Bad gating

Remedies:

• Pouring temperatures higher than 1420°C

• Reduce sulphur and manganese to less than 0.12% and 0.65% respec-
tively. The sulphur is neutralized by manganese, if:
Min. manganese % = 1.7 x S% + 0.3%
• Use often skimming of ladles
• Refractories must be able to withstand 1500°C
• Use slag-traps in gating system

7.2.8 Gasholes (small and very shiny)

Possible causes:

• Too high aluminium content in the melt

• Too high aluminium content in the inoculant
• Wet moulding sand
• Wet linings of ladles

Remedies:

Reduce aluminium content to less than 0.01%

• Another inoculant with less aluminium is necessary

• Moulding sand should have moisture content as specified in the sand
chapter
• Dry out linings adequately

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Section 7.2 – Process Control

7.2.9 Gasholes (elongated and irregular)

Possible causes: • High nitrogen in core binder

• High nitrogen in metal

Remedies: • New core binder with low nitrogen content is necessary

• Less steel scrap in charge
• Reduce nitrogen content in melt to less than 0.01%
• Neutralize nitrogen by titanium in amount of up to 0.03%

7.2.10 Gasholes (larger rounded holes)

Possible causes: • Gas from mould

• Gas from cores
• Blocked vents
• Chaplet etc. contaminated

Remedies: • Avoid excessive gas production from mould by reducing coal-dust,

binder, water etc.
• Use less binder in cores and cure adequately
• Improve venting of cores and mould cavities
• Clean rusty, dirty or contaminated chaplets etc.

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10266086 Chapter 8 — Process specific for DISA 030-B

8 Process specific for DISA 030-B

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535

650
120
340

8304 X 0276

Figure 8.1 8304 X 0276

Variable mould thickness

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10266086 Section 8.1 – Productivity

8.1 Productivity

8.1.1 Variable Mould Thickness

See Figure 8.1 Max. mould thickness is obtainable only when standard pattern
plates of 20 mm thickness are used.

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Obtainable moulding capacity

Moulds/h

300
290
280
270
260
250
Uncored
240
230
220
210
Cored
200
190
180
170
160
150
Mould pitch
125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375

Minimum mould Maximum mould

pitch 120 pitch 340

8304 X 0277

Figure 8.2 8304 X 0277

Obtainable moulding speed and corresponding cycle times.

Note: The above diagram is based upon preliminary figures that have not yet been verified in test
trials. They are based on the best available estimates for the time being. Actual performance in
practice may show slightly different figures.

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8.1.2 Obtainable moulding capacity

See Figure 8.2 The obtainable moulding speed (cycle times) shown in Figure 8.2 ap-
plies to a moulding string of a total length of up to 30 m which is con-
veyed on the standard DISA 030-B AMC/SBC pouring and cooling
lines. Furthermore a DISA 030-B core setter (CSE) must be used for
the automatic core setting.

The obtainable moulding speed will be reduced by approx. 3.3

moulds for each 10 m exceeding 30 m mould string. See also the
standard specification sheets.

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70
HA
II

535
II

30
Figure 8.3 8304X0096

Average metallostatic height HA calculation. The hatched area is considered to be the most likely
area in which the patterns and the gating system are placed.

Chamber front

B Min. 4780

L=4050 730

100-200

Figure 8.4 8304X0194

Recommended location of the pouring position.

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8.1.3 Pouring Position

As a standard example for the DISA 030-B:

S = 1.2 Experience shows that extra pressure in excess of the

static pressure will normally not exceed 20%.
MU = 0.6 The mould surface area utilization, 60%.
μ = 0.25 The friction coefficient 0.25 is chosen because this would
normally be the worst case.
SM= 5 To go lower will normally affect the sand condition in a
negative direction.
ρM = 7000 kg/m3 Density of molten iron.
ρS = 1500 kg/m3 Density of compressed sand, squeeze pressure 10 kp/
cm2.

Figure 8.3 HA = 0.288 m This is the average metallostatic height when mould
surface area utilization is equally distributed within the
recommended minimum distances from the mould edges
(see Figure 8.3).

Hence

L minimum = 1.2 × ---------- × ⎛ --- + ------------⎞ × 0.288 = 4.037m ∼ 4.050m

0.6 1 7000
0.25 ⎝ 5 1500⎠

The Application Department has decided to use the chamber front as the
point of reference, and the following distance is now recommended:

Figure 8.4 Pouring position for DISA 030-B is min. 4780 mm from moulding chamber
front (see Figure 8.4).

The minimum pouring position range (B) is theoretically the maximum

mould thickness, but in practice it should be adequately large, so flexibil-
ity and service work will be easier, for example 2 maximum mould thick-
nesses. The dimensional consistency is better when the pouring position
is kept at the same position for the same casting. B might be chosen bigger
for service access reasons.

The mentioned 4780 mm is based on the above written conditions. If the

mould surface utilization is permanently lower, it will be possible to re-
duce the minimum length correspondingly. However, a mould surface uti-
lization where the average metallostatic height HA is lower from the top
of the mould than indicated above needs an increased Lmin..

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 A B

Reverse Forward

As little as possible
100-200 mm
8304 X 0010-01

Figure 8.5 8304 X 0010

Transverse positioning of a pouring device

DISA 030-B Application Manual
10266086 Section 8.1 – Productivity

8.1.4 Automatic Pouring

See Figure 8.5 Transverse movement of pouring spout (with that in reality the
whole pouring furnace) is dependent upon the safety distance from
the edge of the pouring cup to the edge of the mould. This of course
applies from both edges of the mould.

For DISA 030-B the distance A and B = 225 mm.

B may be reduced to min. 100 mm depending on pattern layout.

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10266086 Section 8.1 – Productivity

8.1.5 Moulding Machine Settings

Machine settings are the part of the “keyboard” to “play” on in order

to utilize fully the advantages of the DISA 030-B moulding ma-
chines. The settings are determining not only the way the parts and
subassemblies of the moulding machine will work, but also how the
materials supplied to the machine will be applied for producing a
high quality mould.

The subsequent squeeze, core transport and the core setting de-
pends very much upon the machine settings. So does the mould
close-up and transport as well as the in-mould cooling of the cast-
ings. The factors mentioned are only a part of the parameters to be
set on the moulding machine in order to ensure the proper quality
of the castings.

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Screen F3 — Data for Current Pattern

Group 1 — General parameters Setting range Normal setting

11 Pattern set number 1 – 30,000

12 Production information

13 Number of moulds requested 1 – 30,000

14 Minimum cycle time 0.0 – 60.0 s 0s

Group 3 — Pattern dimensions Setting range Normal setting

31 PP pattern plate thickness (B) 20.0 – 210.0 mm

32 PP pattern height (Q) 0.0 – 240.0 mm

33 SP pattern plate thickness (A) 20.0 – 120.0 mm

34 SP pattern height (P) 0.0 – 170.0 mm

35 Minimum distance between squeeze plates (V) 100 – 500 mm

Group 4 — Correction in chamber Setting range Normal setting

41 Correction of nominal mould thickness -200 – 220 mm 0 mm

42 Correction of mould position in chamber -100 – 100 mm 0 mm

43 Correction of operation 3A end position -100 – 0 mm 0 mm

Group 5 — Sand shot Setting range Normal setting

51 Sand shot pressure 0.0 – 4 bar 1 – 3 bar

52 Correction of shot time -0.2 - + 2 0s

53 Sand level in sand hopper 50 – 95% 95%

Group 6 — Squeezing Setting range Normal setting

61 Squeeze pressure 1.0 – 12.0 Kp/cm2 8 Kp/cm2

62 Squeeze extension time 0.0 – 1.0 s 0s

63 Minimum compressibility 10 – 50% 20%

64 Maximum compressibility 10 – 50% 30%

Table 1: Screen F3 Parameters

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8.1.6 Production Settings on DISA 030-B

Table 1 to Table 3 are selected screens from F3/F4 and F5 and in-
clude some of the important parameters for the foundry process and
therefore recommended to make pattern dependant settings. The
setting ranges of the parameters which are accepted by the machine
are also indicated. A short description of the role of the parameters
in addition to a couple of others will be given in this section.

The DISA 030-B automatically calculates the chamber depth and

the PP and SP positions on the basis of the following parameters,
numbered as on the screens:

31. PP pattern plate thickness (B)

32. PP pattern height (Q)
33. SP pattern plate thickness (A)
34. SP pattern height (P)
35. Minimum distance between heating plates (V)
41. Correction of nominal mould thickness
231. Adaptive control of mould thickness

31, 32, 33 and 34 The method of calculation is described in the chapter “Pattern
Equipment”, where also the definitions of B, Q, A and P are found.

NOTE
These settings influence the cycle time of the moulding ma-
chine.

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Screen F3 — Data for Current Pattern

Group 7 — Mould stripping Setting range Normal setting

72 PP stripping acceleration 0.01–1.00 m/s2 0.50 m/s2

74 PP stripping distance 0–200 mm 5 mm

75 SP stripping acceleration 0.01–1.00 m/s2 0.50 m/s2

77 SP stripping distance 0–200 mm 5 mm

Group 8 — Mould Close/up Setting range Normal setting

81 Close-up force 1000 – 2500 kp 1000 kp/1350 kp

82 Correction of close-up position -100 – 20 mm 0 mm

83 Extended mould retainer time 0 – 10.5 s 0.1 s

84 Mould retainer pressure 0 – 5 bar 2 bar

Group 9 — Mould Transport Setting range Normal setting

91 Correction of delivery position -110 – + 5 mm 0 mm

92 Acceleration during mould transport 1–100% 100%

93 Deceleration during mould transport 1–100% 100%

Group 10 — Core-setting Setting range Normal setting

101 Selection of core setting mode No cores, CSE, by hand no cores

Group 11— Core Setting Speed Setting range Normal setting

111 Stage 1-3, Speed forwards/backwards with 1–100% 50%

cores

112 Stage 2, Speed with cores 1–100% 100%

114 Stage 4, Core setting force 0.0–500 kp

115 Stage 4-5, Core setting time 0.0–10.0 s 0.4 s

Group 12 — Parting Fluid Setting range Normal setting

121 Spraying frequency 0 – 100 moulds 1 mould

122 Spraying time 0.1 – 2.0 s 0.3 s

123 SP position when spraying starts 870 – 1225 mm 1000 mm

Table 2: Screen F3 Parameters

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Screen F3 — Data for Current Pattern

Group 13 — Temperature Setting range Normal setting

131 Temperature of PP pattern 0° – 60°C –

132 Temperature of SP pattern 0° – 60°C –

Group 14 — Mould Blow-off Setting range Normal setting

141 Start position. Blow-off in operation 3 900 – 1410 mm 1200 mm

142 Stop position. Blow-off in operation 3 900 – 1410 mm 1400 mm

143 Start position. Blow-off in operation 6 900 – 1410 mm 1400 mm

144 Stop position. Blow-off in operation 6 900 – 1410 mm 1200 mm

145 Blow off SP top in operation 3 Yes/No Yes

146 Blow off mould front in operation 4A Yes/No No

147 Blow-off mould surface and cores No No

CSE stage 1
CSE stage 6
CSE stages 1 + 6

Screen F5 — Machine Settings

Group 23 — DMM Setting range Normal setting

231 Adaptive control of mould thickness No/Yes Yes

232 Operational temperature of hydraulic fluid 0–50°C 45°C

233 Stand-by temperature of hydraulic fluid 0–50°C 35°C

Table 3: Screen F3/F5 Parameters

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Parameter 31 (B) Parameter 32 (Q) Parameter 34 (P) Parameter 33 (A)

PP SP

Parameter 35 (V)

PP SP

Figure 8.6 8304 X 0111

Case 1. Illustration of the parameters on screen F3, group 3 - Pattern dimension

Parameter 31 (B) Parameter 32 (Q) Parameter 34 (P) Parameter 33 (A)

PP SP

Parameter 35 (V)

PP SP

Figure 8.7 8304 X 0112

Case 2. Illustration of the parameters on screen F3, group 3 - Pattern dimension

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10266086 Section 8.1 – Productivity

35 — Minimum distance This parameter is normally set to a value which is the sum of pa-
between PP and SP (V), see rameters 31, 32, 33 and 34 (Figure 8.6). If for example sand is not
Figure 8.6 and Figure 8.7 available during the shot, the machine will stop in due time before
collision. If patterns are arranged as shown in Figure 8.7, it is pos-
sible to reduce parameter 35 in relation to the sum of 31, 32, 33 and
34, so a wanted smaller mould thickness can be obtained.

NOTE
This setting influences the cycle time of the moulding ma-
chine.

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- +
SP nominal position PP nominal position

Figure 8.8 8304 X 0113

Correction of the nominal mould thickness

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41 — Correction of The nominal mould thickness is automatically calculated as:

nominal mould thickness,
see Figure 8.8 PP pattern height (Q) + SP pattern height (P) + 70 mm ± correction
of mould thickness.

It is possible to correct the nominal mould thickness in relation to

the one automatically calculated. The mould thickness can then be
increased, which can be beneficial for blowing the sand into ex-
tremely intricate patterns or patterns with deep pockets.

The chamber depth calculated on the base of the pattern geometry

does not always comply with the minimum sand/metal ratio limit.
By changing the plate position in the chamber, the sand-to-iron ra-
tio in the mould can be adjusted.

This setting influences the cycle time of the moulding machine

231 — Adaptive control of There are many good reasons for making the moulds the same thick-
mould thickness ness, for example that the pouring position will stick to the same
place.

When choosing this setting the mould thickness is adjusted so that

it is always constant. The squeezed mould will always be corrected
to the sum of:

• “PP pattern height”

• + “SP pattern height”
• + 70 mm
• + Adjustment due to “correction of nominal mould thickness”
• + Adjustment due to “minimum distance between heating
plates”

Therefore, the mould thickness is independent of the sand level in

the sand hopper, the shot pressure, the shot time, the sand filling se-
quence of the chamber, the squeeze pressure, the squeeze time and
especially the sand quality and compactability. The machine is sim-
ply comparing the produced mould with the calculated one and then
corrects the chamber depth for the next one. Drastic changes in the
above-mentioned parameters will also change mould thickness, but
in practice, under well-controlled circumstances, the mould thick-
nesses will not vary more than ±0.5 mm.

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The shot of the sand into the moulding chamber is very important
for the final quality of the mould. The shot and hence the filling of
the chamber is dependant on the following parameters:

A. Sand quality
42. Correction of mould position in chamber
51. Sand shot pressure
52. Correction of shot time
53. Sand level in sand hopper, screen F3, item 54
B. Chamber and pattern venting

A Sand quality The sand properties should be according to the recommendations in

the “Moulding Sand” chapter

Besides it should be thoroughly mixed and free of lumps and clay

balls as they will disturb the filling of especially pattern pockets. A
good sand in that respect would be a sand with less than 3% sand
lumps and clay balls larger than 3 mm. A simple test of that is to use
a 3 mm sieve.

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SP nominal position PP nominal position

Figure 8.9 8304 X 0114

Correction of mould position in the chamber

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42 — Correction of mould Correction of the mould position in the chamber, in other words the
position in chamber, see pattern positions in relation to the sand injection slot (Figure 8.9),
Figure 8.9 can be made by this parameter. The calculation of the position is en-
suring that the distance from the slot to the SP pattern and the dis-
tance from the slot to the PP pattern are equal. In some cases it
might be requested that these distances are unequal due to a special
pattern configuration.

NOTE
This setting influences the cycle time of the moulding ma-
chine.

51 — Sand shot pressure The sand shot itself is very important and is one of the most impor-
tant settings, since the majority of the sand compaction work should
be done during the shot. The squeeze operation has to deliver just
enough energy to increase the density of the precompacted sand
made during the shot. During the shot the sand has to be introduced
into the deepest pockets of the patterns and the air present in the
chamber must escape through the chamber vent, but also through
the pattern vents installed to avoid the air cushion effect.

The usual setting, applicable for the majority of the patterns, is 2.0
bars in some cases even less. However the shot pressure setting de-
pends on pattern geometry, sand flowability, pattern venting condi-
tion and the depth of the shot chamber.

To ensure a long working life of patterns as well as the components

of the shot system and at the same time to minimize the consump-
tion of shot air, we recommend the following: Always use the lowest
possible shot pressure but enough to ensure optimum moulding of
the specific set of pattern equipment.

NOTE
This setting influences to a minor degree the cycle time of the
moulding machine.

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52 — Correction of shot The shot time is automatically calculated in dependence of the dis-
time tance between the pattern plates before squeeze and the sand shot
pressure. Correction of the shot time is normally not necessary.

It is an empirical job to fine-tune the shot time. Too short shot time
causes bad filling in the top of the mould. That will result in a mould
which is harder and thicker in the bottom because there is a reaction
to the excessive compaction there. Too long shot is just waste of cycle
time.

53 — Sand level in sand The sand level is determined by the thickness of the mould.
hopper
For intricate pattern configurations a lower sand level will improve
the moulding capability in the upper part of the mould. See also
Chapter 5, ‘‘Moulding of Green Sand Cores’’.

B Chamber and pattern Sand and air is added to the chamber during the shot. The air must
venting escape through vents in the chamber plates and vents in the pat-
terns, if any. As the chamber is being filled with sand, the air pres-
sure in the chamber rises and reaches its peak just before the
chamber is completely filled.

The pressure difference between the pressure in the sand shot hop-
per and the moulding chamber has most influence on the velocity of
the sand through the sand slot. As the chamber pressure is only
slightly higher than the atmospheric pressure during the first part
of the shot, the venting of the chamber has very little effect on the
moulding capability at the lower part of the chamber.

The venting may, however, have some effect on the moulding capa-
bility at the upper part of the chamber if the vents are partly
clogged. Clogged vents will have a most unfortunate influence in
connection with small chamber depths as the number of available
vents is reduced as the depth is reduced.

In other words, an increased pressure in the chamber due to reduced

venting will slow down the velocity of the sand through the sand slot
and consequently reduce the moulding capability at the upper part
of the mould.

Furthermore, the reduced velocity may result in the chamber not

being completely filled within the preset shot time. For these rea-
sons the vents must be cleaned regularly.

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Sand can become compacted when subjected to differences in air

pressure. This means that if the bottom of a pattern pocket is fitted
with vents, the rising pressure in the chamber during the shot will
cause compaction of the sand in the pockets.

To achieve the greatest compaction, the total venting area at the

bottom of the pocket must be as large as possible.

Vents at the inlet of a pocket will, on the other hand, have a damag-
ing effect as the pressure difference between the cavity and the rest
of the chamber is then reduced or equalized.

The squeeze operation has been mentioned earlier in ‘‘High Density

Moulds without Excessive Pressure’’ on page 7.49.

It is a valid saying that the mould should be shot in a proper way

and that the squeeze operation is just a formality to make it harder.

Anyway, the following machine settings have influence on the qual-

ity of the squeezed mould:

61. Squeeze pressure

62. Squeeze extension time
63. Minimum compressibility
64. Maximum compressibility
65. Delayed squeeze

61 — Squeeze pressure The importance of the squeeze pressure is described earlier in ‘‘High
Density Moulds without Excessive Pressure’’ on page 7.49.

NOTE
This setting influences the cycle time of the moulding ma-
chine.

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Squeeze pressure (bar)

T SQ Variable

P SQ

Time (s)

Figure 8.10 8304 X 0201

The diagram shows the concept of the squeeze pressure (PSQ) and the squeeze holding time (TSQ)
settings

Velocity of PP

Last single mould transport velocity

Close-up velocity

A
Deceleration

B
Time (s)
Acceleration

Mould string transport velocity

Figure 8.11 8304 X 0202

Operation 4 consists of three stages. Fast mould transport out of chamber, slow mould close-up
(A) and mould string transport (B).

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62 — Squeeze extension This setting (TSQ) is the duration of the holding of the squeezed
time, see Figure 8.10 mould under the preset pressure (PSQ), before start of the pattern
stripping operation. This feature is to ensure that the squeeze oper-
ation has finished at the particular pressure. The majority of the
patterns being moulded, however, do not require any extended
squeeze time.

NOTE
This setting influences the cycle time of the moulding ma-
chine.

63 and 64 — Minimum Compressibility factors (see ‘‘Compressibility Factor’’ on page 1.31

compressibility and maxi- in Chapter 1, ‘‘Moulding Sand’’) which are normally acceptable on
mum compressibility the DISA 030-B are between 20% and 25%. In special cases they
might be differently experienced.

To avoid pouring of moulds which are outside these set limits (re-
sulting in scrap castings), the VDU will show a warning.

The transport of the mould string and especially the delivery of the
last produced mould to the mould string is very important for the fi-
nal dimensions across the parting line; avoidance of metal run out
is another important factor.

The following machine settings have influence on the delivery and

transport operation:

81. Close-up force

82. Correction of close-up position
83. Extended mould retainer time
84. Mould retainer pressure

81 — Close-up force The mould close-up force is the pressure against the mould string,
which must be obtained during the mould closing operation, opera-
tion 4A; Figure 8.11 shows the corresponding velocities. The same
pressure is applied by the PP plate when reindexing the mould
string after the close-up (B). This is called mould transport force.

The normal setting, 1000 kp, is the so-called ideal setting (see later
in this section), and should be tried when conditions are ideal. In
practice the foundries set this parameter at around 1350 kp, which
corresponds to the calculations later in this section.

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The setting is generally the same for most jobs, however, patterns
where extremely high ferrostatic pressures are involved require
some higher pressure setting. One must bear in mind that too high
close-up pressure can cause mould deformation across the parting
line and in an extreme case mould crushing.

As mentioned earlier the minimum mould string length to with-

stand the pressure from the pouring operation is 4.05 m. This corre-
sponds to a pressure between moulds, just ready to be poured, of
3
µ x mould string force = 0.25 x 4.05 m x 0.65 m x 0.535 m x 1500 kp/m = 528 kp

during normal production. This is because we know that the mould

string moves towards the moulding machine due to expansion from
the moulds already poured. In order to be sure that the forces be-
tween the moulds are high enough when the first mould is poured in
the middle of a 2 x 4.05 m mould string, the close-up force should be
at least 2 x 528 kp ~ 1050 kp.

To this theoretical value the internal hydraulic friction, approxi-

mately 300 kp, should be added; hence recommended total value set-
ting is 1350 kp.

82 — Correction of close-up This setting defines at which distance from the front of the moulding
position chamber the new produced mould will get in touch with the mould
string.

The mould close-up is set by the machine automatically, considering

the actual mould thickness, the thickness of the PP pattern plate
and optimum production capacity. However, if a temporary correc-
tion of the close-up point should be necessary (e.g. a sudden change
of moulding sand consistency), a readjusting can be changing the
mould close-up position.

83 and 84 — Extended The purpose of the mould retainers is to prevent the last produced
mould retainer time and mould to be pulled back when PP strips the mould. The extended
mould retainer pressure mould retainer time is the waiting time for the PP to start stripping
from activation of the retainers; this time to ensure full grip of the
retainers. The pressure ensures sufficient grip of the mould. Do not
overdo the pressure as deformation of the mould could occur.

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The quality of the mould cavities depends, besides the quality of the
sand and the patterns as well as the previously mentioned parame-
ters, also on the following settings:

72. PP stripping acceleration

74. PP stripping distance
75. SP stripping acceleration
77. SP stripping distance
121. Spraying frequency
122. Spraying time
123. SP position when spraying starts
131. Temperature of PP pattern
132. Temperature of SP pattern
141. Start position. Blow-off in operation 3. Nozzles at SP back
142. Stop position. Blow-off in operation 3. Nozzles at SP back
143. Start position. Blow-off in operation 6. Nozzles at SP back
144. Stop position. Blow-off in operation 6. Nozzles at SP back
145. Blow-off SP top in operation 3
146. Blow-off mould front of mould in operation 4A. Nozzles at bot-
tom SP

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Stripping speed

Normal movement

2
Stripping movement

Time (s)
Stripping distance
Distance (mm)

8304 X 0025

Figure 8.12 8304 X 0025

The stripping pattern plate moves at first more slowly, and after obtaining the preset stripping
distance it accelerates (slope α2)

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72 and 74 — PP stripping These settings mean acceleration of the retracting plates during
acceleration and PP strip- stripping until the preset “stripping distances” are obtained. After
ping distance the preset distance has been obtained, the maximum retracting
speed will be applied (Figure 8.12). The highest acceleration can sel-
dom be used, but be aware of the fact that this setting influences the
cycle time of the moulding machine.

The stripping acceleration and distance should be determined with

regard to pattern height, pattern draft, pattern venting, parting liq-
uid, sand quality etc.

75 and 77 — SP stripping Similar as for the PP, but the stripping operation for the SP is in
acceleration and SP general easier as it is carried out when the mould is firmly situated
stripping distance in the moulding chamber. To avoid breakage of greensand core be-
cause of vacuum effect (see 43), it is recommended to place vents in
the pattern pockets.

NOTE
These settings influence the cycle time of the moulding ma-
chine.

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121, 122, and 123 Spraying frequency, spraying time, start position SP as well as rear-
most nozzles activated.

The spray system on the DISA 030-B is of the in-chamber type and
it will facilitate the separation between pattern and mould.

The amount of parting fluid is controlled by the “spraying interval”,

where the frequency of moulds per spray is set, and the “spraying
time” where the spraying time per spray is set.

It is possible also to control the position where spraying starts by the

“SP position when spraying starts”, even if the SP heating plate is
100 mm outside the chamber front.

The amount of parting fluid necessary depends on pattern material,

pattern geometry and moulding sand condition, especially ben-
tonite/water ratio, bentonite quality, content of inactive fines and
temperature.

131 and 132 — The squeeze plates, on which the pattern plates and hence the pat-
Temperatures of PP and terns are mounted, are thermostatically heated.
SP patterns
The purpose of the pattern heating is to avoid sticker defects due to
sand moisture condensing on a cold pattern surface. The usual set-
ting is 5°C (9°F) above the usual sand temperature. This value must
be higher if bigger variations of the sand temperature are expected
during the shift. Excessively heated plates, however, can cause un-
necessary drying of the mould cavity during the squeezing and
transport of the moulds. This in turn will be fatal for the casting
quality. Since the maximum recommendable sand temperature is
approx. 40°C (104°F), it should not be necessary to heat the pattern
to a higher temperature than 45°C (113°F).

NOTE
When using resin patterns it can be destroying to exceed 60°C
(140°F).

141, 142, 143, 144 and 146 Blow-off front of mould (SP impression) in operation 4A. Nozzles at
SP bottom

If for some reason loose sand is experienced in the mould cavities, it

is necessary to blow-off that sand in order to avoid casting scrap due
to sand inclusions. The parameter text is self-explanatory.

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145— Blow-off SP top in By experience loose sand will now and then find its way to the top of
operation 3 the SP plate; to avoid the loose sand falling into the mould cavities
because of SP’s swinging operation, this parameter can be set to
YES.

The automatic core setting is influenced by:

91 Correction of delivery position

114 Stage 3 — Core setting force
115 Stage 3 — Core setting time
118 Stage 5 — Stripping acceleration
119 Stage 5 — Stripping distance
111 Stage 1 — Speed in with cores
112 Stage 2 — Speed forward with cores
147 Blow-off mould surface and cores

91 — Correction of delivery The pattern plate thickness is for the computer to calculate the
position mould delivery point, which is the position of the rear face of the
mould; on this machine it is a fixed distance of 830 mm from the
chamber front.

If less or more decelerating is wanted just before the core insertion

in the mould, it is possible to use the “correction of mould delivery
parameter”.

113 — Core setting This correction is to ensure a perfect match between the rear face of
correction the mould and the core mask.

114 — Core setting force This is the force with which the core mask with cores is pressing
against the mould and can be adjusted.

For the cores or core packages with inconsistent dimensions it is

necessary to apply tighter crush fits on the locators between the core
and the mould. In this case it is often necessary to increase the pres-
sure of the core setting.

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115 — Core setting time This setting extends the time the core setting pressure is exercised
on the mould. The time can be necessary when the deviations of the
core locator dimensions from the nominal are large and it is neces-
sary to increase the crush fit between the core and the mould. The
extended holding time will ensure that the vacuum is totally re-
leased before removing the core mask from the mould.

NOTE
This setting influences the cycle time of the moulding ma-
chine.

111 & 112 — CSE speed in With these settings you can increase or reduce the speed of the
stages 1 & 2 movements. If the cores are simple and consistent in their dimen-
sions and strengths, it is possible to speed up; vice versa it might be
necessary to slow down if cores are intricate and of poor quality. For
heavy cores or where the gravity centre is far outside the core mask
it will be an advantage to reduce the speed of the mask and core in
view of reducing the separation forces between them.

Do not change this setting before you have made sure that the suck-
ing holes, sucking areas and the vacuum in the mask are sufficiently
large.

NOTE
These settings influence the cycle time of the moulding ma-
chine.

147 — Blow-off mould This operation will blow-off the PP mould impression before and af-
surface (PP) and cores ter core setting as well as the cores, inserted in the PP impression
after that has taken place. It is possible to chose/not chose this op-
eration in CSE stages 1 and/or 5 depending on the need.

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9 Tables

9.1
 RECONDITIONING OF MOULDING SAND
(FOR IRON ALLOYS ONLY)

New bentonite addition (%)

1.3

1.2
9 3

1.1

1.0 ) 10 3.5
t (%
n t en
s co
ine 11
0.9 i cf
g an 4
or
In 12
0.8 13
14 4.5
15
16
0.7 3 5

0.6 3.5
n
tio

6
ra
on

4
/ir
nd

0.5 7
Sa

4.5
8
5
0.4 9
6 10
0.3 7
12
8 NB!
9
New coal dust addition is calculated as
0.2 10 15 60% of new bentonite. In the case of
12
the synthetic carbon materials, the new
15 additions must be made in accordance
20
0.1 20 with the volatile content.

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Total new sand addition (%)

9.2
 DAILY SAND CONTROL SHEET
Type of machine: Date: Responsible:

Strength features Packing features Composition features

Time Compression Spalling Tensile

Compactibility Permeability Water content
strength strength strength
(%) (%)
p/cm2 (psi) p/cm2 (psi) p/cm2 (psi)

Active bentonite
ml %

Methylene blue Active ben-

tonite content

Total fines content

%

Loss on ignition
%

Average
9.3
 Date of delivery:
SAND COMPOSITION Weight
SHEET Tested by:

Ordered by:

DIN 4188 Material on Material Calculation of average Determination of total fine content
Mesh the screens through grain size (grains smaller than 0.02 mm
size
mm
g
g % % Factor a Weight of specimen

Col. 1 Col. 2 Col. 3 Col. 4 Col. 5 Col. 6 Weight of specimen after g

b
2.0 0.4 washing

1.4 0.5 g
c Weight of fines a-b
1.0 0.7

0.71 1.0 c-- %

d Fine content x 100
0.5 1.4 a

0.355 2.0 Loss on ignition of washed %

e
0.25 2.8 specimens

0.18 4.0 Determination of non-combustible fines

0.125 5.7 (grains smaller than 0.02 mm)

0.09 8.0 Loss on ignition of %

f
0.063 11.4 unwashed specimens

x)
Pan 0 15.9 Combustible fines %
g f-e
100% Sum (calculated)

h Non-combustible fines d-g %

Calculation of average grain size

100
Average grain size = --------------------------------
50 100 Sum of col. 6
100
90
= ------------------------- = ________________ mm

40 80
Standard deviation =
70
Numbers from Col. 3

Numbers from Col. 4

30 60 Grain shape (microscope)

50
Grain surface (microscope)
20 40
Specific surface of sand
30 assembly cm2/g

10 20 Humus content
max. 4 min. 0
10
Lime content %
0 0
Pan 0.09 0.18 0.355 0.71 1.4 Sintering temperature
0.02 0.063 0.125 0.25 0.5 1.0 2.0 start °C
compl. °C

Table 1: Sand composition sheet for recording the sand composition data
9.4
 STANDARD GATING NOMOGRAM FOR IRON ALLOYS

FE
m: H = Ferrostatic height (mm)
G 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2
W= kg/sec.
100 t 50
70 70
100

)
10

kg
50
40

F(
200
1036 * G 30 7

on
F= 300

ti
t*m* H 20 5 500

ec
4 700
s-s 10 3
1000
F:
ros
7 mm²
c

2
gh

5 2000
4
rou

3
l th

2 1
eta

1000
0.7
m

1 700
st

0.5
ca

F = Cross section (mm2)

0.7
0.4 500
of

0.5 400
0.4 0.3
ht

0.3 300
eig

0.2
=w

0.2
200
G

0.1
0.1
100
0.07
70
0.05
0.04 50
40
1.5 0.03
30
2
0.02
t = Pouring time (sec) 20
3
4
5 10
6 8 10 15 20 25
0.7
Note: Loss coefficient m 0.6 7
0.5
using 1.0 will give the theoretical ingate area + 0% loss factor 5
0.4
using 0.9 will give the theoretical ingate area + 15% loss factor 0.3
using 0.8 will give the theoretical ingate area + 25% loss factor
using 0.7 will give the theoretical ingate area + 43% loss factor m = Loss coefficient 0.2
50 70 100 200 300 500 700 1000
using 0.6 will give the theoretical ingate area + 66.6% loss factor
9.5

using 0.5 will give the theoretical ingate area + 100% loss factor
using 0.4 will give the theoretical ingate area + 150% loss factor
using 0.3 will give the theoretical ingate area + 233.3% loss factor
using 0.2 will give the theoretical ingate area + 400% loss factor
9.6

STANDARD GATING NOMOGRAM FOR ALUMINIUM ALLOYS

AL
m: H = Metallostatic height (mm)
G 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2
W= kg/sec.
t 50
100
70
70 100

)
10

kg
50

F(
40 200
3100 * G 7

on
F= 30 300

ti
t *m * H 5 500

ec
20
4 700
s-s 3
1000
F:
ros
10
mm²
c

7 2
gh

5
rou

4 5000
3
l th

4000
1
eta

2 3000
0.7
m

2000
st

1
0.5
ca

F = Cross section (mm2)

0.7 0.4
of

0.5
ht

0.4 0.3 1000

eig

0.3
700
=w

0.2
0.2
500
G

400
0.1 0.1
300
0.07
200
0.05
0.04
1.5 0.03 100
2 70
0.02
t = Pouring time (sec)
3 50
40
4
5 30
6 8 10 15 20 25
0.7
Note: Loss coefficient m 0.6 20
using 1.0 will give the theoretical ingate area + 0% loss factor 0.5
0.4
using 0.9 will give the theoretical ingate area + 15% loss factor
0.3
using 0.8 will give the theoretical ingate area + 25% loss factor
using 0.7 will give the theoretical ingate area + 43% loss factor m = Loss coefficient 0.2
50 70 100 200 300 500 700 1000
using 0.6 will give the theoretical ingate area + 66.6% loss factor
using 0.5 will give the theoretical ingate area + 100% loss factor
using 0.4 will give the theoretical ingate area + 150% loss factor
using 0.3 will give the theoretical ingate area + 233.3% loss factor
using 0.2 will give the theoretical ingate area + 400% loss factor
 STANDARD GATING NOMOGRAM FOR COPPER ALLOYS

CU
m: H = Metallostatic height (mm)
G 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2
W= kg/sec.
t 50
100
70
70 100

)
10

kg
50

F(
40 200
850 * G 7
300

on
F= 30
t*m * H 5

ti
20 500

ec
4 700
s-s
1000
3 F:
ros
10
7 mm²
c

2
gh

5 2400
rou

4
3
l th

1
2 1200
eta

0.7
m

840
1
st

0.5
ca

F = Cross section (mm2)

0.7 0.4 600
of

0.5 480
0.4 0.3
ht

360
eig

0.3
0.2
=w

0.2 240
G

0.1 0.1
120
0.07
85
0.05
0.04 60
50
1.5 0.03
35
2
0.02
25
t = Pouring time (sec) 3
4
5 12
6 8 10 15 20 25
0.7
0.6 8
Note: Loss coefficient m 0.5
using 1.0 will give the theoretical ingate area + 0% loss factor 0.4 6

using 0.9 will give the theoretical ingate area + 15% loss factor 0.3
using 0.8 will give the theoretical ingate area + 25% loss factor 0.2
using 0.7 will give the theoretical ingate area + 43% loss factor m = Loss coefficient 50 70 100 200 300 500 700 1000
using 0.6 will give the theoretical ingate area + 66.6% loss factor
9.7

using 0.5 will give the theoretical ingate area + 100% loss factor
using 0.4 will give the theoretical ingate area + 150% loss factor
using 0.3 will give the theoretical ingate area + 233.3% loss factor
using 0.2 will give the theoretical ingate area + 400% loss factor
 Pouring Trial No.
POURING TRIAL SHEET Date:

Pouring Trial performed by: Layout sketch:

Casting:
Drawing No.:
Pattern Plate Layout No.:
Type of metal:

Metal Composition Properties of Moulding Sand

C equivalent: Cr (%): Water content (%):

Total C (%): Cu (%): Permeability:
Si (%): Va (%):
Compactibility (%):
Mn (%): Ti (%):
Green compression strength (p/cm2):
P (%): Mo (%):
S (%): Al (%): Spalling strength (p/cm2):
Ni (%): Pb (%): Green tensile strength (p/cm2):
Zn (%): Fe (%): Wet tensile strength (p/cm2):
Mg (%): Sn (%): Active clay content (%):
Total fines content (%):
Inoculated with % of Loss on ignition (%):
Pouring time (sec):
Volatiles (%):
Pouring temperature (°C):
Average grain size (mm):
Furnace temperature (°C):
Weight of casting and
Machine settings
gating system (B) (kg):
Casting weight (G) (kg): Shot pressure (bar):
Squeeze pressure (bar):
Transport pressure (bar):
Yield: G x 100 (%) Mould retainer pressure (bar):
B
Mould stripping speed:
- pressure side
Comments:
- swing side

Mould thickness correction factor:

Pattern data entered:

Pattern height - pressure side (mm)
Pattern height - swing side (mm)
Plate thickness, pressure side (mm)
Plate thickness, swing side (mm)
Core mask depth (mm):
Chamber depth (mm):
Compressibility

9.8
 DETERMINATION OF COOLING ZONE LENGTH

Solid-state
Casting transformation
module (cm) End of solidification temperature
T1 800°C
T2
2.5 700°C Temperatures
600°C
2.0 500°C
400°C
1.5

1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3

0.2
Cooling time (min.)
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 20 30 40 50 60 80 100 150 200
70 90 *Length of
200 cooling time (m)

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30

20
Production speed
(mould/hour)
10
500
400 *To obtain total length of
300 transport/mould conveyor, add:
200
2110 minimum 3.1 m
2013-A minimum 3.5 m
100
90
2013-B minimum 3.9 m
80
70 230-A minimum 3.5 m
60
50
230 B/X minimum 3.9 m
40 230-C minimum 4.1 m
30 240-A/B/C minimum 4.4 m
250-C minimum 4.7 m
20
270-A minimum 5.1 m
270-B/C minimum 5.9 m
280-B minimum 6.2 m
10
800 600 400 200 100
700 500 300 150 Mould thickness (mm) To the determined length of
8305 X 0007-01 cooling zone.

9.9
 PRODUCTION SHEET
DISA 230
Customer:

Project No: DISAMATIC type Date: Sign.:

Casting name: Casting No.: 11) Pattern set no.

31) PP pattern plate thickness (B) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mm

32) PP pattern height (Q) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mm
33) SP pattern plate thickness (A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mm
34) SP pattern height (P) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mm
35) Minimum distance between heating plates (V) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mm
41) Correction of nominal mould thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mm
42) Correction of mould position in chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mm
43) Correction of operation 3A end position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mm
51) Sand shot pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .bar
52) Correction of shot time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s
53) Sand level in sand hopper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .%
54) Vacuum on PP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/0
55) Vacuum on SP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/0
56) Vacuum minimum level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .%
61) Squeeze pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kp/cm2
62) Squeeze extension time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s
63) Minimum compressibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .%
64) Maximum compressibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .%
65) Delayed SP squeeze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .%
81) Close-up force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kp
82) Correction of close-up position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mm
83) Extended mould retainer time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s
Screen F3

84) Mould retainer pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .bar

71) Operation 3A selected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/0
72) PP stripping acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .m/s2
73) PP stripping distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mm
74) SP stripping acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .m/s2
75) SP stripping distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mm
121) Spraying frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . moulds
122) Spraying time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s
123) SP position when spraying starts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mm
124) Activation of rearmost spray nozzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/0
131) Temperature of PP pattern. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . °C
132) Temperature of SP pattern. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . °C
141) Start position. Blow-off in operation 3. Nozzles at SP back . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mm
142) Stop position. Blow-off in operation 3. Nozzles at SP back . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mm
143) Start position. Blow-off in operation 6. Nozzles at SP back . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mm
144) Stop position. Blow-off in operation 6. Nozzles at SP back . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mm
145) Blow off SP top in operation 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/0
146) Blow off mould front in operation 4A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/0
91) Correction of mould delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . mm
113) Core setting pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .bar
114) Extension of core setting time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s
111) CSE stage 1 - Transverse speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
112) Pressure in drive cylinder during CSE stage 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .bar
115) Pressure drive cylinder during CSE stage 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .bar
147) Blow off mould surface (PP) and cores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/0
102) Vacuum level with no cores in core mask . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .%
103) Vacuum level with cores in core mask . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .%
C) Core setting decelerator level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1-2-3-4-5-6-7)

Screen F5 231) Adaptive control of mould thickness mm

Pouring temperature °C (°F) max. min. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Pouring data

Total pouring time (s) Pouring cup filling time (s)

Weight of metal/mould kg (pound) Metal/sand ratio1:

Weight of casting kg (pound) Inoculant % g (pounds)

Setting of inoculant feeder (flow rate) g (pounds)/s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9.10
 RECORDING OF STOP CAUSES

Customer

Project No: DISA type Date Sign.:

Causes

Other plant causes

Pouring method

Metal supply
Sand supply

Core supply
Time Recording

Patterns
DISA

From To Interval
(sec.) Remarks

Total stop Stop time grouped according to causes

time Sheet No. _________ of ____________

9.11
 CASTING REJECTION DATA

Customer:

Project No: DISA type: Date: Sign.:

Casting description: Alloy:

Number of moulds poured:

Remarks about progress of the production test:

As cast After
machining
Defect description Mould side Core side Causes
pcs. % pcs. %

Penetration
Surface defects

Shiny spots

Sand erosion

Sand inclusion

Slag inclusion

Shrinkage

Hard spots

Sand
Inclusions

Gas

Slag

Micro porosites

Ovality
Geometrical defects

Distortion

Variation of wall

Mismatch

Fillets

Shrinkage defects
Dimensional defects

Total scrap percentage:

9.12
 PRODUCTION PLAN
Production data are determined in accordance with the customer’s specifications

Customer
Project No. DISA type: Date: Sign.:
Working days per year: 17) Factor:
Hours per shift: 1mm mould thickness [kg] =
-6 3
mould height [mm] x mould width [mm] x 1 [mm] (mould thickness) x 1.5 x 10 [kg/mm ] (mould density)
Shifts per day:

Estimated Requirements in C/Y Customer’s

mould planned
per hour of 3 production Fraction of Cooling
Item Casting Drawing Metal Casting Patterns Yield Poured per Mould kg x 10 per hour Casting per
Cores utilisation total production time
No. description No. type weight per mould (approx.) mould (5 x 6 - 7) thickness (mm) hour (11b x 6)
time/hour min.
100% 80% (8x11b) (9x17x11b)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11a 11b 12a 12b 13 14 15 16

9.13
 CALCULATION SHEET FOR
GATING DATA
Customer:

Project No. DISA type: Date: Sign:

Casting description: Weight of casting (kg):

Metal composition:

Thickest casting part

Average section thickness (mm)
approximated to:

Solidification module
Dimensions (cm):
calculated according to fig:

Solidification module (cm): Pouring time (sec);

Calculation formula:

Solidification Solidification
Casting assembly Remarks
Risering

module of casting module of riser

A
B
C
D
Ferrostatic Weight per Friction Section
Section Area (mm2)
height (mm) ingate (kg) losses dimensions (mm)

a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
Pressurized Non-pressurized

Method of calculation:

Pattern plate run-in routine:

9.14
 PROCESS DATA SHEET FOR
MAIN PARAMETERS
Customer:
Project No: DISA type: Date: Sign.:
AMC/PMC (m): SBC (m)
Moulding

Pattern handling Core setting

Pattern manual Pattern yes yes manual right
change: preheating
automatic no no automatic left
Type of sand mixer: Batch (kg):

Type of sand cooler:

Addition system by weight by volume

Return sand
Sand plant

New sand

Bentonite I

Bentonite II

Carbonaceous material

Water

Water addition control system: yes no type:

Sand aerator before SSU: yes no type:

Melting furnace: electric cupola capacity (metric T/hour):

Type of furnace: taping temperature (°C):

Melting plant

Holding: yes no capacity (metric T):

right mm
Pouring: middle type capacity temperature
left: mm
Pouring ladle

Pouring furnace

Shake-out Cooling drum other:

treatment

Length: Dia. length

After

Sand blasting equipment:

Blasting time (sec). Shot type:

Core process:
Cores

Core handling and transport:

No. of decantings Melt Temperature Transportation Transportation

Deslaging
treatment loss (°C) time (sec.) distance (m)
from to
Melt handling
& transport

Ladle preheating: yes no

Preheating: yes no temperature (°C)

Charging

Composition

Sequence

9.15
 PATTERN EQUIPMENT DATA

Customer:
Project No. DISA type: Date: Sign:
Casting description:
Pattern design:

Basic plate material: Metal Plastic Other

Pattern material: Metal Plastic Other

Material description:

Design description

1 2 3 4 5 6 1. Bolted on

2. Recessed and screwed

3. Cast in

4. Cast into metal frame

5. Cast around a core

6. Plastic coated pattern profile

Cassette system: yes no

Description

Gating system material:

Core box design: Metal Plastic Other

Material description:

Core mask design

Maintenance of pattern equipment: Good Medium Bad

Hitting marks Bad scraper strip Worn pouring cup slide plate

Fixing screws Bad side strip Worn guide bushings

Worn guiding pins

Lifetime: Patterns: blows Pouring cup: blows

Core boxes: blows Core mask: blows

9.16
 QUALITY DATA
MOULDING FIGURES
Customer:
Project No. DISA type: Date: Sign:
Casting description:
Component Value Allowance %
Composition

Total fine content (%)

Active bentonite (%)
Loss on ignition (%)
Volatiles (%)
Moulding sand

2
Green compression strength (p/cm )
Strength

2
Spalling strength (p/cm )
2
Green tensile strength (p/cm )
2
Wet tensile strength (p/cm )
Packing

Permeability
Compactability (%)
Riddled density (g/l)
Temper water (at compactability 40 ± 2%)
Blow pressure (bar):
Squeeze pressure (bar):
Transport pressure (bar):
Mould retaining pressure (bar):
Pattern height (mm) front plate:
Basic plate height (mm) front plate:
Pattern height (mm) rear plate:
Machine settings

Basic plate height (mm) rear plate:

Mask height (mm):
Chamber depth (mm)
Mould thickness (mm): min. max.
Correction factor for mould thickness:
Compressibility (%): min. max.
Pattern heating (°C)
Separation fluid: yes. no.

Cycle time (sec):

Production rate:
Iron/sand ratio:

Mould control:
rear plate front plate

Hardness distribution:

Effectiveness of mould blow-off system:

Effectively of pattern spraying system:

Pattern change:
Average pattern change time (sec). Pattern heating temperature (°C/sec):

Casting temperature at shake-out: input: output:

9.17
 MOULDING & CORE SAND DATA

Customer:
Project No. DISA type: Date: Sign:

Average grain size: (mm) Standard deviation:

Base sand

Grain shape: Round Sub-rounded Sub-angular Angular Other

Fine content (%) Water content (%)

Sintering temperature (°C)

Type of bentonite: Ca Na Activated Other:

tonite
Ben-

Water content (%) Swelling index:

Type of material: Sea coal Substitute Synthetic material

Carbonaceous
material

Description of material:

Average grain size (mm): Volatiles (%):

Ash content (%) Water content (%) Sulphur content (%) :

Component Value Allowance %

Composition

Total fine content (%)

Active bentonite (%)
Loss on ignition (%)
Volatiles (%)
2
Green compression strength (p/cm )
Strength

2
Spalling strength (p/cm )
2
Green tensile strength (p/cm )
2
Wet tensile strength (p/cm )
Packing

Permeability
Standard features of moulding sand

Compactability (%)
Riddled density (g/l)
Temper water (at compactability 40 ±2%):
Sand testing Method Remarks
Total fine test
Methylene blue test
Loss on ignition
Volatiles
Strength features
Compactability
Mixing efficiency: Method of determination:
Sand temperature:

return carbon- ben- new water dry wet

sand izer tonite sand mixing mixing
Mixing sequence:

Total mixing time (sec):

Binder content: A (%) B (%) C (%)

Loss on ignition (%) Total fine content (%) Amount of catalyzer (%)
Core sand

Bending strength: after 15 min after 30 min. after 24 hours

Permeability: Temperature (°C)

Mixing time (sec): Bench time (sec):

Curing time (sec.) Core box temperature (°C)

9.18
 METAL DATA

Customer:

Project No. DISA type: Date: Sign:

Casting description:

Alloy description:

Metal composition:
Alloy

Physical features:

Brinell hardness
2
Tensile Strength (kp/mm )

Microstructure:

Matrix:

Melt treatment Agent Method Amount %

Inoculation

Carbonising
Melt and heat treatment

Heat treatment:

Type of treatment: Treatment

Heating temperature Cooling temperature (°C)

Final microstructure:

9.19
 CONVERSION TABLE

9.20
 CONVERSION TABLE

DECIMAL AND METRIC EQUIVALENTS

OF INCH FRACTIONS

Fraction of an inch inches mm Fraction of an inch inches mm

9.21
 CONVERSION TABLE

9.22
CONVERSION TABLE

9.23
 CONVERSION TABLE

Temperature °C Temperature °F

9.24
 CONVERSION TABLE

Temperature °F Temperature °C

9.25
 GATING FORMULAE CONVERSION TABLE

1. Section area of a vertical gating duct F (cm2)

1036 × G
F = ---------------------------
t×m× H

where:
G = Weight of cast metal through cross-section F (kg)
t = Pouring time (sec)
m = Flow loss coefficient
H = Ferrostatic height (mm)
1036 = Constant including gravity acceleration and iron density at 1400°C

2. Reynolds number (Re) describing the state of turbulence of a flow of iron:

5
G × 10
Re = -------------------
t×P

where
G = Weight of cast metal through cross-section (kg)
t = Pouring time (sec)
P = Perimeter of the duct (cm)
105 = Constant including kinematic viscosity and density of molten iron at 1400°C

The above formulae after conversion into the inch/pound system will be as follows:

1. Section area of a vertical gating duct F (IN2)

0.142 × G
F = ---------------------------
t×m× H

where
G = Weight of cast metal through cross-section (Ibs)
t = Pouring time (sec)
m = Flow loss coefficient
H = Constant including gravity acceleration and iron density at 2550°F
0.142 = Ferrostatic height (inches)

2. Reynolds number (Re) describing the state of turbulence of a flow of iron

G × 17896
Re = -------------------------
t×P

where
G = Weight of cast metal through cross-section (Ibs)
t = Pouring time (sec)
P = Perimeter of the duct (inches)
17896 = Constant including kinematic viscosity and density of molten iron at 2550°F

9.26
10 Notes