TELECOMMUNICATIONS

MICROWAVE TRAINER

mod. MW-E/EV

THEORY AND EXERCISES

TEACHER/ STUDENT handbook

© COPYRIGHT BY ELETTRONICA VENETA SPA

MWE$$$$001E2
 CONTENTS

SAFETY RULES 1

1. DESCRIPTION of the SYSTEM 3

1.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION

1.2 ELECTRONIC DEVICES
1.3 PASSIVE COMPONENTS
1.4 ANTENNAS, REFLECTION and POLARIZATION SYSTEMS
1.5 ACCESSORIES

2. DESCRIPTION of the ELECTRONIC DEVICES 5

2.1 GUNN TRANSCEIVER UNIT mod. MW-GU/EV

3. DESCRIPTION of the PASSIVE COMPONENTS 7

3.1 The WAVE-GUIDE and the FLANGE

3.2 WG/COAX adapter mod.MW-1
3.3 WAVE-GUIDE mod.MW-2 / mod.MW-3
3.4 SLOTTED LINE mod.MW-5
3.5 VARIABLE ATTENUATOR mod.MW-6
3.6 FIXED ATTENUATOR mod.MW-7 / mod.MW-8
3.7 MATCHED LOAD TERMINATION mod.MW-9
3.8 SHORT-CIRCUIT mod.MW-10
3.9 TUNER E-H mod.MW-E3
3.10 FREQUENCY METER mod.MW-E1
3.11 T-MAGIC mod.MW-E2
3.12 DIRECTIONAL COUPLER mod.MW-14
3.13 MICROWAVE CIRCULATOR mod. MW-E4

4. DESCRIPTION of ANTENNAS, REFLECTION and POLARIZATION SYSTEMS 20

4.1 HORN ANTENNA mod.MW-15 / mod.MW-16

4.2 PLANE of REFLECTION mod.MW-17 / mod.MW-17A
4.3 PLANE of POLARIZATION mod.MW-18
4.4 PARABOLIC REFLECTOR mod.MW-19
5. DESCRIPTION of the ACCESSORIES 31

5.1 BNC-SMA DETECTOR mod.MW-4

5.2 LONG STAND mod.MW-20
5.3 SHORT STAND mod.MW-21
5.4 TURN TABLE WITH SLIDE AND GRADUATED SCALE mod.MW-22

6. MEASUREMENTS of FREQUENCY and WAVE-LENGTH 38

6.1 OBJECTIVES
6.2 THEORETICAL NOTIONS
6.3 EXERCISES
6.3.1 Exercise 1: Components’ connection
6.3.2 Exercise 2: Measurement of frequency
6.3.3 Exercise 3: Measurement of the wave-length in guide
6.3.4 Exercise 4: Measurement of the wave-length in free space

7. MEASUREMENTS of POWER and ATTENUATION 44

7.1 OBJECTIVES
7.2 THEORETICAL NOTIONS
7.3 EXERCISES
7.3.1 Exercise 1: Components’ connections
7.3.2 Exercise 2: Characteristics of the fixed attenuators
7.3.3 Exercise 3: Characteristics of the variable attenuators

8. COUPLERS and SIGNAL DIVIDERS 50

8.1 OBJECTIVES
8.2 THEORETICAL NOTIONS
8.3 EXERCISES
8.3.1 Exercise 1: Components’ connection
8.3.2 Exercise 2: Measurements of incident and reflected power
8.3.3 Exercise 3: Measurement of power division and impedance mismatching
8.3.4 Exercise 4: Bi-directional transmission on a single port

9. Measurements of VSWR and IMPEDANCE 57

9.1 OBJECTIVES
9.2 THEORETICAL NOTIONS
9.3 EXERCISES
9.3.1 Exercise 1: Components’ connection
9.3.2 Exercise 2: Measurements of VSWR with terminated line
9.3.3 Exercise 3: Measurement of VSWR with open line
9.3.4 Exercise 4: Measurement of VSWR with short-circuit
9.3.5 Exercise 5: Measurement of VSWR with antenna
9.3.6 Exercise 6: Measurement of VSWR with antenna
10. IMPEDANCE CALCULATION with SMITH CHART 63

10.1 OBJECTIVES
10.2 THEORETICAL NOTIONS
10.3 EXERCISES
10.3.1 Exercise 1: Components’ connection
10.3.2 Exercise 2: Impedance calculation

11. IMPEDANCE MATCHING 73

11.1 OBJECTIVES
11.2 THEORETICAL NOTIONS
11.3 EXERCISES
11.3.1 Exercise 1: Components’ connection
11.3.2 Exercise 2: Matching with tuner E-H and slotted line
11.3.3 Exercise 3: Matching with tuner E-H and directional coupler

12. INTRODUCTION to the ANTENNAS 84

12.1 OBJECTIVES
12.2 THEORETICAL NOTIONS

13. HORN ANTENNA 92

13.1 OBJECTIVES
13.2 THEORETICAL NOTIONS
13.3 EXERCISES
13.3.1 Exercise 1: Calculation of the gain of horn antennas
13.3.2 Exercise 2: Measurement of the gain– Method of comparison
13.3.3 Exercise 3: Measurement of the gain – Method of the two antennas
13.3.4 Exercise 4: Radiation diagrams –10dB-Antenna
13.3.5 Exercise 5: Suggested exercises

14. PARABOLIC ANTENNAS 102

14.1 OBJECTIVES
14.2 THEORETICAL NOTIONS
14.3 EXERCISES
14.3.1 Exercise 1: Mounting and regulation of the parabolic antenna
14.3.2 Exercise 2: Calculation of the focal length
14.3.3 Exercise 3: Measurement of the focal length
14.3.4 Exercise 4: Gain calculation
14.3.5 Exercise 5: Gain measurement
14.3.6 Exercise 6: Radiation diagram
14.3.7 Exercise 7: Suggested exercises
15. PATH CALCULATION 111

15.1 OBJECTIVES
15.2 THEORETICAL NOTIONS
15.3 EXERCISES
15.3.1 Exercise 1: Connection with passive repeater

16. DOPPLER RADAR 126

16.1 OBJECTIVES
16.2 THEORETICAL NOTIONS
16.3 EXERCISES
16.3.1 Exercise 1: Components’ connection
16.3.2 Exercise 2: Doppler signal observation (Gunn Transceiver Unit)

APPENDIXES 131

A. Conversion table
B. Normograph VSWR
 SAFETY RULES

SAFETY RULES

Carefully follow the instructions contained in this handbook as they

supply important indications on the safety of the installation, use
and maintenance.

Keep this handbook at hand for any further help

UNPACKING

After the packaging has been removed, set all accessories in order so
that they are not lost. Check the included components and accessories
are integral and show no visible damage.
Before connecting the equipment to the power supply, be sure that the
rating corresponds to the one of the supply mains.
Carefully follow the indications concerning the wiring of the signals and
the power supplies as indicated in the handbook, checking that they are
set so not to be trodden upon or squeezed by objects.
On the equipment, there are some slots or opening for the ventilation:
they must not be blocked or covered to ensure a reliable operation and
to protect the equipment from overheating,. This equipment must be in
such a position to enable a proper aeration.
Any installation of the equipments must follow the manufacturer’s
instructions and must be carried out using the provided or suggested
accessories.
This equipment must be employed only for the use it has been
conceived, i.e. as educational equipment, and must be used under the
direct supervision of expert personnel. Any other use is not proper and
therefore dangerous.
The manufacturer cannot be held responsible for eventual damages due
to inappropriate, wrong or unreasonable use.

PRECAUTIONS

In order to safeguard the user’s safety and the equipment operation,

some fundamental rules must be followed when using electrical
equipment. In particular the following rules for use:
Ambient temperature: from 0 to 45°C.
Relative humidity: from 20 to 80 %.
Avoid any quick shift of temperature and humidity.

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 SAFETY RULES

RULES FOR USE IN THE FIELD OF MICROWAVES

When radiofrequency signals are used in the field of microwaves the

following general notes are suggested:

1. do not look inside the wave-guide mechanical components, that

constitutes the transmission or processing lines of the signal, when
the equipments generating the RF signals are operating
2. do not stand between the transmitting antenna and the receiving
one. It is advisable to stay on the back of the radiation direction of
the transmitting antenna and never near the receiving one
3. if not necessary, reduce the level of the transmission power
4. do not bend the coaxial cables with too narrow curves
5. take care not to connect the two signal outputs between them
6. the wave-guide components undergo a superficial silvering
treatment on the flange and inside the guide:
- a dark color oxide may deposit having no effect on the
performance of the same component
- avoid using degreasing or aggressive compositions
- eventually use a flock of cotton soaked with a little alcohol only
on the flange surfaces and never on the inner parts

These apparatuses and all their parts will be disposed of separately from
the other wastes. At the end of their lifetime, these apparatuses will be
conveyed to the proper centres of separate collection of waste.
A proper separate collection ensures that the eliminated apparatuses will
undergo the necessary treatment and recycling for preventing any
negative effect on the environment and on men’s health.
Illegal disposal of the product by the user involves the application of
administrative sanctions referred to Italy, in D.Lgs. no. N. 152/2006 art.
255 and 256, as amended; and directive 2008/98/EC of the european
parliament and of the councilof 19 November 2008
For states outside the European Union comply with local laws.

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 1. DESCRIPTION of the SYSTEM

1. DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM

1.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION

The teaching system for the study of MICROWAVES mod.MW-E/EV

consists in electronic devices, passive components and accessories.

Hereafter follows a detailed list of all components constituting the

system divided into three categories:

- electronic devices
- passive components
- accessories

Each component, excluded the detector mod.MW-4, the cables and

some elementary accessories, is labeled with its own identification code,
for an easy and quick identification.

1.2 ELECTRONIC DEVICES

The device is required to generate the microwave frequency signal:

1 TRANSCEIVER GUNN unit mod. MW-GU

1.3 PASSIVE COMPONENTS

Hereafter follow the mechanical components, necessary to process the

radiofrequency signals and to carry out measurements, using the wave-
guide (WG) as transmission line:
1 WG/Coax adapter mod.MW-1
1 Wave-guide L=150mm mod.MW-2
2 Wave-guides L=60mm mod.MW-3
1 Slotted line mod.MW-5
1 30dB-Variable attenuator mod.MW-6
1 3dB-Fixed attenuator mod.MW-7
1 6dB-Fixed attenuator mod.MW-8
2 Matched load termination mod.MW-9
1 Short-circuit mod.MW-10
1 Tuner E-H (option) mod.MW-E3
1 Frequency meter (option) mod.MW-E1
1 T-Magic (option) mod.MW-E2
1 Directional coupler 20dB mod.MW-14
1 MW Circulator (option) mod. MW-E4

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 1. DESCRIPTION of the SYSTEM

1.4 ANTENNAS, REFLECTION AND POLARIZATION SYSTEMS

1 15dB-Horn Antenna mod.MW-15

2 10dB-Horn Antennas mod.MW-16
1 Plane of reflection, 180mm mod.MW-17
1 Plane of reflection, 300mm mod.MW-17A
1 Plane of polarization: 180mm mod.MW-18
1 Parabolic reflector 360mm mod.MW-19

1.5 ACCESSORIES
1 BNC-SMA detector mod.MW-4
2 Long stands mod.MW-20
4 Short stands mod.MW-21
1 Turn-table with slide and graduated range mod.MW-22
1 BNC-BNC coaxial cable
1 Screwdriver
1 Power supply cords
Screws, washer and nuts

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 2. DESCRIPTION of the ELECTRONIC DEVICES

2. DESCRIPTION of the ELECTRONIC DEVICES

- The system contains the following Electronic Devices, that are used
for processing the Audio-Video signals
- The controls and the inputs/outputs are marked in bold.

2.1GUNN TRANSCEIVER UNIT mod. MW-GU/EV

The unit is composed by a metallic box that contains a transceiver with

a Gunn diode complete with polarization section and power supply.
The used waveguide is the WR90.
It is present an external adapter (WR90-to-WR75) that matches the
oscillator waveguide (WR90) to the one used by all the other
components in the system waveguide (WR75).

TRANSCEIVER
The transceiver is a waveguide module that contains the following
components:
- A microwave power source constituted by a Gunn diode mounted in
a resonant cavity, and
- a mixer constituted by a Schottky barrier diode.

Its operation is the following:

- the source generates the microwave signal that is transmitted through
the external antenna
- when the transmitted signal comes across an object, it is reflected
with a different frequency depending on the object’s speed.
- a small portion of the reflected signal is captured by the antenna and
reaches the mixer.
- the mixer makes mixes the transmitted and the received signals that
have different frequencies.
- the difference of the signal frequencies comes out from the mixer
through the external coaxial output.

The characteristics of the transceiver are the following:

- Central frequency: 10,525 GHz (X band)
- Output power: 7 dBm
- Sensitivity: -95 dBc

The upper side includes the terminals for the feeding (+15VDC and
ground) and the output BNC connector of the Mixer.

The input +15 VDC is compatible with a lower input voltage such as
+12VDC.
The supplied feeder, of switching type, is preset at 12VDC.

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 2. DESCRIPTION of the ELECTRONIC DEVICES

Fig.2.1Gunn Transceiver Unit mod. MW-GU/EV

Fig.2.2 Upper view (Unit mod. MW-GU/EV)

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 3. DESCRIPTION of the PASSIVE COMPONENTS

3. DESCRIPTION of the PASSIVE COMPONENTS

- The system contains the most typical circuit devices used in the field
of microwaves to carry out particular measurements or processing of
the radio frequency signal.

3.1 THE WAVE-GUIDE AND THE FLANGE

WAVE-GUIDE
Each circuit device of this system uses a wave-guide with rectangular
section as transmission line.
On the market there are also wave-guides with circular section.
Each kind of section and dimension, identifies a range of frequencies of
use and a kind of electromagnetic field that can be propagated inside.
They can be carried out in OFHC copper, bronze, brass, aluminium or
Invar (special alloy of iron and nickel, with small parts of silicon and
manganese).
The choice of the material depends on the performances (attenuation)
that are to be guaranteed or by any weight range that is to be respected.
Besides, a superficial inner treatment can be made that improves the
performances: you can start from particular anticorrosive treatments up
to the silvering.

The WG kind used in this system is the WR75 (standard EIA) that is
also called WG type 17 or R120 (standard IEC), and uses, for most
components, OFHC copper and inner silvering or goldening treatment.
It can be used for the transmission in the band from 10 to 15GHz.
Its inner dimensions (A x B) are 19.05 x 9.525 [mm].

Fig.3.1 Wave-guide

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 3. DESCRIPTION of the PASSIVE COMPONENTS

FLANGE
Each wave-guide ends with a flange.
Two wave-guides can be mechanically connected with the flange.
There are different kinds of flanges according to the used wave-guide
and the purposes.

The kind of flange used in this system is the UBR120 (standard IEC)
that has four holes and is good for the wave-guide WR75 (Fig.3.2).
Its dimensions (A x B, φ C) are 38 x 38, 4C9 [mm].

There are also other kinds of flanges in standard IEC:

- type PBR (PBR120 for this case), with four holes, with an O-ring
gasket and is used for connection wave-guide systems of pressurized
kind,
- type PDR, with from six to twelve holes, parts of which are used for
centering, with O-ring gasket for pressurized use,
- type UDR, with from six to twelve holes, parts of which are used for
centering,
- type UER, with from eight to twelve holes, parts of which are used
for centering.

Besides there are also other kinds of flanges in standard EIA and UG.

Fig.3.2 Flange type UBR

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 3. DESCRIPTION of the PASSIVE COMPONENTS

3.2 WG/COAX ADAPTER mod.MW-1

The Wave-guide adapter toward Coaxial or “WG to Coax” is called also

transition and its function is to convert the electromagnetic field (E-H)
present in the wave-guide into electrical signal in the coaxial cable.
Obviously its function is performed in both directions, so also from
electrical signal to electromagnetic field.
The commonly available adapters are set for the excitation of the
electrical fields inside the wave-guide: this occurs introducing a
conductor inside the guide (Fig.3.3), at a distance of λg/4 (λg is the
wave-length in the guide) from the rear side, so that the reflected and
the incident waves are in phase.
Even the height X is about λg/4 and each component is singularly
matched for the best performances.

Fig.3.3 Principle diagram –WG to COAX adapter

In a system composed of transmitter and receiver, it will be used:

- in transmission: to transfer the electrical signal generated by the
Transmitter in the Wave-guide and so to the transmitting antenna,
and
- in reception: to transfer the electromagnetic field picked up by the
receiving antenna and present in the Wave-guide to the electrical
signal to be sent to the receiver.

Our system uses two of them with these characteristics (Fig.3.4):

- Coaxial cable kind: SMA-female
- VSWR: 1.25 max

Fig.3.4 WG-to-COAX adapter mod.MW-1

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 3. DESCRIPTION of the PASSIVE COMPONENTS

3.3 WAVE-GUIDE mod.MW-2 / mod.MW-3

The “wave-guide” is more properly called “WG Straight section”.

It is used as transmission line and there are rigid or flexible versions of
different kind, that enable the transferring of the electromagnetic field to
its inside.Important characteristics is the low loss and VSWR.
Our system uses three rigid and straight ones with the following
characteristics (Fig.3.5):

- Length: 150 mm (mod.MW-2, Qt.1)

- Length: 60 mm (mod.MW-3, Qt.2)
- VSWR: 1.04 max

Fig.3.5 Wave-guide mod.MW-2/3

3.4 SLOTTED LINE mod.MW-5

It is a device used to detect the standing wave inside the guide (Fig.3.6).
The Detector must be used mod.MW-4 that is screwed on the upper part
of the trailer that slides along the slot of the wave-guide.
The voltage provided by the detector is proportional to the amplitude of
the standing wave in the different positions along the line.

Fig.3.6 Slotted line mod.MW-5

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 3. DESCRIPTION of the PASSIVE COMPONENTS

3.5 VARIABLE ATTENUATOR mod.MW-6

It consists of a “WG straight section” where a plate is mounted in the

central part and the intensity of the electrical field is maximum.
The depth of insertion of the plate is adjustable and the introduced
attenuation varies consequently.
Our system uses one with the following characteristics (Fig.3.7):

- Min. attenuation: 0.5dB

- Max. attenuation: ≥ 30dB
- VSWR: 1.20 max

Fig.3.7 Sample images of the variable attenuator mod.MW-6

3.6 FIXED ATTENUATOR mod.MW-7 / mod.MW-8

It consists of a “WG straight section” in which small supports are

mounted that are fixed during the calibration phase with attenuation
measurement.
Externally it is identical to any WG straight section of wave-guide
(Fig.3.5).

Our system uses two of them with the following characteristics:

- Attenuation: 3dB (mod.MW-7)

- Attenuation: 6dB (mod.MW-8)
- Accuracy (dB): +/- 10%
- Power: 5W max
- VSWR: 1.10 max

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 3. DESCRIPTION of the PASSIVE COMPONENTS

3.7 MATCHED LOAD TERMINATION mod.MW-9

The termination or fictitious load, is a device absorbing the RF power

without causing reflections.
It consists of a WG straight section of wave-guide closed in short-
circuit, with absorbing material (for the RF) that starts from the short-
circuit and restricts to the open side.
The particular shape with triangular section enables the gradual and
complete absorption of the incident power to prevent reflections.

Important characteristic is the low VSWR.

Our system uses two of them with the following characteristics:

- Power: 1W
- VSWR: 1.10 max

Fig.3.8 Matched load termination mod.MW-9

3.8 SHORT-CIRCUIT mod.MW-10

It is a termination for wave-guide in short-circuit.

It uses the completely closed standard flange that causes the complete
reflection of the whole incident RF signal.

Fig.3.9 Short-circuit mod.MW-10

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 3. DESCRIPTION of the PASSIVE COMPONENTS

3.9 TUNER E-H mod.MW-E3 (OPTIONAL)

The Tuner E-H is a device used to match the impedance of a wave-

guide system.
It consists in WG straight sections of wave-guides with hybrid T, with
short-circuits in wave-guide adjustable on each side of the E and H
planes, made with pistons.
With a fine regulation system, each piston carries out the short-circuit
starting from half the wave-length of the lowest frequency of use.
The two systems simultaneously introduce a regulation of both the
coefficients of reflection of the Phase and Amplitude.
Note that the short-circuits are not in contact for more safety of use with
high power signals (not in this case!).

An important application of the tuner is to optimize the output of low

level sources of the signal.

Our system uses one with the following characteristics:

- VSWR: from <20 a 1.05

Fig.3.10 E-H tuner mod.MW-E3

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 3. DESCRIPTION of the PASSIVE COMPONENTS

3.10 FREQUENCY METER mod.MW-E1 (OPTIONAL)

The frequency meter or wavemeter, is a device used to carry out indirect

frequency measurements.
It is absorption kind, i.e. it is based on the principle of the resonant
cavities.
There is a metal-cave cylinder, coupled to a segment in guide by means
of a small hole.
The inner cavity of the cylinder resounds at a frequency depending on
the volume of the same cavity.
This volume depends on the regulation of the piston that is obtained
with the external micrometer.
At the resonance frequency, the cavity absorbs power from the line, and
the absorption can be detected via an external level meter.
Changing the volume of the cavity and noting the position in which
there is the absorption, you can find the frequency using the annexed
table that has been experimentally filled point by point for the finished
product.

Our system uses one with the following characteristics:

- Range: 10500 ÷ 11000 MHz
- Calibration report: 21 points (step 25MHz on the Range)
4 points (10750, 10777, 10804,
10831 MHz)

The report annexed with the system is calibrated on the device and,
among the 25 marked points (frequency and micrometer position), four
concern the tuning frequencies uses by the system.

Fig.3.11 Sample images of the Frequency meter mod. MW-E1

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 3. DESCRIPTION of the PASSIVE COMPONENTS

3.11 T-MAGIC mod.MW-E2 (OPTIONAL)

The magic TEE or hybrid T is a four-port device made by joining four

WG straight sections of particular length.
It is a sophisticated component that needs a particular calibration to be
perfectly matched.

In these conditions, there are six different possibilities of operation i.e.:

- The signal entering port D is divided and is present in equal parts and
in phase on the ports A and C. On port B there isn’t the signal,
- The signal entering port B is divided and is present in equal parts and
in phase opposition on ports A and C. There is no signal on port D.
- The signals entering simultaneously into ports B and D, are present
on ports A and C, as sum and difference,
- The signal entering port A (o C) is distributed on the other three
ports,
- The signals in phase entering simultaneously ports A and C, are
added on port D and subtracted on port B,
- The signals in phase opposition entering simultaneously ports A and
C, are added on port B and subtracted on port D,

This component is used when more wave-guides must be connected so

that the signal distribution depends on the direction from which the
same signals come.

Fig.3.12 T-magic mod.MW-E2

Examples of use in which it takes different names are e.g.:

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 3. DESCRIPTION of the PASSIVE COMPONENTS

T-MAGIC
- Tuners, together with balanced mixers and adjustable short-circuits
with slide,
- VSWR meters, together with detectors and low VSWR loads.

MATCHED T-MAGIC
- To get the max. insulation and power division and the minimum
reflection possible. These characteristics are guaranteed only for a
particular percentage of the usage band around the rated frequency
(they are also called NARROW BAND).

WIDE BAND MATCHED T-MAGIC

- To get the max. insulation and power division possible. These
characteristics are guaranteed only on the whole band of the wave-
guide to the detriment of an acceptable deterioration band around the
rated frequency (they are also called NARROW BAND).

Our component is narrow band matched kind, with the following

characteristics:

- Range: 20% (10750 MHz)

- VSWR: 1.50 max
- Insulation: 30dB min
- Unbalancing: 0.5dB max

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 3. DESCRIPTION of the PASSIVE COMPONENTS

3.12 DIRECTIONAL COUPLER mod.MW-14

The directional coupler is a three-port device carried out setting two

wave-guides in common via one of their walls.
The part in common, has some communication slots each λg/4 (λg is the
wave-length in guide), that makes part of the signal traveling to a
particular direction cross to the other side.
Observing the principle diagram of fig.3.13 with two slots, it is clear
that the signal PA entering the port A is transmitted almost completely to
the port B while a small part passes, via the slots, in the second wave-
guide, where it will be distributed as follows:

- To the direction of the port C: the contributes due to the two slots
cancel because the paths a and b differs of λg/2, and so the signals
come in phase opposition,
- To the direction of the port D: the contributes due to the two slots
add because the paths c and d are equal, and so the signals come in
phase.

In case of real transmission in which the impedance mismatching causes

a signal reflection, so that there will be the signal coming from port A to
B (incident wave) and vice versa (reflected wave), in short:

- The presence of the signal on the port D indicates the signal travels
from port A to B, while
- The presence of signal on port C indicates the reflected signal comes
back from B to A.

Fig.3.13 Principle diagram – Directional coupler

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 3. DESCRIPTION of the PASSIVE COMPONENTS

The applications of this component can be easily detected:

- to monitor the incident or reflected signals (usually in high power

systems) with the minimum power loss, so the VSWR
- to carry out frequency measurements taking a minimum part of the
RF signal

For a directional coupler, we define the following characteristics:

COUPLING
It indicates the coefficient of power extraction from one of the ports,
and is:

C = 10 log PD / PA

The coupling value depends on the application: generally from some dB

to some tens of dB.

DIRECTIVITY
It indicates the component is not ideal due to its not perfect capacity to
separate the signal traveling in the reverse direction, and is:

D = 10 log (PD / PA) / (PC / PA) = 10 log (PD / PC)

The value of the directivity depends on the quality of the component:

usually it is over 20dB.

Our component has the following characteristics:

- VSWR: 1.15 max

- Coupling: 20dB +/- 2dB
- Directivity: 30dB min

Fig.3.14 Directional coupler mod.MW-14

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 3. DESCRIPTION of the PASSIVE COMPONENTS

3.13 MW CIRCULATOR mod.MW-E4

The MW Circulator is a 3 or more inputs device that includes a circular

cavity with Ferrite to allow a specific path to the signal that runs
through its inputs.
It has a rotation sense (labeled with an arrow in the external box); in
fact, the signal that enters in an input leaves the circulator from the
adjacent port following the rotation sense.

A 3-inputs circulator typical use is a signals separator in a MW Tx/Rx

system:
- the transmitter cavity is connected to one port.
- the next port is connected, via a coaxial cable, to a waveguide, the
antenna, and finally
- the last port is connected to the receiver
The transmitter cavity signal is sent to the transmission antenna, and not
to the receiver.
The antenna received signal is sent to the receiver and not to the
transmitter cavity.

Other important use: as transmitterprotection.

From above, the receiver port is connected to a dummy load, that in
case of a standing wave (as a result of a problem of the load, the antenna
or the transmission cable) absorbs part (or all) the power that would go
to the transmitter output, damaging it.

Observe the component, shown in fig.3.15:

- port 2is connected to the transmitter or Gunn unit
- port 3is connected to the output or antenna
- port 1is connected to the receiver (e.g.detector) or the matched
load.

Fig.3.15 MW Circulator mod.MW-E4

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 4. DESCRIPTION of ANTENNAS, REFLECTION and POLARIZATION SYSTEMS

4. DESCRIPTION OF ANTENNAS, REFLECTION and

POLARIZATION SYSTEMS

- The system contains the most common kinds of antennas and

systems used to transmit, receive, reflect and polarize
electromagnetic signals.

4.1 HORN ANTENNA mod.MW-15 / mod.MW-16

If a wave-guide is let open, it radiates power and if the opening is

shaped so to carry out a trunk of pyramid, the radiation can be strongly
amplified.
In this case the device acts as transition from the wave-guide and the
free space.

The HORN antenna can be considered as a natural expansion of a wave-

guide carrying out the matching component between wave-guide and
the just mentioned free space.

It can have two operating modes, if used as:

- Main element of the communication system, where the maximum

directivity and the minimum size are determinant,
- Primary feeding element of a reflection system, and so the capacity
or the efficiency of illumination of the same reflector are
fundamental.

There are different kinds of horn antennas that according to the shape
and geometrical dimension, will have different electrical characteristics
and different matching capacities toward the free space, according to the
kind of Electrical or Magnetic signal

E.g. Fig.4.1 shows the different horn antennas with different section:

- pyramidal with exponential shaping (a),

- sectorial for plane H (b),
- sectorial for plane E (c),
- pyramidal (d).

The most used and present in our system is the pyramidal one.

Important characteristics are:

- wide band device,
- high directivity.

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4. DESCRIPTION of ANTENNAS, REFLECTION and POLARIZATION SYSTEMS

Fig.4.1 Examples of horn antenna

- 21 -
 4. DESCRIPTION of ANTENNAS, REFLECTION and POLARIZATION SYSTEMS

The project of an antenna of this kind is quite complex.

A multiple graphic (Fig.4.2) is available that can be useful for a
preliminary project or for checking the performances of a system.
Note the following parameters in the graph as function of the gain:

- the dimensions are provided in relation to the wave-length,

- the Beamwidth (θ) (at –3 dB), i.e. the width of the beam between two
angles in which the power is reduced of 3dB, expressed in degrees

Fig.4.2 Project data for pyramidal horn antenna

As you can see in Fig.4.2, the fire of the pyramid geometrical drawing is
outside the same pyramid.
This means that it will be actually set inside the wave-guide and not in
the same antenna.
So it is necessary to check that there is a WG straight section with
sufficient length and included antenna component or it will be necessary
to add a WG straight section before this component, at the end of the
transmission line feeding the system.
Our system contains two kinds of horn antennas with different gain and
consequently of length.

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4. DESCRIPTION of ANTENNAS, REFLECTION and POLARIZATION SYSTEMS

Considering the limited distances of the communication system that is

to be carried out, antennas with moderate gain have been chosen.
In fact the 10dB one is not shown in Fig.4.2 because it is not a typical
value used when projecting communication systems.

The antennas included in our system have the following characteristics:

- Quantity: 1 (mod.MW-15)
2 (mod.MW-16)
- Gain: 15 dB (mod.MW-15)
10 dB (mod.MW-16)
- VSWR: 1.2 max (mod.MW-15)
1.3 max (mod.MW-16)

Fig.4.3 Horn antennas mod.MW-15/MW-16

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 4. DESCRIPTION of ANTENNAS, REFLECTION and POLARIZATION SYSTEMS

4.2 PLANE OF REFLECTION mod.MW-17 / mod.MW-17A

The plane of reflection is a plane conductive surface which behavior is

similar to the one of an ideal mirror, that totally reflects the incident
electromagnetic wave, as infinite surface.
Actually it introduces an attenuation, just because it has finite and not
infinite dimensions.
Besides, the angle of the reflected wave is equal to the one of the
incident wave.

Our system contains two plane of reflections with different dimensions,

and in particular:

- Qt.1 mod.MW-17: 180 x 180 mm

- Qt.1 mod.MW-17A: 300 x 300 mm

Fig.4.4 Plane of reflection mod.MW-17/mod.MW-17A

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 4. DESCRIPTION of ANTENNAS, REFLECTION and POLARIZATION SYSTEMS

4.3 PLANE OF POLARIZATION mod.MW-18

The electrical and magnetic fields that constitute an electromagnetic

wave, oscillate in a plane orthogonal to the propagation direction.
In details, the electromagnetic wave consists in an electrical (E) and a
magnetic field (H) coupled, which are described in any point of the
space and in any instant of time from a vector, that indicate its intensity,
direction and sense.
In particular, if a wave is considered propagating in the free space, the
equations describing these two fields show that they appear always with
directions orthogonal between them and with intensities proportional
between them, so it is sufficient to describe one of the two to define the
whole phenomenon completely.
By convention we describe the electrical field.
We can simply describe the phenomenon as follows.

In any time instant running the space in the wave propagation direction,
there are zones in which the intensity of the electrical field changes as a
sine oscillating function: the same function met if we describe the same
field still in a point and letting the time pass.

Although we have described the field intensity in any point and in any
instant and we have said that it is orthogonal to the propagation
direction, we have not defined yet the exact direction of the electrical
field vector among all the infinite possible.

The plane on which the vector is laying is called "plane of polarization"

and the vector direction is called "polarization".

Keeping still in a point, it is possible that:

- the wave plane of polarization keeps constant in time, i.e. the

electrical field changes intensities (in a sine way) but keeping always
the same direction: in this case, the wave polarization is called plane
and the polarization is called linear, or
- the wave plane of polarization rotates, so there is a circular
polarization, or
- more complex cases (elliptical polarization, etc…).

An immediate example is the following: the electrical field describes the

capacity of the wave to move electrical charges (e.g.. the electrons in a
conductive material), so the polarization explains the direction in which
these loads are moved.

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4. DESCRIPTION of ANTENNAS, REFLECTION and POLARIZATION SYSTEMS

Now let’s consider a dipole antenna (that is just a metal bar).

We know that it will be able to pick up an electromagnetic wave i.e. a
radio wave, only if oriented on its plane of polarization, because only in
this case the metal electrons can move along its structure, inducing a
signal in the cable connected to the antenna.

If now it is clear how the transmission occurs on a plane of polarization,

it is simple to understand how it is possible to transmit two radio
signals, at the same frequency, without they interfere between them:
simply by transmitting them on orthogonal planes of polarization.
In this way, it will be sufficient to orientate the antenna differently, to
pick up one or the other.

This technique is exploited in the satellite television transmissions using

what in slang are called Vertical (V) and Horizontal (H) polarizations.
In these applications the receiving antenna is a small point, properly
oriented, that is contained into the LNB (Low Noise Block Converter).

The plane of polarization or polarizer provided in our system is a plane

consisting in faced thin sections of conductor material.
Consequently when this polarizer is inserted in the electrical field, it
changes the polarization of the microwave radiation, that in this system
is linear with vertical electrical field, due to the way the WG/Coax
adapter is carried out.

The polarizer introduces the maximum attenuation of the vertical

electrical field, when its conductive sections are parallel to the same
field (orthogonal to the horizon, in standard conditions), because all the
power is absorbed by its conductive sections.

Vice versa, when the conductive sections are parallel to the horizon,
there will be the minimum attenuation of the electrical field.

In the intermediate angulations, there are variable field conditions

between the two mentioned extremes.

In conclusion, the polarizer behaves as a filter that lets only the

component of the electromagnetic wave orthogonal to the polarizer
pass.

The plane of polarization of this system has the following dimensions:

- mod.MW-18: 180 x 180 mm

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4. DESCRIPTION of ANTENNAS, REFLECTION and POLARIZATION SYSTEMS

Fig.4.5 Plane of polarization mod.MW-18

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 4. DESCRIPTION of ANTENNAS, REFLECTION and POLARIZATION SYSTEMS

4.4 PARABOLIC REFLECTOR mod.MW-19

The parabolic reflector is an antenna with a very narrow beam that we

can define at high gain or directivity.
Besides, this antenna guarantees the performances on a wide band
without showing critical frequencies.
The performances can be reduced by the imperfections of the reflecting
surface and by the power supply characteristics, depending on the
quality and the mechanical accuracy of the construction.
The main characteristic of this kind of antenna is to convert a spherical
wave (generated by the punctiform source set in the fire F) in a plane
wave-form, and vice versa (Fig.4.6).
This occurs if one of the principles of geometry is respected: two
different paths between the focus and a plane perpendicular to the axis
of the reflector, must be equal.

In this figure, where the plane is P, the path distance is 2f.

So:
2f = FA + AB
from which:
2f = r (1 +cosθ)

which is the equation of the parabola, in which f is defined focus

length, which gives the typical expression of the parabolic antenna.

y2=4fx

Fig.4.6 Geometrical parameters of the parabola

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 4. DESCRIPTION of ANTENNAS, REFLECTION and POLARIZATION SYSTEMS

BEAM WIDTH

Actually, the illumination of the disk is provided by a source that, as

small as it can be, is not punctiform.
For this reason, the performances of the real antenna are not exactly the
same of the designed antenna.
An approximate formula for it is:

θ (3dB) = 21.3 / ( D · F )

with:
D = diameter of the reflector [m]
F = frequency [GHz].

Experimentally it has been checked that the width of the beam is, with a
tolerance of the 10%:

θ (10dB) = 130 λ / D
θ (3dB) = 70 λ / D

with:
λ = wave-length
D = paraboloid diameter.

FOCUS/DIAMETER RATIO

A very important parameter in the design and always declared by the

manufacturer is the focus/diameter :

f/D

usually between 0.5 and 0.7 .

Inserting this parameter in the equation of the parabola you obtain:

x = y 2 / [ 4 D ( f /D) ]

that is the formula used to plot the profile of the parabola.

- 29 -
 4. DESCRIPTION of ANTENNAS, REFLECTION and POLARIZATION SYSTEMS

GAIN

The gain depends on the diameter and the used frequency.

Actually there is also a parameter of efficiency related to the actual
illumination (already mentioned), so the formula where the gain is
expressed in dB is:

G = 17.8 + 20 log D + 20 log F

with:
D = diameter of the reflector [m]
F = frequency [GHz].

To keep the efficiency to the project values, the following condition

must be respected:

D > 10 λ

The parabolic reflector provided with our system has been designed
with the following geometrical parameters:

- Diameter D: 0.36 m
- f/D: 0.5

Corresponding to the following theoretical specifications (at 10.525

GHz):

- f: 0.18 m
- Gain G: 29.4 dB
- Lobe width θ (3dB): 5.5°

Fig.4.7 Parabolic reflector mod.MW-19

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 5. DESCRIPTION of the ACCESSORIES

5. DESCRIPTION of the ACCESSORIES

- The system contains more accessories that are necessary to carry out
measurements, wiring or to support the mechanical components of
the system.

5.1 BNC-SMA DETECTOR mod.MW-4

The detector is a passive component made with a detector diode plus

some components, all included into a metal container.
Its function is to convert the RF power to the 50Ohm input, into a
proportional d.c. voltage value.

This kind of detectors have a main quality: the high sensitivity to very
weak RF signals together with a high reproducibility of the
characteristic transfer curve.
The characteristic curve of our component is the one represented on the
fig. 5.3, where the horizontal axis represents the input power (in dBm)
and the vertical axis the output voltage (in mV).

They are used where it is necessary to carry out measurements or

monitoring of signal or power, or in receivers used for particular
purposes (guide systems for missiles, radars or for prevention from
electromagnetic disturbances used in the electronic war).

When driven with a continuous wave (CW) it is possible to measure the

level of the inserted signal with a millimeter in DC.
Vice versa if they are driven with a modulated signal type On/Off, it
will be possible to obtain the envelope of the pulse and to display it on
the oscilloscope.

The code BNC-SMA identifies the connectors used for the connection:

- BNC is used for the output connection toward the low frequency
(LF) or continuous (DC) circuits,
- SMA is used for the input connection toward the radiofrequency
(RF) circuits.

- 31 -
 5. DESCRIPTION of the ACCESSORIES

Fig.5.1 Sample images of the BNC-SMA detector mod.MW-4

Inside, the detector is characterized by the following components

(counterclockwise to the RF input, see fig.5.2):

- Input RF matching impedance DC Return

- RF by-pass capacitor
- Detector diode (with negative polarity)

The input of the detector is designed to match the signal that is to be

analyzed on 50 Ohm.
The DC output is commonly called Video output.

Fig.5.2 Detector electrical circuit

Our component uses a Schotty diode and has the following

characteristics:

- Negative polarity
- Frequency: 0.01 ÷ 12.4 GHz
- Frequency response: < ± 0.4 dB
- Maximum input power: +20 dBm

- 32 -
 5. DESCRIPTION of the ACCESSORIES

Fig. 5.3 Detector characteristic curve

- 33 -
 5. DESCRIPTION of the ACCESSORIES

5.2 LONG STAND mod.MW-20

The system is provided with 2 high supports necessary to use the wave-
guides at a proper height from the laboratory table.
This solution, in case of aerial transmission, prevents alternations on the
measurements that may be caused by the reflections.

Besides, they guarantee the alignment with the parabolic reflector and
the fixing to the same guides.

For mounting it is necessary to (see figure):

- join the square base (B) to the vertical support (C) with 2 metal
screws (A) set at the bottom of the same base
- insert the wave-guide in the section of the vertical support (C)
- join the bar (D) to the vertical support (C) with 2 metal screws (E)

Fig.5.4 Long stand mod.MW-20

- 34 -
 5. DESCRIPTION of the ACCESSORIES

5.3 SHORT STAND mod.MW-21

The system is provided with 4 low supports necessary to hold the wave-
guides at a proper height from the laboratory table.

They don’t need to be mounted.

Fig.5.5 Short stand mod.MW-21

- 35 -
 5. DESCRIPTION of the ACCESSORIES

5.4 TURN TABLE WITH SLIDE AND GRADUATED SCALE mod.MW-22

The component under test is used during the exercises for different
purposes, in particular:

- as holding base for the antenna with parabolic reflector

- as holding base for the planes of reflection and polarization
- to check the antennas radiation characteristics

The holding base contains a graduated range, for a total of 180°, used to
carry out measurements of the radiation diagram.
The slide instead has a range graduated in centimeters, with the vertical
axis passing through the center of the parabolic reflector as starting
reference.
With the last, it is possible to measure the focus of the parabola.

For mounting, e.g. for using the parabolic reflector, it is necessary to

(see figure):

- lay the support (B), provided with bush, on the graduated base (A) in
correspondence of the hole (H3)
- insert the vertical support (C)or (D) into the hole (H1) and lock the
screw (K1)
- insert the metal vertical support (E)into the hole (H2)
- mount on the parabolic reflector on the support (E)and lock it
- after the illuminator and the antenna are aligned (according to the
intensity of the received signal), fasten the screw (K1) and the handle
(K2)

The handle (K3) is used to move the trolley holding the illuminator.
Consequently, with this handle you can change the distance of the
illuminator from the center of the parabola.
So it is possible to check the parabola focus experimentally.

- 36 -
 5. DESCRIPTION of the ACCESSORIES

Fig.5.6 Turn table mod.MW-22

- 37 -
 6. MEASUREMENTS of FREQUENCY and WAVE-LENGTH

6. MEASUREMENTS of FREQUENCY and WAVE-LENGTH

6.1 OBJECTIVES

- to measure the frequency of a signal with an absorption wavemeter

- to measure the wave-length with a slotted wave-guide
- to measure the wave-length in guide and in free space
- to point out the relation between frequency and wave-length

6.2 THEORETICAL NOTIONS

FREQUENCY

The frequency f of a transmitted signal is equal to the propagation speed

cdivided by the wave-length λ :

f=c/λ

where : f= signal frequency

c = propagation speed
λ = wave-length.

CRITICAL FREQUENCY

Important parameter of a wave-guide is the criticalor cutoff

frequency,defining the minimum frequency that can propagate inside
the same guide.
Remember that the lowest propagation mode in a rectangular guide is
the TE10 mode.

Fig.6.1

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 6. MEASUREMENTS of FREQUENCY and WAVE-LENGTH

The cutoff frequency fC is calculated by the relation:

fC = c / λC

where: λC = 2 a
and a = dimension of the larger side of the guide (Fig.6.1).

From which you can understand that the dimension of the guide must be
at least half the wave-length in the free space.

PROPAGATION SPEED

The propagation speed in free space is practically equal to the light

speed:

cO = 3 · 10 8 [m/s]

WAVE-LENGTH IN GUIDE

There is a main relation between the wave-length in free space λO and

the wave-length inside the guide λg .

λo
λg =
2
λ 
1 −  o 
 λc 

with: λg = wave-length inside the guide

λO = wave-length in free space
a = dimension of the larger side of the guide
λC = critical wave-length (equal to 2 a)

From the last relation you can find also the wave-length in free space
and the frequency, as in the following formulae.

WAVE-LENGTH IN FREE SPACE AND FREQUENCY

2
λ 
c 1+  c 
λ 
λc  g 
λo = f =
λ 
2 λc
1+  c 
λ 
 g 

- 39 -
 6. MEASUREMENTS of FREQUENCY and WAVE-LENGTH

6.3 EXERCISES

NECESSARY MATERIAL

- 1 Transmitter unit mod.MW-GU

- 2 WG/Coax adapters mod.MW-1
- 2 Wave-guides mod.MW-3
- 1 Frequency meter mod.MW-E1
- 1 Slotted line mod.MW-5
- 1 Variable attenuator mod.MW-6
- 1 Detector mod.MW-4
- 1 Short-circuit mod.MW-10
- 1 10dB Horn Antenna mod.MW-16
- 1 Turn table mod.MW-22
- 1 Plane of reflection mod.MW-17A
- 2 Long stands mod.MW-20
- 1 BNC-BNC coaxial cable

6.3.1 Exercise 1: Components’ connection

1. Carry out the fig.6.2 cabling. Do not connect the power supply.
2. Connect the detector output (BNC connector) mod.MW-4 to a DVM
or oscilloscope: pls remind that the output has negative polarity.
3. Rotate CW the attenuator mod.MW-6 increasing the attenuation to
max.
4. Supply power to the mod.MW-GU unit from the supplied feeder, by
connecting the inputs +15VDC
5. Increase the signal level with the attenuator mod.MW-6 up to
measure, as example, 192mV corresponding to -1dBm (see fig.5.3)
6. Increase the attenuation up to have a reading of about 39mV,
corresponding to about–11dBm
In these conditions, we have inserted an attenuation of 10 dB on the
line that has two effects on the output of the final amplifier contained
in the GUNN Unit:
- improve of 20dB its VSWR
- protect the final stages from 10dB reflected power

- 40 -
 6. MEASUREMENTS of FREQUENCY and WAVE-LENGTH

Fig.6.2

Fig.6.3

6.3.2 Exercise 2: Measurement of Frequency

7. Slowly turn the micrometer of the frequencymeter up to obtain the

minimum reading on the instrument: this means that the cavity of the
wavemeter absorbs the maximum power as it is tuned exactly at the
frequency of the signal crossing the guide
8. With the provided table check that the measured frequency is the
same transmitted i.e. equal to 10525 MHz (calculated as explained
before, see example of fig. 6.3)
9. Once the exercise is finished turn off the units.

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 6. MEASUREMENTS of FREQUENCY and WAVE-LENGTH

6.3.3 Exercise 3: Measurement of the wave-length in guide

10. Turn the micrometer of the wavemeter of many revolutions to take it

outside of the usage frequency
11. During the exercise, do not change the position of the
attenuator set before
12. Change the WG/Coax adapter on the output side with the short-
circuit mod.MW-10 so to cause reflection and consequently
standing wave in the guide
13. Power the unit
14. Move the trailer of the slotted line and see the maximum and
minimum indications on the instrument.
15. Measure the distance L in millimeters between 2 minimum or
between 2 maximum values (they are equal)
16. The wave-length in guide corresponds to twice such distance, i.e.:

λg = 2 L

17. With the formulae at the beginning of the chapter check that the
measured wave-length in guide is the same i.e. equal to about 41 mm
18. Once the exercise is finished, turn off the units

- 42 -
 6. MEASUREMENTS of FREQUENCY and WAVE-LENGTH

6.3.4 Exercise 4: Measurement of the wave-length in free space

1. During the exercise, do not change the position of the

attenuator set before
2. change the short-circuit on the output side with the Horn antenna
mod.MW-15
3. Mount the plane of reflection MW-17A on the trailer of the turn table
(with the support D, se fig.5.6)
4. Align the system containing the wave-guides and the turn table on
the same axis, setting them so near to get in touch
5. Power the two units
6. Move the trailer of the slotted line for the maximum signal and do
not move it anymore during the exercise
7. Move the plane of reflection (with the handle K3, see fig.5.6) and see
the maximum and minimum indications on the meter. Eventually
adjust the instrument’s gain to get an easy reading
8. On the base of the mobile support, measure the distance L in
millimeter between 2 minimum and between 2 maximum values
(they are equal)
9. The wave-length in free space corresponds to twice such distance,
i.e.:
λO = 2 L

10. With the formulae at the beginning of the chapter, check that the
wave-length in free space is the same i.e. equal to about 28 mm
11. Once the exercise is finished, turn off the unit

Fig.6.4

- 43 -
 7. MEASUREMENTS of POWER and ATTENUATION

7. MEASUREMENTS of POWER and ATTENUATION

7.1 OBJECTIVES

- operation of the wave-guide attenuators

- power measurements
- to measure the power loss (attenuation) introduced by wave-guide
components

7.2 THEORETICAL NOTIONS

ATTENUATION

All wave-guide components have a particular power loss value.

It is a loss that can be wished or not, and in particular we define:

- insertion loss as a not wished loss due to the design and quality
characteristics of the component
- attenuation a wished, fixed or variable, loss depending on the
design characteristics of the component

Components introducing an insertion loss are:

- directional couplers
- frequencymeters
- impedance adapters
- slotted lines with probes inserted
- components with impedance mismatching
- components not perfectly coupled

The typical components introducing an attenuation are the:

- fixed attenuators
- variable attenuators
- load terminations (absorbing the complementary power)

- 44 -
 7. MEASUREMENTS of POWER and ATTENUATION

The attenuation or insertion loss A of a component of the transmission

system is calculated with the following formula:

AdB = 10 log[ PIN / POUT ]

where: PIN= input power

POUT= output power

Both powers must be expressed with the same measurement unit: e.g.
mW.

Fig.7.1

MEASUREMENT

The attenuation or insertion loss of a component can be measured with a

relative measurement for insertion.
In this kind of measurement, the absolute value of the concerned power
is not important but so is the difference.

It is necessary to set the system, without the component under test, to

reach a reference condition.
In this condition, a power measurement is carried out and this value is
set as measurement reference (PREF).
Then the component is inserted into the system and the measurement is
carried out again observing the power reduction due to its insertion.
The new value is called PMIS.
The difference between the two values identifies the attenuation
introduced by the component, i.e.:

AdB = PREF - PMIS

Both powers are expressed with the same measurement unit, the dBm.
The relation for the power conversion from Watt to this measurement
unit is the following:

PdBm = 10 log[ P / 1 mW ]

where: PdBm= signal power expressed in dBm

P = signal power expressed in mW

- 45 -
 7. MEASUREMENTS of POWER and ATTENUATION

7.3 EXERCISES

NECESSARY MATERIAL

- 1 Transmitter unit mod.MW-GU

- 2 WG/Coax Adapters mod.MW-1
- 2 Wave-guides mod.MW-3
- 1 Wave-guide mod.MW-2
- 1 Variable attenuator mod.MW-6
- 1 Fixed attenuator mod.MW-7
- 1 Fixed attenuator mod.MW-8
- 1 Detector mod.MW-4
- 2 Long stands mod.MW-20
- 1 BNC-BNC coaxial cable

7.3.1 Exercise 1: Components’ connections

1. Carry out the cabling as per fig.7.2. Do not supply power.

2. Connect the detector output (BNC connector) mod.MW-4 to a DVM
or oscilloscope: pls remind that the output has negative polarity.
3. Rotate CW the attenuator mod.MW-6 increasing the attenuation to
max.
4. Supply power to the mod.MW-GU unit by using the supplying feeder
connecting the +15VDC unit inputs.
5. Increase the signal level with the mod.MW-6 attenuator up to reach
192mV in the instrument, corresponding to -1dBm

This is a calibration operation providing the power reference level

- 46 -
 7. MEASUREMENTS of POWER and ATTENUATION

Fig.7.2

Fig.7.3

- 47 -
 7. MEASUREMENTS of POWER and ATTENUATION

7.3.2 Exercise 2: Characteristics of the fixed attenuators

3dB-ATTENUATOR

6. Mount and insert the fixed attenuator mod.MW-7 and variable

attenuator mod. MW-6 between the wave-guide mod.MW-3 and the
adapter mod.MW-1, (see fig.7.3)
7. Check that the reading on the meter is about 125mV, corresponding
to about–4dBm.
In these conditions, the attenuator introduces an attenuation of 3dB
equal to the difference between the reference reading (-1dBm) and
the next one (-4dBm)

6dB-ATTENUATOR

8. Remove and change the 3dB-fixed attenuator mod.MW-7 with the

6dB model mod.MW-8 (see fig.7.3)
9. Check that the reading of the meter is about 77mV, corresponding to
about –7dBm.
In these conditions, the attenuator introduces an attenuation of 6dB
equal to the difference between the reference reading (-1dBm) and
the next one (-7dBm)

3dB+6dB-ATTENUATORS

10. Remove and insert the fixed attenuator mod.MW-7 between the fixed
attenuator mod.MW-8 and the wave-guide mod.MW-3
11. Check that the reading provided by the meter is about 47mV,
corresponding to about–10dBm
In these conditions, the attenuators introduce a total attenuation of
9dB (sum of the two attenuations), equal to the difference between
the reference reading (-1dBm) and the next one (-10dBm)

MAXIMUM POWER
12. Reduce the attenuation of the variable attenuator mod.MW-6 or take it
out for a more precise measure: by so doing, its insertion loss is
eliminated. Then the remaining attenuations are due to the two fixed
attenuators (total 9 dB)
13. Carry out a level or power measurement with the detector and add to the
measured value the 9 dB of the two fixed attenuators: this value
corresponds to the emitted power of the Gunn unit mod.MW-GU

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 7. MEASUREMENTS of POWER and ATTENUATION

7.3.3 Exercise 3: Characteristics of the variable attenuators

14. Insert again the two fixed attenuators (3 and 6dB) in series to the
variable attenuator mod.MW-6
15. Knowing the max. emitted power of the Gunn unit (Pmax) and the
inserted attenuation (9dB), it is possible to calculate the attenuation
of the variable attenuator mod.MW-6
16. Insert attenuation with the variable attenuator, read its micrometer
index and measure the power Pmeasured
17. Make a table associating the micrometer index positions with the
inserted attenuation (calculated by measuring Pmeasured). The
inserted attenuation is:

ATTENUATION= Pmax - Pmeasure - 9dB

18. From the table data, trace the graph of the inserted attenuation vs.
the micrometer reading.

Micrometer Meter voltage Power Attenuation of

position level (mV) measured (from Variable
characteristic curve of Attenuator
detector MW-4) (calculated from last
(dBm) formula)
(dB)
OUT

- 49 -
 8. COUPLERS and SIGNAL DIVIDERS

8. COUPLERS and SIGNAL DIVIDERS

8.1 OBJECTIVES

- operation of the directional couplers

- operation of the T-Magic

8.2 THEORETICAL NOTIONS

DIRECTIONAL COUPLERS

The directional coupler is a 3-port device (fig.8.1).

If the power travels entering port A and coming out from port B, on port
C there is the traveling level reduced of about 20dB.

Fig.8.1

T-MAGIC

The T-Magic is a 4-port wave-guide device (fig.8.2a) that can be

represented with an equivalent diagram like the one of fig.8.2b.

Fig.8.2

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 8. COUPLERS and SIGNAL DIVIDERS

8.3 EXERCISES

NECESSARY MATERIAL

- 1 Transmitter unit mod.MW-GU

- 2 WG/Coax adapters mod.MW-1
- 2 Wave-guides mod.MW-3
- 1 Fixed attenuator mod.MW-7
- 1 Fixed attenuator mod.MW-8
- 1 Detector mod.MW-4
- 1 Short-circuit mod.MW-10
- 1 20dB-Directional coupler mod.MW-14
- 1 T-Magic mod.MW-E2
- 2 Matched load terminations mod.MW-9
- 4 Short stands mod.MW-21
- 1 BNC-BNC coaxial cable

8.3.1 Exercise 1: Components’ connection

1. Carry out the cabling as per fig.8.3. Do not supply power.

2. Connect the detector output (BNC connector) mod.MW-4 to a DVM
or oscilloscope: please remind that the output has negative polarity.
3. Rotate CW the attenuator mod.MW-6 increasing the attenuation to
max.
4. Supply power to the mod.MW-GU unit by using the supplying feeder
connecting the +15VDC unit inputs.
5. Increase the signal level with the mod.MW-6 attenuator up to reach
192mV in the instrument, corresponding to -1dBm

Fig.8.3

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 8. COUPLERS and SIGNAL DIVIDERS

Fig.8.4

- 52 -
 8. COUPLERS and SIGNAL DIVIDERS

8.3.2 Exercise 2: Measurement of incident and reflected power

INCIDENT POWER

6. Remove and change the adapter mod.MW-1 with the termination

mod.MW-9
7. Mount the adapter, with the detector, on the free port of the
directional coupler mod.MW-14
8. Check that the reading on the meter is about 5.4 mV corresponding
to about–21dBm.
In these conditions, we can measure the direct or incident power
level reduced of 20dB on the port of the directional coupler
(coupling factor)
9. See that, even if we change the termination with a short-circuit
mod.MW10 or we let the port open or loaded on a termination
mod.MW-9, the reading on the meter is always the same because the
incident power is not changed by the output port conditions

REFLECTED POWER

10.Remove and invert the direction of the directional coupler and mount
the short-circuit on the output port (see fig.8.4)
11.Mount the adapter, with the detector, on the free port of the
directional coupler mod.MW-14
12.Check that the reading on the meter is about the same it was before,
corresponding to –21dBm.
In these conditions, we can measure the reflected power level
reduced of 20dB on the port of the directional coupler (coupling
factor). The level is the same as with the short-circuit all the incident
power is reflected: the reflection is total!
13.Insert a 3dB-fixed attenuator mod.MW-7 between the directional
coupler and the short-circuit
14.Remove and invert the direction of the directional coupler and mount
the short-circuit on the output port (see fig.8.4)
15.Check that the reading on the meter is now reduced of 6dB by effect
of the “double” path of the measured wave: 3dB of attenuation for
the incident wave crossing the attenuator and reaching the short-
circuit, plus 3dB more for the attenuation of the reflected wave
crossing the same fixed attenuator in the reverse direction.

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 8. COUPLERS and SIGNAL DIVIDERS

8.3.3 Exercise 3: Measurement of power division and impedance mismatching

POWER DIVISION (-3dB)

16.Mount the system of fig.8.3 without mounting the directional coupler

17.Carry out the calibration as explained in chapter 8.3.1
18.Remove and change the adapter mod.MW-1 with the T-Magic
mod.MW-E2 (see fig.8.5)
19.Mount a matched load termination mod.MW-9 on one of the side
port (e.g. A) and the adapter mod.MW-1 complete with detector on
the other port C
20.Check that the reading on the meter is about 125mV, corresponding
to about–4dBm.
In these conditions, the T-magic behaves as power divider, exactly
for two with phase signals, reducing the level of 3dB between the
ports A and C (equal to half power!)
21.Check that although the experiment is carried out inverting the two
ports, the result is the same

IMPEDANCE MISMATCHING

22.Now mount the two matched load terminations mod.MW-9 on both

ports A and C
23.Check that the power level measured is just measurable on the
central port B.
In these conditions, the T-magic is perfectly matched to the side
ports, and the mismatching or unbalancing power present on the port
B is at the limit of what can be measured (about 30dB lower)
24.Cause an impedance mismatching on one of the side ports (A or C),
e.g. unscrewing the termination or inserting a short-circuit
25.Check that on the central port B the power level increases when the
impedance mismatching increases
This characteristics of the T-magic is used to check the matching
between the two ports (e.g. those the two transmitting antennas are
connected to)

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 8. COUPLERS and SIGNAL DIVIDERS

8.3.4 Exercise 4: Bi-directional transmission on a single port

26.Refer to fig.8.5 and to the codes identifying the four ports of the T-
Magic (A, B, C, D)
27.Check that the T-Magic, properly configured, can allow the
transmission of two signals on the same port in the two directions
28.Prepare the exercise using:
- The TRANSMITTING UNIT to supply the signal
- the DETECTOR to detect the signal presence and its level the
matched load terminations, to close each not used port matching
the impedance
29.E.g., we can use:
- the port D for the transmission
- the port C as bi-directional signal line
- the port B for reception
30.Close the port A with a matched load termination and check the
following operating conditions
31.Inserting the signal in port D, check that:
- There is the signal coming from port C, with port B connected to a
matched load termination
- There is not the signal coming from port B, with port C connected
to a matched load termination
32.Inserting the signal into port C, check that:
- There is the signal coming from port B, with port D connected to a
matched load termination
- There is not the signal coming from port A, with port B connected
to a matched load termination

Fig.8.5

33.Replace the Magic-T with the Circulator mod.MW-E4/EV: connect

mod.MW-3 to the input port 2 of the Circulator.
34.Carry out the level measurement with mod.MW-1 connected to the
Circulator output port 3, and observe that:
- there is no attenuation between input and output ports, and
- the measure is not affected by any modification of port 1,
whatever the load connected toport 1.

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 8. COUPLERS and SIGNAL DIVIDERS

35.Carry out the level measurement with mod.MW-1 connected to the

Circulator port 1and observe that:
- there is no signal if output port 3 is connected to a matched
load (for example, mod.MW-9)
- the signal level increases when the impedance mismatching
increases at the output port: at limit, with the shortcircuit
mod.MW-10, all the output power is reflected and and leaves at
port 1.

- 56 -
 9. MEASUREMENTS of VSWR and IMPEDANCE

9. MEASUREMENTS of VSWR and IMPEDANCE

9.1 OBJECTIVES

- to use a slotted wave-guide to measure the VSWR

- to observe how the load impedance affects the VSWR
- to determine when a wave-guide is properly terminated

9.2 THEORETICAL NOTIONS

Consider a transmission line with characteristic impedance Z0 connected

to an impedance load ZL (fig.9.1).
If ZL is different from Z0 there is mismatching between load and line.
In this case, not all the power reaching the line ends in the load, but part
of it returns to the same line (and so to the generator).
Along the line the so called standing wave is generated, resulting from
the sum of the incident wave traveling along the line to the load and the
reflected wave coming back and moving away from the load.
Along the line so there are loops (maximum) and nodes (minimum) of
voltage and current in fixed positions: the maximum (and the minimum)
are separated between them of λ/2 and a maximum of voltage
corresponds a minimum of current and vice versa.

COEFFICIENT OF REFLECTION

We define as Coefficient of reflection ρ along the line the following

relation between impedances:

Z - Z0
ρ=
Z + Z0

STANDING WAVE RATIO

We define as VSWR(Voltage Standing Wave Ratio), the ratio between

the maximum value and the minimum value of the standing wave:

Vmax
VSWR =
Vmin

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 9. MEASUREMENTS of VSWR and IMPEDANCE

RATIO BETWEEN VSWR AND ρ

The ratio between ρ and VSWRis the following:

1 + |ρ|
VSWR =
1 - |ρ|

POWER STANDING WAVE RATIO

We define as Power standing wave ratio:

SWR = VSWR2

LINE WITH MATCHED LOAD

In case of perfect matching between the line and the load (Z0 = ZL) we
have ρ=0 and VSWR=1.

Acceptable VSWR values are included between 1.1 and 2.

Fig.9.2 shows examples of standing wave for different load impedances.

Note that:

- when ZL = ∞ (open circuit) on the load there is maximum voltage

and null current
- when ZL = 0 (short-circuit) on the load there is null voltage and
maximum current

Fig.9.1

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 9. MEASUREMENTS of VSWR and IMPEDANCE

Fig.9.2

- 59 -
 9. MEASUREMENTS of VSWR and IMPEDANCE

9.3 EXERCISES

NECESSARY MATERIAL

- 1 Transmitter unit mod.MW-GU

- 2 Wave-guides mod.MW-3
- 1 WG/Coax adapter mod.MW-1
- 1 Fixed attenuator mod.MW-8
- 1 Slotted line mod.MW-5
- 1 Detector mod.MW-4
- 1 Short-circuit mod.MW-10
- 1 Matched load termination mod.MW-9
- 2 short stands mod.MW-21
- 1 BNC-BNC coaxial cable
- 1 Multimeter

9.3.1 Exercise 1: Components’ connection

1. Carry out the cabling as per fig.9.3. Do not supply power: replace the
mod.MW-9 with the transition mod.MW-1 and the detector mod.MW-4
2. Connect the detector output (BNC connector) mod.MW-4 to a DVM or
oscilloscope: pls remind that the output has negative polarity.
3. Rotate CW the attenuator mod.MW-6 increasing the attenuation to max.
4. Supply power to the mod.MW-GU unit by using the supplying feeder
connecting the +15VDC unit inputs.
5. Increase the signal level with the mod.MW-6 attenuator up to reach
192mV in the instrument, corresponding to -1dBm
6. Replace the mod.MW-1 transition and the mod.MW-4detector with the
mod.MW-9 end (termination) and do not modify the inserted attenuation.

Fig.9.3

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 9. MEASUREMENTS of VSWR and IMPEDANCE

9.3.2 Exercise 2: Measurement of VSWR with terminated line

7. Move the trailer of the slotted guide and watch on the instrument
the max and min voltage signals that alternate.
8. Stop the trailer on the max position and record this voltage.
9. Stop the trailer on the min position and record this voltage.
10. Now we can calculate the VSWR with the formula:

Vmax
VSWR =
Vmin

Where:
Vmax = the reading of the absolute max voltage
Vmin = the reading of the absolute min voltage

Watch that the negative polarity has no importance; the absolute

value is the critical value.
For example if :
Vmax = -50 mV
Vmin = -10 mV

then
VSWR = 5:1

9.3.3 Exercise 3: Measurement of VSWR with open line

11. Remove the matched termination

12. Carry out the instrument’s calibration for finding the maximum
value as seen in the Exercise 2
13. Check that the reading is less than 1:1.25 due to the bad matching
of the open line

9.3.4 Exercise 4: Measurement of VSWR with short-circuit

14.Set the short-circuit on the open wave-guide

15.Carry out the instrument’s calibration for finding the maximum value
as seen in the Exercise 2
16.Check that the reading is ∞due to the total reflection of the
transmitted signal

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 9. MEASUREMENTS of VSWR and IMPEDANCE

9.3.5 Exercise 5: Measurement of VSWR with antenna

17.Mount an antenna mod.MW-15

18.Carry out the instrument’s calibration for finding the maximum value
as seen in the Exercise 2
19.Check that the reading is about 1:1.33, worse than in case of matched
termination

9.3.6 Exercise 6: Measurement of VSWR with antenna

20.Mount an antenna mod.MW-16

21.Carry out the instrument’s calibration for finding the maximum value
as seen in the Exercise 2
22.Check that the reading is about 1:1.33, worse than in case of matched
termination

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 10. IMPEDANCE CALCULATION with SMITH CHART

10. IMPEDANCE CALCULATION with SMITH CHART

10.1 OBJECTIVES

- to describe the Smith Chart

- to measure an unknown impedance using the Smith Chart.

10.2 THEORETICAL NOTIONS

SMITH CHART

The Smith chart is a much used graph to carry out calculations

concerning the transmission lines and the impedances transformations.
The condition for plotting the graph refers to the characteristic
impedance line Z0 connected to an impedance ZL=R+jX(fig.10.1).
In these conditions, a standing wave creates along the line and the
impedance seen in each point of the line changes as function of the
distance from the terminal section.

Fig.10.1

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 10. IMPEDANCE CALCULATION with SMITH CHART

The Smith Chart is based on two sets of orthogonal circles:

- a set represent the ratio R/Z0 (standardized resistance, fig.10.2)
- the other set represents the ratio jX/Z0 (standardized reactance,
fig.10.3)

Combining the graphs of fig.10.2 and 10.3 you find the chart of fig.10.4,
where each standardized impedance has a single position.

Fig.10.2 R constant curve

Fig.10.3 X constant curve

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 10. IMPEDANCE CALCULATION with SMITH CHART

Fig.10.4

The VSWR corresponding to each point (and so corresponding to the

mismatching between ZL and Z0) is read on the right side of the axis
R/Z0 (fig.10.4).
The circle with center in 0 and ray equal to R/Z0 is the place of the
points with constant VSWR.

A motion on the constant VSWR circle is like a motion along the

transmission line and the next impedance values met along the circle
correspond to different line impedance values along the same line.

The distances on the line are proportional to the rotation angle along the
VSWR circle: a complete revolution corresponds to half wave-length on
the line.
On the external part of the Smith Chart, the angles are indicated in
fraction of wave-length (fig.10.5):

- clockwise rotations correspond to motions towards the generator,

while
- counterclockwise rotations correspond to motions toward the load.

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 10. IMPEDANCE CALCULATION with SMITH CHART

On the Smith Chart you can carry out also the conversion from series
reactance to admittance-parallel simply finding the point rotated of 180°
on the constant VSWR circle (fig.10.6).

Fig.10.5 Smith Chart

Fig.10.6 Reactance-series/admittance-parallel conversion

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 10. IMPEDANCE CALCULATION with SMITH CHART

Fig.10.7

- 67 -
 10. IMPEDANCE CALCULATION with SMITH CHART

CALCULATION OF AN UNKNOWN IMPEDANCE WITH THE SMITH CHART

Consider an unknown impedance ZL connected to a line with impedance

wave-guide Z0.
The procedure to calculate ZL is the following:
1. connect the ZL at the end of the line (fig.10.8)
2. with the use a slotted line, calculate VSWR and determine the
position DL as reference of a standing wave minimum (fig.10.9)
3. remove ZL and insert a short-circuit
4. measure the wave-length in guide λg (measure the value λg/2
between two minimum and two maximum values of the standing
wave) and note the new position DS of the minimum (fig.10.9)
5. on the Smith chart, plot the circle corresponding to the VSWR
calculated in the last point 2 (fig.10.10)
6. calculate the variation of the two minimum values found before,
expressed in fractions of wave-length
Dmin = (DL - DS) / λg
7. move along the circumference of the Smith Chart with a quantity like
the last value Dmin:
- clockwise, if the minimum value found with the load is moved
toward the generator in respect to the minimum value found with
the short-circuit,
- vice versa on the contrary case (fig.10.10).
8. plot a straight line between the determined point and the center of the
Smith Chart (fig.10.9)
9. the standardized value (ZL /Z0) of the unknown impedance is read in
the intersection point between the circle and the straight line: ZL /Z0 =
R + jX
10. note Z0, calculate:

ZL=Z0 •(R+jX)

Fig.10.8

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 10. IMPEDANCE CALCULATION with SMITH CHART

Fig.10.9

Fig.10.10

- 69 -
 10. IMPEDANCE CALCULATION with SMITH CHART

10.3 EXERCISES

REQUIRED MATERIAL

- 1 Transmitter unit mod.MW-GU

- 1 Wave-guide mod.MW-3
- 2 WG/Coax adapters mod.MW-1
- 1 Fixed attenuator mod.MW-8
- 1 slotted line mod.MW-5
- 1 Detector mod.MW-4
- 1 Short-circuit mod.MW-10
- 2 Short stand mod.MW-21
- 1 BNC-BNC coaxial cable

10.3.1 Exercise 1: Components’ connection

1. Carry out the cabling as per fig.10.11. Do not connect the power
supply: replace the antenna mod.MW-16 with the transition
mod.MW-1 and the detector mod.MW-4
2. Connect the detector mod.MW-4 output (BNC connector) to a DVM
or oscilloscope: remind that the output has negative polarity.
3. RotateCW the attenuator mod.MW-6 increasing attenuation to max.
4. Supply power to the mod.MW-GU unit from the supplied feederto
the +15VDC inputs.
5. Increase the signal level with the mod.MW-6 attenuator up to reach
192mV in the instrument, corresponding to -1dBm
6. Replace the transition mod.MW-1 and the detector mod.MW-4 with
the antenna mod.MW-16. Do not modify the inserted attenuation.
Note that the antenna mod.MW-16 is the incognite load to be
measured.

Fig.10.11

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 10. IMPEDANCE CALCULATION with SMITH CHART

10.3.2 Exercise 2: Impedance calculation

7. Move the trailer of the slotted guide to the unknown impedance

Note that the values expressed during the exercise could be
different as the impedance is not ideal.
8. Move the trailer and note the position of the first minimum
(Dm1=DL=1.9 about)and the voltage measured value.
9. move the trailer and note the position of the first maximum (DM1=2.8
about) and the voltage measured value.
10. move the trailer and note the position of the second minimum
(Dm2=3.9) and calculate the WSWR (suppose it 1,6)
11. if λg/2 that is equal to the distance between the two minimum
values (= 3.9-1.9= 2 about), calculate λg that will be equal to about
4cm
12. change the adapter and the coaxial attenuator with the short-circuit
13. move the trailer and find the new first minimum value, next to the
last (DS=1.6 about) or, if it is not reachable other min. value, and
knowing that we need to add/substractλg/2
14. calculate the distance between the two first minimum values as
expressed by the seen formula, i.e:

Dmin = (DL - DS) / λg

15. Suppose we have calculated : Dmin = 0,4
16. on the Smith Chart plot (fig.10.12):
- the circle corresponding to VSWR= 1,6 (that we suppose is the
calculated value from the previous measures)
- the line crossing 0 and the point A, obtained running clockwise
the circumference of a quantity 0.4, i.e. toward the generator (in
respect to the minimum found with the short-circuit).
The one found with the load inserted is in fact moved toward the
generator position
15. the cross point B provides the standardized resistive and reactive
components of the unknown impedance. Read about:

R/Z0 = 0.78
X/Z0 = -0.37
16. the impedance Z0 is in this case the impedance of the wave-guide,
that can be calculated with the following formula:
120 π
Zg =
1- (fc/f0)2

Where:
fc = cut-off frequency =7.870 GHz
f0 = frequency in free space

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 10. IMPEDANCE CALCULATION with SMITH CHART

17. at the frequency of 10.525 GHz, the used wave-guide (λC = 2 a =

3.81 cm) has an impedance of:

Zg = 854 Ohm
18. it follows that the values of R and X are so:

R = 854 • 0.78 = 666 Ohm

X = 854 • -0.37 = - 317 (capacitive reactance)

Fig.10.12

- 72 -
 11. IMPEDANCE MATCHING

11. IMPEDANCE MATCHING

11.1 OBJECTIVES

- to examine the main concepts on impedance matching

- to carry out an example of impedance matching via tuner E-H.

11.2 THEORETICAL NOTIONS

IMPEDANCE MATCHING WITH TUNER

If there is mismatching between load and line, not all the power
reaching the line ends in the load, but part of it returns toward the same
line (and so to the generator).
The percentage of transmitted power Pt and reflected power Pr as
function of the power provided by the generator, can be expressed as
function of the VSWR:

(VSWR –1)2
Pt = 1 –
(VSWR +1)2

(VSWR –1)2
Pr =
(VSWR +1)2

In general, we can say that the smallest is the VSWR the more is the
transmitted power (with VSWR=1 the transmitted power is the 100% of
the generated one and the reflected power is null).
In the transmission systems, so, the VSWR of each component is
required to be the lowest possible (toward 1), to get the maximum
power transfer from the generator to the antenna.

The technique to obtain such condition is known as impedance

matching.

Consider a signal partially reflected by a discontinuity, e.g. not matched

load (fig.11.1).

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 11. IMPEDANCE MATCHING

If nearby there is another reflection shifted of 180° in respect to the

starting one, the two reflections cancel, obtaining in this way a total null
reflection and VSWR=1.

Fig.11.1
a) line with tuner
b) standing wave without tuner
c) standing wave with tuner

SCREW TUNER

The easiest method to obtain a reduction of the reflection is to use a

screw tuner.
This consists in a screw mounted on a sliding trailer along a slot of a
wave-guide.
The screw position in respect to the pre-existing standing wave
determines the phase of the reflection, while its depth inside the guide
determines its amplitude.
The results that can be obtained are the best ones.

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 11. IMPEDANCE MATCHING

TUNER WITH SINGLE STUB

The stub is the trunk of line inserting in parallel to the main line to carry
out the matching.
It can be determined in short-circuit or open circuit, although the best
solution is practically the first one.
Starting from the line equation, supposing the line has a length d and is
without losses, and that ZL = 0, the impedance of the stub is:

Z(d) = jZ0 · tg(βd)

Fig.11.2 shows the tuner with single stub.

Fig.11.2

In fig.11.3 see that with length up to λ/4, the impedance will be only
reactive inductive, for the next λ/4 it will be capacitive and then again
inductive and so on.
Note that mechanically, the single stub must be set along the main line.

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 11. IMPEDANCE MATCHING

Fig.11.3 Standing waves in ideal line in short-circuit:

a) voltage and current standing waves
b) diagram of the impedance
c) line in short-circuit

TUNER WITH DOUBLE STUB

This tuner allows matching without moving the stub along the line.

Fig.11.4

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 11. IMPEDANCE MATCHING

TUNER E-H

This tuner, too, allows matching without moving the stub along the line.
It consists in a T-magic with two of the four guide sections closed with
tunable short-circuits, i.e. with variable length.
See that the two short-circuits are on the two planes E and H .

Fig.11.5 shows the mechanical diagram of the operation.

Fig.11.5

The tuner E-H introduces discontinuities on the transmission line that

simultaneously change the phase and the amplitude of the coefficient of
reflection, and is used to:
- match devices and cancel the reflection in the transmission lines or
- match the detectors, the terminations and other components.

This kind of adapter has no equivalent in the transmission lines with two
conductors for geometrical reasons.
Within the specifications declared by the manufacturer, it enables to
match any impedance.

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 11. IMPEDANCE MATCHING

IMPEDANCE MATCHING WITH THE SMITH CHART

The Smith Chart can be used to calculate the amplitude of the reflection
and its position along the line.

Consider a line loaded on an standardized admittance Y=G+jB with

value Y=0.5+j0.7 (fig.11.6a).

To obtain a VSWR=1 an admittance –j0.7 must be added in parallel to

Y, so that the resulting standardized admittance is equal to 1.

Refer to the Smith Chart of fig.11.6b.

The admittance Y corresponds to the point A.

Plot a constant circle to VSWR crossing A intersecting the circle G=1 in

the point B, in which the admittance is like this: YB=1+j1.2

The susceptance to be added to YB to obtain an admittance of 1 so is –

j1.2 (inductive susceptance), while the distance (in wave-lengths)
between the point A and the point B is about 0.06λg.

At last, to match the admittance Y, an inductive susceptance of 1.2 must

be added to the line set in parallel to Y, at the distance 0.06λg from the
load.

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 11. IMPEDANCE MATCHING

Fig.11.6

11.3 EXERCISES

NECESSARY MATERIAL
- 1 Transmitter unit mod.MW-GU
- 1 Wave-guide mod.MW-3
- 2 WG/Coax adapters mod.MW-1
- 1 Detector mod.MW-4
- 1 Directional coupler mod.MW-14
- 1 Tuner E-H mod.MW-E3
- 2 Short stand mod.MW-21
- 1 BNC-BNC coaxial cable
- 1 Multimeter

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 11. IMPEDANCE MATCHING

11.3.1 Exercise 1: Components’ connection

1. Carry on the cabling as per fig.11.7. Do not supply power.

2. Connect the detector mod.MW-4 output (BNC connector) to a DVM
or oscilloscope: keep in mind that the output has negative polarity.
3. Supply power to the mod.MW-GU unit from the supplied feeder to
the +15VDC terminals.
Note that the open transmission line acts as the incognite load
we want to match.

Fig.11.7

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 11. IMPEDANCE MATCHING

11.3.2 Exercise 2: Matching with tuner E-H and slotted line

1. Carry out the matching checking the standing wave behavior

Note that the values expressed during the exercise can be
different as the impedance is not ideal.
2. measure the VSWR and check that it is about 1:2.0
3. mount the tuner E-H on the open output
4. calculate the VSWR and record it.
5. move one of the tuner regulation to try to reduce the VSWR.
This is visible, without changing the regulations , in two ways:
- reducing the voltage of the measured maximum value, or
- increasing the voltage of the measured minimum value.
The new standing wave must have voltage values within those
detected in the last condition of the worst VSWR.
6. once the best condition is found, move even the other regulation
of the tuner to try to reduce the VSWR further
7. repeat again the first regulation and so on
8. see that the tuner regulation is quite difficult and needs time
9. check that the new VSWR reached is about 1:1.25
10. see on fig.11.8 the correspondence between the values of VSWR
and those in RL (Return Loss). In this experience the difference
is equal to about:
∆ = 19.5dB-9.5dB = 10dB

In conclusion with the load matching (open circuit), we have

reduced the return losses of 10dB, i.e. of about 10 times in
power.

11.3.3 Exercise 3: Matching with tuner E-H and directional coupler

11. carry out the impedance matching checking the improvement of

the performances with the directional coupler, measuring the
reflected power
12. starting from the configuration of fig.11.7, on the slotted line,
change the directional coupler set for measurement of the
reflected power (socket coupled on the transmission side) and
mount the tuner E-H on the output
13. use a multimeter, too, to measure the detected voltage accurately
14. adjust the tuner so to obtain the minimum reading on the Meter:
this condition corresponds to the minimum reflected power
because the line is matched. See that the regulation is much
easier than in the last exercise

- 81 -
 11. IMPEDANCE MATCHING

Fig.11.8a

- 82 -
 11. IMPEDANCE MATCHING

Fig.11.8b

Fig.11.8c

- 83 -
 12. INTRODUCTION to the ANTENNAS

12. INTRODUCTION to the ANTENNAS

12.1 OBJECTIVES

- To describe the main concepts related to the antennas.

12.2 THEORETICAL NOTIONS

Antennais any device that can radiate energy in space as

electromagnetic wave (transmitting antenna) or pick up energy from
the electromagnetic waves on it (receiving antenna).

According to the theorem of reciprocity, we can state that each

transmitting antenna can operate also as receiving antenna and vice
versa.

Hereafter find a list of the main concepts and definitions concerning

antennas.
In the next exercises two typical antennas for microwaves and their use
are described: the horn antenna and the parabolic antenna.

RADIATION DIAGRAM

The radiation diagram of an antenna is the diagram of the field intensity

(or power intensity) as function of the angle, at a particular distance
from the emitting antenna (fig.12.1).
If it is a receiving antenna, the diagram is the same but shows the
sensitivity of reception in the different directions.

The radiation diagram is tridimensional, but for practical reasons it is

shown in bidimensional shape, in one or more planes (e.g., for a horn
antenna these are the plane E and the plane H, fig.12.2).

A radiation diagram consists in more lobes: the main lobe, the side
lobes and the rear lobe (fig.12.1).
Most of the power is concentrated in the main lobe, and it would be
better to keep the power in the side and rear lobes the lowest possible.

84
 12. INTRODUCTION to the ANTENNAS

We define as beam width (or flare angle) the angle between two
directions of the main lobe in correspondence to which the field
intensity is 3dB lower than the field in the direction of maximum
radiation (fig.12.1).
This is equal to half the power measured in the direction of maximum
radiation.

The measurement of the radiation diagram is usually carried out at a

particular distance from the antenna (far field).
The diagram detected near the antenna (near field)is distorted.
For horn and parabolic antenna the minimum distance at which we can
speak of far field is:

2 · a2
DMIN =
λ0

with: a= dimension of the longer side of the antenna opening

λ0= wave-length in free space.

Fig.12.1

85
 12. INTRODUCTION to the ANTENNAS

Fig.12.2

GAIN
In general the gain of an antenna is defined as the ratio between power
density in the point of maximum value of the central lobe and the power
density obtained from an isotropic antenna (omni-directional),
considering the two antennas provided with the same power.

POWER DENSITY

Consider an isotropic antenna radiating a power PT(fig.12.3).

The power density Sat the distance Dof the antenna is:

PT
S=
4 π · D2

Fig.12.3

If the antenna is not isotropic and has a gain G in the direction of

maximum propagation, the power density along such direction will be:

PT
S=G·
4 π · D2

86
 12. INTRODUCTION to the ANTENNAS

EFFECTIVE AREA

The behavior of an antenna in reception, i.e. its capacity to pick up

power from a plane electromagnetic wave on it, is described by its
Effective Area Ae.

This is defined as the ratio between the received power PRavailable

across the antenna output and the power density of the incident wave
PI, when the antenna orientation is to the direction of maximum
reception:

PR
Ae =
PI

From which
PR = PI · Ae

Between Gain G and Effective Area Aethere is the following relation:

λ02
Ae = ·G
4π

In practice, the effective area of the antenna is smaller than its

geometrical area, and the ratio between such areas is called efficiency.
For pyramid horn antennas and for parabolic antennas there is a opening
efficiency of about 0.6.n

RECEIVED POWER

From the last definitions of Gain and Effective Area, and according to
the mentioned formulae, we can calculate the power PRprovided by the
receiving antenna set in free space at a distance D from the transmitting
antenna (fig.12.4).

The received power:

- directly proportional to:

- transmitted power PT
- gain GT of the transmitting antenna
- effective area Aeof the receiving antenna
- inversely proportional to the distance D

87
 12. INTRODUCTION to the ANTENNAS

Fig.12.4

PR is expressed by the following:

2
PT ⋅ G T ⋅ A e  λ 
PR = =  o  ⋅ G T ⋅ G R ⋅ PT
4π ⋅ D 2  4π ⋅ D 

Considering that:

c 3 ⋅ 18 8 0.3
λo = = = (F in GHz)
f F ⋅ 10 9
F

And describing the distance D in kilometers [D(km)=1000·D(m)], the

relation, expressed in Decibel, becomes:

PR(dBm) = PT(dBm) + GT(dB) + GR(dB) – 20·log(F·D) - 92.4

Where:D [km]
F [GHz]

And is called main equation to calculate the power balance in a

connection in microwave radio bridge.

88
 12. INTRODUCTION to the ANTENNAS

MEASUREMENT OF THE GAIN OF THE ANTENNAS

Hereafter we describe 3 methods used to measure the gain of the

antennas.

Method of comparison

Refer to fig.12.5.
Calling GX the gain of an unknown antenna, and G the gain of a known
antenna, the last relation gives:

2
 4π ⋅ D  PR 1
GX =   ⋅ ⋅
λ
 o  PT G

Knowing:
PT = transmitted power
G= gain of the known antenna
D= distance between antennas
PR = received power
λ0= wave-length in free space

calculate the gain of the unknown antenna.

If the known antenna is an isotropic antenna (gain =1), the last formula
becomes:

2
 4π ⋅ D  PR
GX =   ⋅
 λ o  PT

Fig.12.5

89
 12. INTRODUCTION to the ANTENNAS

Method of the 2 antennas

Refer to fig.12.6.
Use two equal antennas.
If GX is the gain of each, from the formula of the received power PR you
get:

2
 4π ⋅ D  PR
G =
2
 ⋅
 λ o  PT
X

Knowing :
PT = transmitted power
D= distance between antennas
PR = received power
λ0= wave-length in free space

Fig.12.6

Method of the 3 antennas

Suppose to have 3 different antennas available.

Carry out 3 analog measurements, using 3 different couples of antennas
in rotation (fig.12.7).
From the 3 measurements you get:

2
 4π ⋅ D  PR
G A ⋅ GB =   ⋅
 λ o  PT 1

2
 4π ⋅ D  PR
G A ⋅ GC =   ⋅
 λ o  PT 2

2
 4π ⋅ D  PR
GB ⋅ G C =   ⋅
λ
 o  PT 3

90
 12. INTRODUCTION to the ANTENNAS

Resolving in respect a GA, GB and GC the last system of 3 equations, you

get:

PR PR PT
G 2A = K ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
PT 1 PT 2
PR 3

PR PR PT
G B2 = K ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
PT 1
PT 3
PR 2

PR PR PT
G C2 = K ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
PT 2
PT 3
PR 1

Fig.12.7

91
 13. HORN ANTENNAS

13. HORN ANTENNAS

13.1 OBJECTIVES

- To describe the characteristics of the horn antenna

- To carry out gain measurements and radiation diagrams.

13.2 THEORETICAL NOTIONS

The horn antennas consist in a wave-guide enlarging in the shape of a

horn that can be pyramid, sectorial or conical kind (fig.13.1).

The gain G of the horn antenna depends on the ratio between the surface
of the horn opening and the working wave-length, and can be increased
by enlarging the same horn.
The gain of horn antennas for practical use is however limited generally
to a maximum of about 20dB.

The horn antennas are used alone, in applications requiring no high

gains, or in combination with parabolic reflectors (fig.12.2).
In this second case, the horn antenna constitutes the so called feeder
while the parabolic reflector is used to increase the directivity and gain
of the set.

Fig.13.1 Horn antenna: a)pyramid b) sectorial c) conical

92
 13. HORN ANTENNAS

Fig.13.2 Horn antennas with parabolic reflector

Fig.13.3 Radiation diagrams

93
 13. HORN ANTENNAS

RADIATION DIAGRAM

The radiation diagram of a horn antenna depends on the gain and the
shape of the same antenna.
When the gain increases the beam width restricts and the directivity
increases.

E.g. fig.13.3 shows the shape of the main lobes in the planes E and H of
a trapezoidal horn antenna and two sectorial horn antennas.
Note that in the sectorial antenna the main lobe is narrower in the plane
in which the opening side is smaller.

GAIN

The theoretical gain G of a horn antenna is provided by the following

relation:

10 ⋅ A 6,4 ⋅ A
G≈ ≈ GdB = 10·log G
λ2g λ2o

with: λg= wave-length in guide

λ0= wave-length in free space
A= surface (a · b) of the horn antenna opening.

94
 13. HORN ANTENNAS

13.3 EXERCISES

NECESSARY MATERIAL

- 1 Transmitter unit mod.MW-GU

- 2 WG/Coax adapters mod.MW-1
- 1 15Db-Horn Antenna mod.MW-15
- 2 10dB-Horn antennas mod.MW-16
- 1 Variable attenuator mod.MW-6
- 1 Fixed attenuator mod.MW-8
- 2 Wave-guides mod.MW-3
- 1 Turn table with slide mod.MW-22
- 1 Detector mod.MW-4
- 2 Long stands mod.MW-20
- 1 BNC-BNC coaxial cable
- 1 Multimeter

13.3.1 Exercise 1: Calculation of the gain of the horn antennas

1. Measure the sides a and b of the opening of the horn antenna MW-16
2. calculate the gain GdB of the antenna at the frequency of 10.525 GHz,
using the formula already seen and repeated after. A value is
obtained near the nominal one:

10 ⋅ A 6,4 ⋅ A
G≈ ≈ GdB = 10·log G
λ2g λ2o

with: λg= wave-length in guide

λ0= wave-length in free space
A= surface (a · b) of the horn antenna opening.

3. carry out the same calculation for the horn antenna MW-15

95
 13. HORN ANTENNAS

13.3.2 Exercise 2: Measurement of the gain – Method of comparison

Consider to use an open guide as isotropic antenna.

The behavior of the open guide is actually like the one of an isotropic
antenna, but it is sufficient to describe and use the measurement
method.

4. Carry on the cabling as per fig.13.4a. Do not supply power.

5. Connect the detector mod.MW-4 output (BNC connector) to a DVM
or oscilloscope: keep in mind that the output has negative polarity.
6. Supply power to the mod.MW-GU unit from the supplied feeder to
the +15VDC terminals.
Be aware that the presence of metallic surfaces can provoke
undesired reflections and therefore, alter the exercises results.

Fig.13.4

96
 13. HORN ANTENNAS

4. set the ends of the guide MW-3 at a distance D of about 20cm from
the receiving antenna

5. align the transmitting and the receiving stations to obtain the reading
on the meter at the maximum value

6. the formula of the power of the received signal PRcan be simplified

with:

2
 λ 
PR =  o  ⋅ G W ⋅ G R ⋅ PT
 4π ⋅ D 

with: PT= transmitted power

PR= received power
GW = transmitting antenna gain
GR = receiving antenna gain
λ0= wave-length in free space

7. considering the open guide as an isotropic antenna (GW= 1), the last
relation becomes:

2
 λ 
PR =  o  ⋅ G R ⋅ PT [13.1]
 4π ⋅ D 

8. on the open wave-guide, mount a horn antenna mod.MW-15

(fig.13.4b)

9. move the receiving station away until the meter gives the same
reading seen before (1) that will be obtained at the new distance D1:
in this situation the same power PRof the last case is received, but at
a different distance. The formula becomes:

2
 λo 
PR =   ⋅ G MW15 ⋅ G R ⋅ PT [13.2]
 4π ⋅ D1

10. change the antenna MW-15 with the antenna MW-16 (fig.13.4c)

11. move the receiving station away until the meter gives the same
reading seen before (1) that will be obtained at the new distance D2:
in this situation the same power PR of the last cases is received, but
still at a different distance. The formula becomes:

2
 λo 
PR =   ⋅ G MW16 ⋅ G R ⋅ PT [13.3]
 4π ⋅ D2 

97
 13. HORN ANTENNAS

12. the gain of the antenna MW-15 is calculated by dividing member by

member the equation [13.2] by the equation [13.1]. You find:

2
 D1  D1
G MW15 =   G MW15 (dB) = 20 ⋅ log 
D D

the obtained result shifts of some dB from the nominal gain, as the
open guide is not an ideal isotropic antenna!

13. the gain of the antenna MW-16 is calculated dividing member by

member the equation [13.3] by the equation [13.1]. You find:

2
 D2   D2 
G MW16 =  G MW16 (dB) = 20 ⋅ log 
D D 

98
 13. HORN ANTENNAS

13.3.3 Exercise 3: Measurement of the gain– Method of the two antennas

14. Two horn antennas mod.MW-16 are used

15. carry out the wiring as indicated in fig.13.5a between the units

Fig.13.5

16. set a distance D of 100cm between the antennas opening

17. align the transmitting and the receiving stations to get the maximum
reading on the meter
18. the gain GMW16 of antenna is calculated using the relation seen in the
last chapter, i.e.:

2
 4π ⋅ D  PR
=  ⋅
2
G MW16
 λ o  PT

19. the ratio PR / PT can be evaluated as follows:

- remove the two antennas mod.MW-16 and connect the two
sections between them via the variable attenuator mod.MW-6 as
in fig.13.5b
- regulate the attenuator to have the same reading as before.

99
 13. HORN ANTENNAS

- the ratio PR / PT is the inserted attenuation: it is required that the

attenuator has been calibrated (attenuation vs. micrometer
position) as described in par.7.3.3

20. the last formula of the gain GMW16 becomes:

 4π ⋅ D  A dB
G MW16 = 10 ⋅ log  −
 lo  2
knowing:
AdB= attenuation introduced by the variable attenuator
D = 100 cm

And considering a wave-length in free space equal to about 2.8 cm (f

= 10.525 GHz) you can calculate the gain of the antenna under
measurement.

13.3.4 Exercise 4: Radiation diagrams– 10dB Antenna

21. Two horn antennas mod.MW-16 are used

22. carry out the wiring as indicated in fig.13.7 between the units
23. separate the two antennas opening of a distance D of 40cm
24. align the transmitting and the receiving stations to get the maximum
reading on the meter
25. measure the signal level with the detector (in mV) and convert it in
dBm (e.g. -13dBm).
This will be our reference 0dB!
26. turn the receiving antenna to the right and to the left and read the
received signal on the meter
27. find the angulation values corresponding, e.g., to 3dB, 6dB, 10dB
and 15dB lower than our reference (-13dBm). In practice find the
positions in which the meter will indicate: 15.4mV (-16dBm), 8.3mV
(-19dBm), 3.5mV (-23dBm) and 1.1mV (-28dBm)
28. in our experiment the following approximate values have been
detected, related to the reference: +/-16° (-3dB), +/-24° (-6dB), +/-
30° (-10dB), +/-40° (-15dB)
29. fill the table with the measured values (fig.13.6), it is possible to plot
the radiation diagram on a sheet like the one of fig.13.8

MEASURED LEVEL ANGLE

[dB] [°]
-3
-6
-10
-15

Fig.13.6

100
 13. HORN ANTENNAS

13.3.5 Exercise 5: Suggested exercises

30. Plot the radiation diagram of the horn antenna MW-16 on the plane E
(rotate the transmitting and receiving antenna of 90°)
31. Plot the radiation diagram of the horn antenna MW-15 in the plane E
and H

Fig.13.7

Fig.13.8

101
 14. PARABOLIC ANTENNAS

14. PARABOLIC ANTENNAS

14.1 OBJECTIVES
- To describe the characteristics of the parabolic antenna
- To carry out gain measurements and radiation diagrams.

14.2 THEORETICAL NOTIONS

The parabolic antenna, or antenna with parabolic reflector, is one of the

most used antennas in microwaves communication systems.
It consists in a parabolic metal reflector, illuminated from a radiator set
in the focus of the paraboloid (fig.14.1).
The paraboloid, instead, concentrates the energy along the axis of the
parable.

According to the kind of illumination, there are different kinds of

parabolic antennas.
The most used are:
- Parabola illuminated frontally (fig.14.2a),
- parabola illuminated with double reflection (Cassegrain antenna,
fig.14.2b),
- gore of parabola illuminated from the bottom (Horn-reflector
antenna, fig. 14.2c).

Fig.14.1 Parabolic antenna

Fig.14.2 Illumination of the parabolic antennas

102
 14. PARABOLIC ANTENNAS

GAIN

The theoretical gain G of a parabolic antenna is provided by the

following relation:

4π ⋅ A ⋅ e
G dB ≈ 10 ⋅ log
l2o

with: λ0= wave-length in free space

A= surface (π ·d2)/4 of the parabola opening.
d = diameter of the parabola opening
e = antenna efficiency (considered generally equal to 0.5)

Considering the numerical values and expressing the frequency in GHz

and the diameter in meters, the last relation is simplified with:

G dB ≈ 17.8 + 20 ⋅ log(f ⋅ d) d[m] f[GHz]

Fig.14.3 shows a nomograph from which is it is possible to obtain the

gain of a parabolic antenna, once the diameter (in meters or feet) and the
frequency or wave-length are known.
The efficiency of the antenna is considered equal to 0.5.

Fig.14.3 Nomograph for calculation of the parabola gain (efficiency = 0.5)

103
 14. PARABOLIC ANTENNAS

RADIATION DIAGRAM

The radiation diagram of a parabolic antenna has a symmetrical shape in

respect to the planes E and H (fig.14.4).
When the gain increases the beam width drops and the antenna
directivity increases.

Fig.14.4

POSITION OF THE ILLUMINATOR

If the illuminator is not set exactly in the focus of the parabola

(fig.14.5) the real gain of the antenna drops and the radiation diagrams
gets worse.
This is caused by the following reasons:
- part of the energy radiated by the illuminator does not intercepts the
reflector but disperses
- the reflected rays do not take a parallel direction but can partially
diverge or converge.

Fig.14.5

104
 14. PARABOLIC ANTENNAS

The distance of the focus from the center of the parabola is called focal
length.
With reference to fig.14.6, the focal length F can be calculated by the
relation:

d2
F=
16 ⋅ h

with: h = depth of the parabola along the axis

d = diameter of the parabola opening

When the parabolic antennas are being manufactured it is important to

consider also the ratio between the focal length F and the diameter d.
Usually a ratio F/d is chosen equal to about 0.4-0.5.

The flare angle θ of the radiant element (fig.14.6) is calculated with the
relation:

 d 
θ = 2 ⋅ arctg 2 
 F − h
 

Fig.14.6

105
 14. PARABOLIC ANTENNAS

14.3 EXERCISES

NECESSARY MATERIAL
- 1 Transmitter unit mod.MW-GU
- 2 WG/Coax adapters mod.MW-1
- 1 15dB Horn Antenna mod.MW-15
- 2 10dB Horn Antennas mod.MW-16
- 1 Wave-guide mod.MW-2
- 2 Wave-guides mod.MW-3
- 1 Turn table with slide mod.MW-22
- 1 Parabolic reflector mod.MW-19
- 1 Detector mod.MW-4
- 2 Long stands mod.MW-20
- 1 BNC-BNC coaxial cable
- 1 Multimeter

14.3.1 Exercise 1: Mounting and regulation of the parabolic antenna

The antenna consists in the following parts that must be mounted as

follows(fig.14.7):
- turn table mod.MW-22 (1): base of all the antenna
- slide with graduated scale (2): to be fixed in the seat of the turn table
(hole φ 10)
- support axis of the parabolic reflector (3)
- bracket for the illuminator (4): note the grooved edge to invite to the
transition
- parabolic reflector (5)

Fig.14.7

106
 14. PARABOLIC ANTENNAS

14.3.2 Exercise 2: Calculation of the focal length

1. Measure the diameter dof the parabola opening and the depth hof the
parabola along the axis (fig.14.6)
2. calculate the focal length, i.e. the distance between the parabola
vertex and the position in which the illuminator must be set, using
the last formula mentioned hereafter:

d2
F=
16 ⋅ h

14.3.3 Exercise 3: Measurement of the focal length

3. Set the parabolic antenna in the transmission and reception system as

reported in fig.14.8
4. align the transmitting and the receiving station to get the maximum
reading on the meter
5. adjust the slide sliding until you get the maximum indication on the
meter (eventually recalibrate the meter more times during the
exercise)
6. the position corresponding to the maximum reading is the focal
length, between the center of the parabola and the input of the
illuminator (transition) and it corresponds exactly to the value read
directly on the graduated scale
7. check that the measured value corresponds to about the calculated
value

Fig.14.8

107
 14. PARABOLIC ANTENNAS

14.3.4 Exercise 4: Gain calculation

8. Calculate the gain GdB of the antenna at the frequency of 10.525

GHz, using the following formula:

G dB ≈ 17.8 + 20 ⋅ log(f ⋅ d) d[m] f [GHz]

14.3.5 Exercise 5: Gain measurement

The method of the comparison is used with the horn antenna MW-16
(10dB) as reference.
In this measurement, instead of keeping the distance fixed and of
measuring the received power, the received power is kept fixed (so to
make the detector work always in the same zone) and the distance will
be changed.

9. Set the parabolic antenna in the transmission and reception system as

shown in fig.14.8
10. align the transmitting and the receiving station to obtain the
maximum reading on the meter
11. adjust the slide sliding up to obtain the maximum indication on the
meter
12. note the distance D1 between the openings of the two antennas
13. change the parabolic antenna with the second horn antenna
mod.MW-16
14. align the two stations and change the distance between the openings
of the two antennas so to obtain the same power received in the last
measurement
15. measure the distance D2 where there are the openings of the two
antennas
16. from the reading carried out in the last measurements, and
considering the nominal gain GMW16 of the horn antenna mod.MW-16
(10dB), the gain GPof the parabola can be calculated by the relation:

D1 D1
G p = G MW16 (dB) + 20 ⋅ log = 10dB + 20 ⋅ log
D2 D2

17. the obtained value can shift of some dB from the nominal calculated
one, due to different reasons: less efficiency of the parabola, position
and efficiency of the illuminator, gain of the reference antenna, etc.
18. try to change the used illuminator (open transition), with a terminated
transition on a horn antenna mod.MW-16 (10dB). To do this, it is not
possible to use the vertical support of the slide anymore because the
front of the horn antenna would not be in the focus of the parabola
(see fig.14.9). It is necessary to use a Long stand mod.MW-20 to fix
the transition with the detector to a wave-guide mod.MW-2 and the
horn antenna. All system constitutes the new illuminator.

108
 14. PARABOLIC ANTENNAS

Check that, with the same transmitted power and distance

between the transmitting antenna and the parabola, you get a
gain of the detected signal of about 5dB. This shows the
importance of the geometrical shape of the illuminator.

Fig.14.9

14.3.6 Exercise 6: Radiation diagram

19. carry out the wiring between the units as indicated in fig.14.8
20. set a distance D of 150cm between the antennas openings
21. align the transmitting and the receiving station to obtain the
maximum reading on the meter
22. measure the signal level with the detector (in mV) and convert it in
dBm (e.g. -13dBm)
This will be our reference 0dB!
23. rotate the receiving antenna to the right and the left and read the
received signal on the meter
24. try to find the angulations that corresponds, e.g., to 3dB, 6dB, 10dB
and 15dB lower than our reference (-13dBm). In practice we search
the positions in which the meter indicates: 15.4mV (-16dBm), 8.3mV
(-19dBm), 3.5mV (-23dBm) and 1.1mV (-28dBm)
25. with our experiment, we have detected the following approximate
values, related to the reference: +/-3° (-3dB), +/-4° (-6dB), +/-5° (-
10dB), +/-11° (-15dB)
Compare the obtained diagram with the one of a horn antenna!
26. fill the table (fig.14.10) with the found values, it is possible to plot
the radiation diagram on a sheet like the one of fig.13.8

109
 14. PARABOLIC ANTENNAS

MEASURED LEVEL ANGLE

[dB] [°]
-3
-6
-10
-15

Fig.14.10

14.3.7 Exercise 7: Suggested exercises

27. Plot a radiation diagram of the parabolic antenna in the plane E

(rotate the transmitting antenna and the receiving illuminator of 90°):
for the illuminator use the other provided bracket
28. Plot the radiation diagram of the parabolic antenna with the
illuminator set outside the parabola focus

110
 15. PATH CALCULATION

15. PATH CALCULATION

15.1 OBJECTIVES

- To describe the modes for calculating the received power in direct

connections and with passive receiver
- To carry out the connections with passive repeater and to check the
received power variation as function of some parameters.

15.2 THEORETICAL NOTIONS

Consider a microwave radio bridge connection.

The RF section of the connection, or transmission path, starts from the
output of the transmitter and ends across the receiver input, and includes
(fig.15.1):
- the paths in guide between transmitter and transmitting antenna, and
between receiving antenna and receiver
- any wave-guide devices (filters, circulators, and so on) inserted
between transmitter/receiver and antennas
- the transmission and reception antennas
- the tropospheric path.

All the last elements intervene in the determination of the power PR

received across the receiver input.
PR will be expressed by:

PR = PT (dBm) − A WT (dB) − A FT (dB) + G T (dB) − A P (dB) + GR (dB) − A FR (dB) − A WR (dB)

where: PT= power provided by the transmitter (dBm)

AWT = transmitter-antenna wave-guide attenuation (dB)
AFT = attenuation of the transmission filters (dB)
GT= transmitting antenna gain (dB)
AP = path attenuation (dB)
GR = receiving antenna gain (dB)
AFR = reception filters attenuation (dB)
AWR = antenna-receiver wave-guide attenuation (dB)

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 15. PATH CALCULATION

Fig.15.1

ATTENUATION OF THE WAVE-GUIDES

The attenuation introduced by the paths in guide is calculated knowing

the path length and the attenuation for the unit of length of the used
guide.
The diagram of fig.15.2 shows some typical attenuation values of
rectangular or elliptic guides, as function of the frequency.

Fig.15.2

112
 15. PATH CALCULATION

ATTENUATION OF THE DEVICES IN GUIDE

In the paths toward the antenna, filters (to delimit the transmission
band) and circulators are usually inserted to use the same antenna in
transmission as well as in reception.
The total loss caused by such devices is usually considered equal to
1dB.

ANTENNAS GAIN

It depends on:
- kind and dimensions of the used antennas
- work frequency
- losses due to the insertion of the Radome (protection outside the
parabola, fig.15.3a). Fig.15.3b shows some typical values of
attenuation introduced by the Radome, as function of the dimensions
of the parabola and the frequency
- correctness of the antennas tracking. If the antennas are not properly
tracked, the gain drops. A total tracking margin of 1dB is generally
considered in the calculations.

Radome losses [dB]

Diameter Frequency [GHz]
[m]
2 4 6 11
1.2 0.1 0.2 0.4 1.3
1.8 0.1 0.3 0.5 1.3
2.4 0.1 0.3 0.5 1.4
3 0.1 0.4 0.8 1.9
3.6 0.1 0.4 0.9 1.9

b)

a)

Fig.15.3

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 15. PATH CALCULATION

PATH ATTENUATION

From the following relation of the received power (seen in chapt.12.2):

PR(dBm) = PT(dBm) + GT(dB) + GR(dB) – 20·log(F·D) - 92.4

The attenuation A0 in the tropospheric path, calculated according to the

isotropic antenna and related to a stationary and homogeneous mean, it
results that:

A0 =20·log(F·D) + 92.4 (dB)

Where:D [km]
F [GHz]

In addition to the path attenuation related to a stationary and

homogenous mean the Fading phenomenon must be considered, too,
that consists in evaluating the total tropospheric attenuation AP
according to the formula:
AP =A0 + AF

Where AF is the Fadingattenuation, which is an aleatory function that

considers the shifts in respect to the propagation in free space.
In the calculations, we refer also to a not overcome Fading for a
particular percentage (generally 80%) of the total time.
Fig.15.4 shows a curve used to calculate the Fading at the 80% as
function of the path length, at the frequency of 13 GHz.

Fig.15.4

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 15. PATH CALCULATION

DIRECT CONNECTION

According to the considerations of the last chapter, the calculation of the

power received in a direct connection can be summed up as shown in
fig.15.5.
As example, fig.15.6 reports the calculations carried out for a path with
the following characteristics:

F = 13 GHz
D = 9 Km
d = 2 m (transmission and reception parabolic antennas diameter,
efficiency 0.55)
AW = 0.17 dB/m (unitary wave-guide attenuation)
LX = 15 m (station X guide length)
LY = 25 m (station Y guide length)
PT = 20 dBm (power provided by the transmitter)

115
 15. PATH CALCULATION

Fig.15.5

116
 15. PATH CALCULATION

Fig.15.6

117
 15. PATH CALCULATION

THE PASSIVE REPEATER

If in the altimetrical profile of a radio bridge connection there is an

obstacle, the connection can be carried out using a passive repeater, or
mirror (fig.15.7).

The mirror consists in a flat conductive surface.

Its operation is based on the fact that an electromagnetic wave incident
on a flat surface, with infinite dimensions and perfectly conductive is
reflected without attenuation with an angle equal to the one of incidence
(fig.15.8).

Fig.15.7 a) path obstructed by obstacle

b) using a mirror to avoid the obstacle

Fig.15.8

118
 15. PATH CALCULATION

A real mirror, unlike the ideal one, introduces attenuation.

This means that, with the same length of connection, the received power
will be lower if in the middle there is a passive repeater.
The path with a mirror is considered equivalent to a double path
(fig.15.9).
The power on the opening Y’ is connected to the one on the opening X’
by the relation:

PY’ =PX’ + GS - Aα

Where:
GS = G/2 + G/2 = sum of the gain of the two identical antennas X’ and
Y’ equivalent to the mirror
Aα = attenuation due to the inclination of the mirror.
GS and Aαare respectively:

4π ⋅ S
G S = 20 ⋅ log (dB)
l2o
A α = 20 ⋅ log(cos α)

with: λ0= wave-length in free space

S= mirror surface
α = angle of incidence of the wave with the mirror.

The last considerations are true if the mirror can be considered in far
2
field conditions, i.e. set a distance superior than 2a /λ0(a = longer side
of the mirror).
When the mirror seen from one of the antennas enters back in near field
the calculation is more complex and is solved considering the mirror
and parabola in near field as a whole.

Fig.15.9

119
 15. PATH CALCULATION

CONNECTION WITH PASSIVE REPEATER

According to the considerations in the last chapters, the calculation of

the received power in a connection including a passive repeater can be
summed up in the frame reported in fig.15.10.
As example, fig.15.11 shows the calculations made for a path with the
following characteristics:

F = 7 GHz D1= 27.3 Km D2= 4.76 Km

d = 3 m (diameter of the transmission and reception parabolic antennas,
efficiency 0.55)
AW = 0.04 dB/m (unitary attenuation of the wave-guide)
LX = 15 m Station X guide length)
LY = 25 m (station Y guide length)
S= 67 m2 (mirror surface)
α = 43.5° (angle of incidence)
PT = 24 dBm (power provided by the transmitter)

Fig.15.10

120
 15. PATH CALCULATION

Fig.15.11

121
 15. PATH CALCULATION

15.3 EXERCISES

NECESSARY MATERIAL

- 1 Transmitter unit mod.MW-GU

- 2 WG/Coax adapters mod.MW-1
- 1 10dB horn antenna mod.MW-16
- 2 Wave-guides mod.MW-3
- 1 Turn table with slide mod.MW-22
- 1 Parabolic reflector mod.MW-19
- 1 Plane of reflection mod.MW-17
- 1 Plane of reflection mod.MW-17A
- 1 Detector mod.MW-4
- 2 Long stands mod.MW-20
- 1 BNC-BNC coaxial cable
- 1 Multimeter

15.3.1 Exercise 1: Connection with passive repeater

The purpose of the exercise is to check that:

- it is possible to carry out a microwave connection using a passive
repeater (mirror)
- in the connection with mirror the received power is lower than the
one obtained with a direct connection
- the received power depends on the mirror dimensions and the angle
of incidence of the direct wave.

Consider that the presence of metal surfaces can cause not

wished reflections, so they can alter the results of the exercise.

122
 15. PATH CALCULATION

DIRECT CONNECTION

1. Set the transmission and reception system as shown in fig.15.12

2. set the two stations at a distance of about 4m
3. align the transmitting and the receiving station to obtain the
maximum reading on the meter
4. adjust the slide slipping to obtain the maximum indication on the
meter
5. note the reading PR1 obtained on the received power meter

Fig.15.12

123
 15. PATH CALCULATION

CONNECTION WITH PASSIVE REPEATER

6. Mount the plane of reflection mod.MW-17 on a support mod.MW-20

7. change the transmission system as indicated in fig.15.13. In
particular:
- check that the angle 2a from which the mirror sees the two
stations is 60°
- see that the distance between each station and the mirror is of 2m
(the total length of the connection is 4m, so like the one of the last
direct connection)
8. not changing the level of the transmitted power, align the
transmitting and the receiving stations to get the maximum reading
on the meter
9. adjust the slide slipping until you get the maximum indication on the
meter
10. note the reading PR2 obtained on the received power meter
11. Check that the level of the received power is lower than the one
measured in the last direct connection.

Fig.15.13

124
 15. PATH CALCULATION

CONNECTION WITH PASSIVE REPEATER OF LARGER SIZE

12. Change the plane of reflection mod.MW-17 with mod.MW-17A of

larger size
13. not changing the transmitted power level, align the transmitting and
the receiving stations to get the maximum reading on the meter
14. adjust the slide slipping until you get the maximum indication on the
meter
15. note the reading PR3 obtained on the meter of the received power
16. check that the level of the received power is over the one measured
in the last direct connection PR2.

CONNECTION WITH WIDER ANGLE OF INCIDENCE

17. change the transmission system as indicated in fig.15.14. In

particular:
- increase the angle 2a from which the mirror sees the two stations
at 120° from the last 60°
18. not changing the transmitted power level, align the transmitting and
the receiving stations to get the maximum reading on the meter
19. adjust the slide slipping until you get the maximum indication on the
meter
20. note the reading PR4 obtained on the received power meter
21. check that the level of the received power is over the one measured
in the last direct connection PR3.

Fig.15.14

125
 16. DOPPLER RADAR

16. DOPPLER RADAR

16.1 OBJECTIVES

- Describe the phenomenon known as Doppler effect

- To check the Doppler effect using microwave electromagnetic
waves.

16.2 THEORETICAL NOTIONS

DOPPLER EFFECT

Consider a source emitting an electromagnetic wave with frequency fT

and suppose such wave strikes an object in motion (fig.16.1).
The wave reflected by the object will have a frequency fR equal to:

fR= fT±fD

where fD is called Dopplerfrequency and is proportional to the relative

radial speed between the source and the object in motion.
Be Ss(t) the continuous wave signal emitted by the source:

Ss(t) = cos (w • t)

The time Tnecessary to the signal to travel from the source to the object
in motion is (fig.18.1):
D
T=
c

with: D = distance between source and the object

c = propagation speed of the emitted electromagnetic wave, that
can be considered equal to the one of light.

Fig.16.1

126
 16. DOPPLER RADAR

By effect of the propagation time T, the signal St(t) reaching the object
will be the same emitted by the source a time T before, i.e.:

  D   w ⋅D
S t (t) = cos  w ⋅  t −  = cos w ⋅ t − 
  c   c 

A part of the incident signal is reflected toward the source.

The reflected signal Sr(t) runs the distance 2·Dand so returns to the
source with a delay 2·T.
Its value so is:

 2⋅ w ⋅D
Sr (t) = cos  w ⋅ t − 
 c 

By simplicity we suppose the speed v of the object to be constant.

The distance Dchanges according to the following relation:

D = Do ± v ⋅ (t − t 0 )

where D 0 is the distance at the instant t 0 .

The sign “+“ indicates an object moving away, the sign “-“ an object
approaching.
The echo signal Sr(t) can be written again as:

 2 ⋅ w ⋅ D0 
Sr (t) = cos (w ± w D ) ⋅ t − ± wD ⋅ t0 
 c 

2⋅ w ⋅v
where: wD =
c

is the angular speed variation, caused by the object in motion, on the

reflected signal returning to the source.
From the last formula you obtain the corresponding frequency variation
(Doppler frequency):

wD 2 ⋅ f
fD = = ⋅v
2π c

from which you can say that the Doppler frequency is proportional to
the radial speed of the object in motion.

127
 16. DOPPLER RADAR

DOPPLER RADAR

The DopplerRadar exploits the Doppler effect to detect:

- the speed of objects in motion (to be used for civil and military
applications) or
- the motion (typically used in anti-intrusion systems).

A simple example of Doppler can be carried out using a transmitter, a

mixer (made with a detector) and an antenna.
Remember that the detector, being a non linear components, behaves as
mixer.
Refer to the block diagram of fig.16.2.

Fig.16.2

If the antenna is perfectly matched, there is not standing wave inside the
wave-guide, so the detector will take only a d.c. voltage.
If an obstacle appears stationary in the radius of action of the antenna,
there will be a reflected wave and so the presence of standing wave in
the wave-guide.
If the obstacle moves, the reflected signal will have a frequency
different from the one of the incident signal, as already shown, and will
be present as reflected signal in the wave-guide.
Now the function of the detector is evident, which is a mixing between:

- the direct signal, with fixed frequency and equal to the one set in the
transmitter (fT), and
- the reflected signal, with frequency different from the transmission
one (fR = fT ± fD)

The resulting signal, at the output of the detector, will have, the
difference signal of the direct and reflected signal as predominant
component, with frequency fD displayed on an oscilloscope.

128
 16. DOPPLER RADAR

16.3 EXERCISES

NECESSARY MATERIAL

- 1 Gunn transceiver unit mod.MW-GU

- 1 Long stand mod.MW-20
- 1 Plane of reflection mod.MW-17A
- 1 BNC-BNC coaxial cable
- 1 Oscilloscope (preferably digital with possibility of acquisition

16.3.1 Exercise 1: Components’ connection

1. Carry out the feeding between the two units as per fig. 16.3:
- connect together both positive +15V and the grounds
2. use the transmitter unit only as feeder of the transceiver (reduce to
min the output power)
3. connect the transceiver output MIX OUT to one channel of the
oscilloscope that should be set as follows: single acquisition (if
available), sensitivity 10mV/DIV, in AC and time base 200ms/DIV
4. supply power to both units by using the transmitter unit back side
switch.

Fig.18.3

129
 16. DOPPLER RADAR

16.3.2 Exercise 2: Display of the Doppler signal (Gunn Transceiver Unit)

24. Perform the exercise as per the previews Exercise 16.3 using the
reflecting plane mod. MW-17A
25. Watch for a waveform similar to those of fig.16.9 and fig.16.10
(expanded image)

Fig.16.4

Fig.16.5

130
 APPENDIX A

APPENDIX A: CONVERSION TABLE

Conversion from Return Loss at VSWR

Comparison: dBm - Volts - Watts

131
 APPENDIX B

APPENDIX B: VSWR NOMOGRAPH

1. VSWR from .01:1 to 1.22:1

132
 APPENDIX B

2. VSWR from 1.1:1 to 1.9:1

133
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