Fluid

Machinery
Published By:

Physics Wallah

ISBN: 978-93-94342-39-2

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 Design Against Static Load

INDEX
1. Impact of Jet ........................................................................................................................ 2.1 – 2.6

2. Turbines................................................................................................................................ 2.7 – 2.15

GATE-O-PEDIA MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Design Against Static Load

1
1.1 Impact of Jets
IMPACT OF JET

Impact of jet means the force exerted by a jet on a surface which may be stationary or moving. This force is obtained
from momentum equation.
As per momentum equation
Force = Rate of change of momentum
= (Final momentum rate) – (Initial momentum rate)
d (mv) dv dm
= =m +v
dt dt dt
dm
If m is constant, =0
dt
dv
F= m = ma
dt

1.2 Force Exerted by Jet on a Stationary Plate

1.2.1 Plate is vertical and jet is normal to the plate
Assumptions:
1. Everywhere pressure is atmospheric pressure.
2. Friction between the jet and plate is neglected.
3. No loss of energy due to impact of jet.
4. Neglect the elevation difference between incoming and outgoing jet.

Fig. 1.1 Jet striking normal to fixed flat plate

GATE WALLAH MECHANICAL HANDBOOK 2.1

 Impact of Jet

Force exerted by the jet normal to the plate

Fn = aV 2
Fn = QV
 d 2 
a = area of jet  a = 
 4 

V = Velocity of jet (m/s)
Q = Discharge (m3/s)

1.2.2 Jet strikes on an inclined stationary plate.

Fig. 1.2 Jet striking on an inclined stationary plate

Force exerted by the jet normal to the plate

Fn =  aV 2  sin  = QV .sin

Fx = aV 2sin2

Fy = aV 2 sin cos

Q = Q1 + Q2
Q
Q1 = (1 + cos)
2
Q
Q2 = (1 − cos )
2
Q1 1 + cos
=
Q2 1 − cos

GATE WALLAH MECHANICAL HANDBOOK 2.2

 Impact of Jet

1.2.3 Jet strike on a curved plate

Jet Striking on a symmetrical Stationary curved plate.

Fig. 1.3 Jet striking on a fixed curved plate at the center

Fn = aV 2 (1 + cos )
• Force exerted by a jet in its direction of flow on a curved vane is always greater than that exerted on flat plate.
• Angle of deflection = (180° – 𝜃)

1.3 Force Exerted by Jet on a Moving Plate

1.3.1 Plate is vertical to the jet
Force exerted by jet on moving flat plate normal to jet.

Fig. 1.4 Jet striking a moving flat plate

GATE WALLAH MECHANICAL HANDBOOK 2.3

 Impact of Jet

V= Velocity of jet
u = Plate velocity

Fn = ρa (V − u )
2

Work done per second (W) = Fn  u = a[V − u]2  u

Efficiency () = Work done by the jet / Kinetic energy of the jet
2
 u u
 = 2 1 −  .
 V V
u
=Speed ratio
V
Note:
u 1
 is max when =
V 3
8
max = = 29.63%
27
1.3.2 Plate Mounted on the periphery of Wheel
Jet Strikes on series of flat plate mounted on the periphery of wheel.

Fig. 1.5 Jet striking on a series of vanes mounted on wheel

V = Velocity of jet
u = Tangential velocity of wheel
DN
u=
60
D= Diameter of wheel; N = rpm

Fn = aV (V − U )

GATE WALLAH MECHANICAL HANDBOOK 2.4

 Impact of Jet

Work done by the jet = Fn  u

W = aV (V − U )u

Efficiency () = Work done by the jet / Kinetic energy of the jet

 uu
Efficiency () = 2 1 −
 V  V
Note:
u 1
 is max when =
V 2
1
max = = 50%
2

1.3.3 Curve plate when the plate is moving in the direction of jet

Fig. 1.6 Jet striking on a curved moving plate at the center

Force exerted by the jet of water on the curved plate in the direction of the jet.

Fn = a(V − u)2 (1 + cos)

Work done by the jet on the plate per second

W = a(V − u)2[1 + cos ]u

GATE WALLAH MECHANICAL HANDBOOK 2.5

 Impact of Jet

1.4 Force Exerted by a Jet on a Hinged Plate

Fig. 1.7 Jet striking on a plate hinged at one end

Force exerted by the jet of water, normal to the plate
Fn = aV 2 sin(90 − ) = aV 2 cos 
For equilibrium of plate
aV 2
sin  =
W
❑❑❑

GATE WALLAH MECHANICAL HANDBOOK 2.6

 Design Against Static Load

2
2.1 Hydraulic Machines
TURBINES

Hydraulic machines are defined as those machines which convert either hydraulic energy into mechanical energy or
mechanical energy into hydraulic energy. The hydraulic machines, which convert the hydraulic energy into mechanical
energy, are called turbines.

2.2 Classification of Turbines

2.2.1 Turbines on the basis of energy at inlet
• Impulse Turbines:
Turbines which have only Kinetic Energy at the inlet is known as impulse turbine.
Ex. Pelton turbine
• Reaction Turbines:
Turbines which have both Kinetic Energy and Pressure Energy at the inlet are known as reaction turbine.
Ex. - Francis Turbine, Propeller Turbine, Kaplan Turbine.
2.2.2 Turbines on the basis of flow within turbine
• Tangential Flow Turbines

Ex. Pelton Turbine.

• Radial Flow Turbines

Ex. Inward-radial flow turbines is Francis’ turbine, whereas outward-radial flow turbine is Fourneyron turbine.

• Axial Flow Turbines

Ex. Propeller Turbine, Kaplan Turbine.

• Mixed Flow Turbine

Ex. Modern Francis Turbine.

GATE WALLAH MECHANICAL HANDBOOK 2.7

 Turbines

2.2.3 Turbines on the basis of Discharge

High Discharge Turbine : Kaplan, Propeller
Medium Discharge Turbine : Francis Turbine
Low Discharge turbine : Pelton Turbine
2.2.4 Turbines on the basis of Specific speed

Turbine Specific speed

Pelton turbine 10 – 60
Francis turbine 60 – 250
Kaplan & propeller turbine Above 250

2.2.5 Turbines on the basis of Head

Turbine Head
Pelton turbine Above 250 m
Francis turbine 60 m – 250 m
Kaplan & propeller turbine Below 60 m

2.3 Various Efficiencies in Turbine

• Hydraulic efficiency (ηh )
Power developed by the runner
ηh =
Net power supplied at the turbine entrance (Water power)
• Mechanical efficiency (ηmech )
Power available at the turbine shaft
ηmech =
Power developed by the runner
• Volumetric efficiency (ηvol )
Quantity of water actually stricking the runner
ηvol =
Quantity of water supplied to the turbine
• Overall efficiency (η0 )
Shaft Power
η0 =
Water Power
0 = hyd mech vol

GATE WALLAH MECHANICAL HANDBOOK 2.8

 Turbines

2.4 Pelton Turbine

• Tangential Flow Impulse Turbine.
• High head, Low Discharge Turbine.
• Low specific Speed.
• Minimum Pressure is atmospheric pressure; pressure never falls below atmospheric pressure.
• Problem of cavitation never occurs.
• Draft tube not used.
• The bucket of a Pelton wheel is double semi-ellipsoidal in shape. The jet of water impinges at the center of the
bucket & deflects through 160 – 170o.
• The advantage of having double cup-shaped buckets is that the axial thrust neutralizes each other.

2.4.1 Analysis of Pelton Turbine

Fig. 2.1 Velocity diagram for Pelton wheel

• Rate of work done = Q(Vw1 + Vw2 )u

Now
Vw1 = V1
Vw2 = Vr2 cos 2 − u
Vr2 = kVr 1
Vr1 = V1 − u
Rate of work done = Q(V1 − u)(1 + k cos  2 )u = AV1 (V1 − u)(1 + k cos  2 )u
V1 = Velocity of jet coming out from nozzle
DN 
u = tangential velocity of wheel  u =
 60 
D = Wheel diameter, N = Wheel rpm

A = Jet Area  A = d 2  (d – diameter of the jet)
 4 
k = Blade Friction Coefficient (k ≤ 1)
β2 = Blade angle at the exit (β2 = 180° – θ)
θ = Deflection angle

GATE WALLAH MECHANICAL HANDBOOK 2.9

 Turbines

Note:
If P is power developed by the Pelton wheel when working under head (H) & having one jet only, the power
developed by the same wheel will be nP if n jets are used under the same head.

• Velocity of jet, V1 = Cv 2gH

Cv = coefficient of velocity (0.97 – 0.99); H = Net Head Available
• Net Head Available: - Gross Head – Head loss; H = Hg – hf
u DN
• Speed Ratio K s = , where u =
2gH 60
diameter of wheel (D)
• Jet ratio (m) =
jet diameter (d)
• A jet ratio of 12 is normally adopted.
D m
• No. of Buckets (z) = + 15 = + 15 = 18 to 25
2d 2
• This formula is called Tygun formula.
2.4.2 Efficiency of Pelton Wheel
• Nozzle efficiency
1 
Rateof KineticEnergyat thenozzleexit  mv12 
 Nozzle = 2 
Water power ( QH )
• Wheel Efficiency
Runner Power
wheel =
KineticEnergyper sec
2 ( V1 − u )(1 + k cos  2 ) u
wheel =
V12
1 + kcos 2 
( wheel )max =   V1 
 when,u = 2 
 2   
k = Friction factor for blades
u
ks = = Blade speed Ratio
V1

Fig. 2.2 Wheel Efficiency vs blade speed ratio

GATE WALLAH MECHANICAL HANDBOOK 2.10

 Turbines

• Mechanical efficiency
Shaft Power
mech =
Runner power
• Hydraulic efficiency
Runner power
hyd =
Water power
• Overall efficiency
Shaft power
overall =
Water power
0 = Nozzle hyd. mech

2.5 Francis Turbine (Modern Francis Turbine)

• Mixed Flow Reaction Turbine.
• Medium Head, Medium Discharge Turbine.
• Medium Specific speed.
• Minimum Pressure is below atmospheric pressure at the runner exit.
• Problem of Cavitation Occurs.
• Scroll casing is used to evenly distribute the water along the periphery & maintaining the constant velocity for the
water.
• Draft Tube is used.
• The basic function of the draft tube is to convert kinetic energy into pressure energy.

2.5.1 Analysis of Francis Turbine

Fig. 2.3 Velocity triangle for Francis turbine

GATE WALLAH MECHANICAL HANDBOOK 2.11

 Turbines

• Work done per sec = Q Vw1 .u1 − Vw 2 .u 2 

For maximum efficiency flow should be radial at outlet, Vw2 = 0
i.e., work done per sec = QVw1u1
Pr essureheaddropin therunner
• Degree of reaction =
Hydraulicworkdoneon therunner / unit weight of water
 P1 P2 
 − 
=  g g 
 Vw1 .u1 − Vw 2 .u 2 
 
 g 
Vw1 & Vw 2 are whirl velocities at inlet and outlet
u1 & u 2 are peripheral velocities of blades at inlet and outlet.
D 1 N D 2 N
u1 = u2 =
60 60
Where, D1 and D2 are diameter at inlet and outlet respectively.
Vf1
• Flow ratio =  = (0.15 − 0.30)
2gH
u1
Speed ratio = k s = (0.60 − 0.90)
2gH

• Discharge through the turbine

Q = D1 B1 Vf1
= D 2 B 2 Vf 2
B1, B2 are width at inlet & outlet respectively.
D1, D2 are diameter at inlet & outlet respectively.
Vf1 , Vf 2 are velocities of flow at inlet & outlet respectively.

2.5.2 Various Efficiencies for Francis turbine

• Hydraulic efficiency
Runner Power
hyd =
Water Power (QH)
• Mechanical efficiency
Shaft Power
mech =
Runner Power
• Overall efficiency
Shaft Power
overall =
Water Power
• 0 = hyd mech

GATE WALLAH MECHANICAL HANDBOOK 2.12

 Turbines

2.6 Kaplan/Propellor Turbine

• Axial flow reaction turbine.
• Low Head, High Discharge Turbine.
• High Specific speed.
• Minimum Pressure is below atmospheric pressure at the runner exit.
• Problem of Cavitation Occurs.
• Scroll casing is used to evenly distribute the water along the periphery & maintaining the constant velocity for the
water.
• Draft Tube is used.
• The basic function of the draft tube is to convert kinetic energy into pressure energy.

2.6.1 Some Important Facts of Different Turbines

Kaplan Turbine
• Its velocity diagram and calculation of efficiency is similar to Francis turbine.
• It is axial flow reaction turbine.
• Runner of Kaplan turbine has four to six blades.
• Runner blades of propeller turbines are fixed but of Kaplan turbine that can be turned about axis, that means it is
adjustable.
• Kaplan Turbine has highest part load efficiency.

2.6.2 Analysis of the Kaplan Turbine

Kaplan Turbine Velocity Diagram and calculation of efficiency is similar to the Francis turbine.

Fig. 2.4 Velocity triangle for Kaplan Turbine

GATE WALLAH MECHANICAL HANDBOOK 2.13

 Turbines

Velocity Diagram

Vw2 = 0,Vf1  Vf 2 = Vf

Runner Power = m Vw1 .u1  = Q.Vw1 .u1

Q = Af × Vf

A f = D02 − D b2 
4 
D0 = Runner Diameter
Db = Boss/Hub diameter
u1 = u2 = u
D m N
u=
60
Dm = Mean Diameter
D0 + Db
Dm =
2

2.7 Specific Speed

It is defined as the speed of a geometrically similar turbine working under unit head (1 m) to produce a unit power
output (1 kW).
N P
Ns = , N → rpm
H5/4
P → Power (kW)
H → Net head (m)

Specific speed is not a dimensionless parameter, its dimension is M1/2L−1/4T −5/2 

 
Dimensionless form of specific speed is called dimensionless specific speed (Ks).

N' P /  N' → rps P → Power (W)

Ks =
(gH) 5/4  → density (kg m ) H → Net head (m)
3

2.8 Unit Quantities

Unit quantities are those quantities when the same turbine is allowed to operate under unit head (1m).
• Unit speed (Nu)
N
Nu =
H

GATE WALLAH MECHANICAL HANDBOOK 2.14

 Turbines

N1 N
= 2
H1 H2

• Unit discharge (Qu)

Q
Qu =
H
Q1 Q
= 2
H1 H2

• Unit power (Pu)

P
Pu = 3
H2
P1 P2
3
= 3
H1 2 H2 2

2.9 Model Laws of Turbines

Similarity of model (m) and Prototype (P) assume that efficiency of model is equal to that of the prototype.
Q → discharge, P → Power
N → rpm N`→ rps H → Net head

 Q   Q 
•  3
= 
 ND  m  ND3  P
 H   H 
•  2 2
= 2 2 
 N D m  N D P

 P   P 
•  5 3
= 5 3 
 D N m  D N P
 N P/ρ   N P/ρ 
•   =  
 ( gH) 
5/4  ( gH)5/4 
 m  P

❑❑❑

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GATE WALLAH MECHANICAL HANDBOOK 2.15