17/03/2018

MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS

CELL CYCLE
The cell cycle is an ordered series of events involving cell
growth and cell division that produces two new daughter cells.

Cells on the path to cell division proceed through a series of

precisely timed and carefully regulated stages of growth.

DNA replication, and division that produce two genetically

identical cells. A cell moves through a series of phases in an orderly manner. During interphase, G1 involves cell growth
and protein synthesis, the S phase involves DNA replication and the replication of the centrosome, and G2 involves
further growth and protein synthesis. The mitotic phase follows interphase. Mitosis is nuclear division during which
duplicated chromosomes are segregated and distributed into daughter nuclei. Usually the cell will divide after mitosis
in a process called cytokinesis in which the cytoplasm is divided and two daughter cells are formed.

The cell cycle has two major phases: interphase and the mitotic • INTERPHASE
phase. During interphase, the cell undergoes normal processes while
During interphase, the cell grows and DNA is replicated. also preparing for cell division.
For a cell to move from interphase to the mitotic phase, many
internal and external conditions must be met. The three stages
During the mitotic phase, the replicated DNA and cytoplasmic of interphase are called G1, S, and G2.
contents are separated and the cell divides. G1 Phase
Auxetic growth- an increase in cell mass The first stage of interphase is called the G1 phase, or first
Multiplicative growth-increase in cell number due to cell gap, because little change is visible.
division
Accretionary growth- due to accumulation of extracellular During the G1 stage, the cell is quite active at the biochemical
products. level.
 17/03/2018

The cell is accumulating the building blocks of chromosomal G2 Phase

DNA and the associated proteins, as well as accumulating
enough energy reserves to complete the task of replicating each In the G2 phase, or second gap, the cell replenishes its energy
chromosome in the nucleus. stores and synthesizes the proteins necessary for chromosome
manipulation.
S Phase
Throughout interphase, nuclear DNA remains in a semi-
condensed chromatin configuration. Some cell organelles are duplicated, and the cytoskeleton is
dismantled to provide resources for the mitotic spindle.
In the S phase, replication results in the formation of two
identical copies of each chromosome sister chromatids
At this stage, each chromosome is made of two sister  There may be additional cell growth during G2. The final
chromatids. The centrosome is duplicated during the S phase. preparations for the mitotic phase must be completed before the
cell is able to enter the first stage of mitosis.

The two centrosomes will give rise to the mitotic spindle, the
apparatus that orchestrates the movement of chromosomes during
The Mitotic Phase
mitosis. To make two daughter cells, the contents of the nucleus and the
cytoplasm must be divided.
The centrosome consists of a pair of rod-like centrioles at right
angles to each other. Centrioles help organize cell division.
The mitotic phase is a multistep process during which the
Centrioles are not present in the centrosomes of many eukaryotic duplicated chromosomes are aligned, separated, and moved to
species, such as plants and most fungi. opposite poles of the cell, and then the cell is divided into two new
identical daughter cells.
 17/03/2018

PROPHASE
During prophase, the “first phase,” several events must occur
to provide access to the chromosomes in the nucleus.
The first portion of the mitotic phase, mitosis, is composed of five
stages, which accomplish nuclear division-prophase, prometaphase, The nuclear envelope starts to break into small vesicles, and
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. the Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum fragment and
The second portion of the mitotic phase, called cytokinesis, is the disperse to the periphery of the cell.
physical separation of the cytoplasmic components into two daughter The nucleolus disappears and centrosomes begin to move to
cells. opposite poles of the cell.
The microtubules that form the basis of the mitotic spindle
extend between the centrosomes, pushing them farther apart as
the microtubule fibres lengthen. The sister chromatids begin to
coil more tightly and become visible under a light microscope.

Stages in Mitosis PROMETAPHASE

During prometaphase, many processes that were begun in
prophase continue to advance and culminate in the formation of
a connection between the chromosomes and cytoskeleton. The
remnants of the nuclear envelope disappear.
The mitotic spindle continues to develop as more microtubules
assemble and stretch across the length of the former nuclear
area.
Chromosomes become more condensed and visually discrete.
Each sister chromatid attaches to spindle microtubules at the
centromere via a protein complex called the kinetochore.
 17/03/2018

METAPHASE TELOPHASE
• During metaphase, all of the chromosomes are aligned in a • During telophase, all of the events that set up the duplicated
plane called the metaphase plate, or the equatorial plane, chromosomes for mitosis during the first three phases are
midway between the two poles of the cell. The sister reversed. The chromosomes reach the opposite poles and
chromatids are still tightly attached to each other. At this begin to decondense (unravel). The mitotic spindles are
time, the chromosomes are maximally condensed. broken down into monomers that will be used to assemble
cytoskeleton components for each daughter cell. Nuclear
envelopes form around chromosomes.

ANAPHASE CYTOKINESIS
• During anaphase, the sister chromatids at the equatorial plane
• Cytokinesis is the second part of the mitotic phase during which
are split apart at the centromere. Each chromatid, now called
cell division is completed by the physical separation of the
a chromosome, is pulled rapidly toward the centrosome to
cytoplasmic components into two daughter cells. Although the
which its microtubule was attached. The cell becomes visibly
stages of mitosis are similar for most eukaryotes, the process of
elongated as the non-kinetochore microtubules slide against
cytokinesis is quite different for eukaryotes that have cell walls,
each other at the metaphase plate where they overlap.
such as plant cells.
 17/03/2018

Proto-oncogenes
The genes that code for the positive cell-cycle regulators are called
proto-oncogenes. Proto-oncogenes are normal genes that, when
mutated, become oncogenes-genes that cause a cell to become
cancerous. Consider what might happen to the cell cycle in a cell with a
recently acquired oncogene!
Significance of Mitosis
It helps the cell in maintaining proper size
Maintain the equilibrium in the amount of DNA and RNA in the cell
Provides opportunity for growth and development to organs and body
of organisms.

Which of the following is the correct order of events in mitosis? Meiosis

Sexual reproduction requires fertilization, a union of two cells from
• a. Sister chromatids line up at the metaphase plate. The kinetochore two individual organisms.
becomes attached to the mitotic spindle. The nucleus re-forms and the
cell divides. The sister chromatids separate. If those two cells each contain one set of chromosomes, then the
resulting cell contains two sets of chromosomes.
• b. The kinetochore becomes attached to the mitotic spindle. The sister
chromatids separate. Sister chromatids line up at the metaphase plate. The number of sets of chromosomes in a cell is called its ploidy level.
The nucleus re-forms and the cell divides. Haploid cells contain one set of chromosomes. Cells containing two
• c. The kinetochore becomes attached to metaphase plate. Sister sets of chromosomes are called diploid.
chromatids line up at the metaphase plate. The kinetochore breaks If the reproductive cycle is to continue, the diploid cell must
down and the sister chromatids separate. The nucleus re-forms and the somehow reduce its number of chromosome sets before fertilization
cell divides. can occur again, or there will be a continual doubling in the number of
• d. The kinetochore becomes attached to the mitotic spindle. Sister chromosome sets in every generation.
chromatids line up at the metaphase plate. The kinetochore breaks Prophase-Proleptotene, Leptotene, Zygotene, Pachytene, Diplotene
apart and the sister chromatids separate. The nucleus re-forms and the and Diakinesis.
cell divides.
 17/03/2018

This process is revealed visually after the exchange as

chiasmata
The term meiosis was coined J.B Farmer in 1905
Sexual reproduction includes a nuclear division, known as meiosis,
that reduces the number of chromosome sets.
Homologous chromosomes are matched pairs containing genes for
the same traits in identical locations along their length.
Meiocytes- These are cells where meiosis occurs.
Meiocytes of the gonads are called Gonocytes which maybe
spermatocytes in male and oocytes in female.
The meiocytes in plants sporangium are called Sporocytes
(Microsporocytes and megasporocytes)

Meiosis I
This process is revealed visually after the exchange as chiasmata
• Early in prophase I, the chromosomes can be seen clearly
microscopically. As the nuclear envelope begins to break down.
The key event in prometaphase I is the attachment of the spindle fiber
microtubules to the kinetochore proteins at the centromeres.
• The proteins associated with homologous chromosomes bring the
pair close to each other. The tight pairing of the homologous
chromosomes is called synapsis.  The microtubules assembled from centrosomes at opposite poles of the
cell grow toward the middle of the cell.

• In synapsis, the genes on the chromatids of the homologous

At the end of prometaphase I, each tetrad is attached to microtubules
chromosomes are precisely aligned with each other. from both poles, with one homologous chromosome attached at one pole
and the other homologous chromosome attached to the other pole.
• An exchange of chromosome segments between non-sister
homologous chromatids occurs and is called crossing over. The nuclear membrane has broken down entirely.
 17/03/2018

METAPHASE
During metaphase I, the homologous chromosomes are
arranged in the center of the cell with the kinetochores facing
opposite poles. • In telophase I, the separated chromosomes arrive at opposite
The orientation of each pair of homologous chromosomes at poles. The remainder of the typical telophase events may or
the centre of the cell is random. may not occur depending on the species. In some organisms,
ANAPHASE 1 the chromosomes decondense and nuclear envelopes form
In anaphase I, the spindle fibers pull the linked chromosomes
around the chromatids in telophase I.
apart. The sister chromatids remain tightly bound together at the
centromere. It is the chiasma connections that are broken in
anaphase I as the fibers attached to the fused kinetochores pull the
homologous chromosomes apart

RANDOMISATION OF HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOME Meiosis II

 17/03/2018

 In prophase II, if the chromosomes decondensed in

telophase I, they condense again.
If nuclear envelopes were formed, they fragment into
vesicles. The centrosomes duplicated during interkinesis
move away from each other toward opposite poles, and new
spindles are formed.
In prometaphase II, the nuclear envelopes are completely
broken down, and the spindle is fully formed.
Each sister chromatid forms an individual kinetochore that
attaches to microtubules from opposite poles.
Meiosis and mitosis are both preceded by one round of DNA replication; however, meiosis includes
two nuclear divisions. The four daughter cells resulting from meiosis are haploid and genetically
distinct. The daughter cells resulting from mitosis are diploid and identical to the parent cell.

A diploid cell has ________ the number of chromosomes as a haploid

In metaphase II, the sister chromatids are maximally cell. (a) one-fourth (b) one-half (c) twice (d) four times
condensed and aligned at the center of the cell.
An organism’s traits are determined by the specific combination of
In anaphase II, the sister chromatids are pulled apart by the inherited ________. (a) cells (b) genes (c) proteins (d) chromatids
spindle fibers and move toward opposite poles.
In telophase II, the chromosomes arrive at opposite poles Chromosomes are duplicated during what portion of the cell cycle?
and begin to decondense. Nuclear envelopes form around the
chromosomes. (a) G1 phase (b) S phase (c) prophase (d) prometaphase
Cytokinesis separates the two cells into four genetically
unique haploid cells. At this point, the nuclei in the newly Separation of the sister chromatids is a characteristic of which stage
produced cells are both haploid and have only one copy of of mitosis? (a)prometaphase (b). metaphase (c). anaphase (d)
the single set of chromosomes. telophase
 17/03/2018

Separation of the sister chromatids is a characteristic of which stage

of mitosis? (a) prometaphase (b). metaphase (c). anaphase (d)
telophase

Which eukaryotic cell-cycle event is missing in binary fission?

(a) cell growth (b) DNA duplication (c) mitosis (d) cytokinesis

FtsZ proteins direct the formation of a ________ that will eventually

form the new cell walls of the daughter cells.
(a) contractile ring (b) cell plate (c) cytoskeleton (d) septum
 17/03/2018

MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS

CELL CYCLE
The cell cycle is an ordered series of events involving cell
growth and cell division that produces two new daughter cells.

Cells on the path to cell division proceed through a series of

precisely timed and carefully regulated stages of growth.

DNA replication, and division that produce two genetically

identical cells. A cell moves through a series of phases in an orderly manner. During interphase, G1 involves cell growth
and protein synthesis, the S phase involves DNA replication and the replication of the centrosome, and G2 involves
further growth and protein synthesis. The mitotic phase follows interphase. Mitosis is nuclear division during which
duplicated chromosomes are segregated and distributed into daughter nuclei. Usually the cell will divide after mitosis
in a process called cytokinesis in which the cytoplasm is divided and two daughter cells are formed.

The cell cycle has two major phases: interphase and the mitotic • INTERPHASE
phase. During interphase, the cell undergoes normal processes while
During interphase, the cell grows and DNA is replicated. also preparing for cell division.
For a cell to move from interphase to the mitotic phase, many
internal and external conditions must be met. The three stages
During the mitotic phase, the replicated DNA and cytoplasmic of interphase are called G1, S, and G2.
contents are separated and the cell divides. G1 Phase
Auxetic growth- an increase in cell mass The first stage of interphase is called the G1 phase, or first
Multiplicative growth-increase in cell number due to cell gap, because little change is visible.
division
Accretionary growth- due to accumulation of extracellular During the G1 stage, the cell is quite active at the biochemical
products. level.
 17/03/2018

The cell is accumulating the building blocks of chromosomal G2 Phase

DNA and the associated proteins, as well as accumulating
enough energy reserves to complete the task of replicating each In the G2 phase, or second gap, the cell replenishes its energy
chromosome in the nucleus. stores and synthesizes the proteins necessary for chromosome
manipulation.
S Phase
Throughout interphase, nuclear DNA remains in a semi-
condensed chromatin configuration. Some cell organelles are duplicated, and the cytoskeleton is
dismantled to provide resources for the mitotic spindle.
In the S phase, replication results in the formation of two
identical copies of each chromosome sister chromatids
At this stage, each chromosome is made of two sister  There may be additional cell growth during G2. The final
chromatids. The centrosome is duplicated during the S phase. preparations for the mitotic phase must be completed before the
cell is able to enter the first stage of mitosis.

The two centrosomes will give rise to the mitotic spindle, the
apparatus that orchestrates the movement of chromosomes during
The Mitotic Phase
mitosis. To make two daughter cells, the contents of the nucleus and the
cytoplasm must be divided.
The centrosome consists of a pair of rod-like centrioles at right
angles to each other. Centrioles help organize cell division.
The mitotic phase is a multistep process during which the
Centrioles are not present in the centrosomes of many eukaryotic duplicated chromosomes are aligned, separated, and moved to
species, such as plants and most fungi. opposite poles of the cell, and then the cell is divided into two new
identical daughter cells.
 17/03/2018

PROPHASE
During prophase, the “first phase,” several events must occur
to provide access to the chromosomes in the nucleus.
The first portion of the mitotic phase, mitosis, is composed of five
stages, which accomplish nuclear division-prophase, prometaphase, The nuclear envelope starts to break into small vesicles, and
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. the Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum fragment and
The second portion of the mitotic phase, called cytokinesis, is the disperse to the periphery of the cell.
physical separation of the cytoplasmic components into two daughter The nucleolus disappears and centrosomes begin to move to
cells. opposite poles of the cell.
The microtubules that form the basis of the mitotic spindle
extend between the centrosomes, pushing them farther apart as
the microtubule fibres lengthen. The sister chromatids begin to
coil more tightly and become visible under a light microscope.

Stages in Mitosis PROMETAPHASE

During prometaphase, many processes that were begun in
prophase continue to advance and culminate in the formation of
a connection between the chromosomes and cytoskeleton. The
remnants of the nuclear envelope disappear.
The mitotic spindle continues to develop as more microtubules
assemble and stretch across the length of the former nuclear
area.
Chromosomes become more condensed and visually discrete.
Each sister chromatid attaches to spindle microtubules at the
centromere via a protein complex called the kinetochore.
 17/03/2018

METAPHASE TELOPHASE
• During metaphase, all of the chromosomes are aligned in a • During telophase, all of the events that set up the duplicated
plane called the metaphase plate, or the equatorial plane, chromosomes for mitosis during the first three phases are
midway between the two poles of the cell. The sister reversed. The chromosomes reach the opposite poles and
chromatids are still tightly attached to each other. At this begin to decondense (unravel). The mitotic spindles are
time, the chromosomes are maximally condensed. broken down into monomers that will be used to assemble
cytoskeleton components for each daughter cell. Nuclear
envelopes form around chromosomes.

ANAPHASE CYTOKINESIS
• During anaphase, the sister chromatids at the equatorial plane
• Cytokinesis is the second part of the mitotic phase during which
are split apart at the centromere. Each chromatid, now called
cell division is completed by the physical separation of the
a chromosome, is pulled rapidly toward the centrosome to
cytoplasmic components into two daughter cells. Although the
which its microtubule was attached. The cell becomes visibly
stages of mitosis are similar for most eukaryotes, the process of
elongated as the non-kinetochore microtubules slide against
cytokinesis is quite different for eukaryotes that have cell walls,
each other at the metaphase plate where they overlap.
such as plant cells.
 17/03/2018

Proto-oncogenes
The genes that code for the positive cell-cycle regulators are called
proto-oncogenes. Proto-oncogenes are normal genes that, when
mutated, become oncogenes-genes that cause a cell to become
cancerous. Consider what might happen to the cell cycle in a cell with a
recently acquired oncogene!
Significance of Mitosis
It helps the cell in maintaining proper size
Maintain the equilibrium in the amount of DNA and RNA in the cell
Provides opportunity for growth and development to organs and body
of organisms.

Which of the following is the correct order of events in mitosis? Meiosis

Sexual reproduction requires fertilization, a union of two cells from
• a. Sister chromatids line up at the metaphase plate. The kinetochore two individual organisms.
becomes attached to the mitotic spindle. The nucleus re-forms and the
cell divides. The sister chromatids separate. If those two cells each contain one set of chromosomes, then the
resulting cell contains two sets of chromosomes.
• b. The kinetochore becomes attached to the mitotic spindle. The sister
chromatids separate. Sister chromatids line up at the metaphase plate. The number of sets of chromosomes in a cell is called its ploidy level.
The nucleus re-forms and the cell divides. Haploid cells contain one set of chromosomes. Cells containing two
• c. The kinetochore becomes attached to metaphase plate. Sister sets of chromosomes are called diploid.
chromatids line up at the metaphase plate. The kinetochore breaks If the reproductive cycle is to continue, the diploid cell must
down and the sister chromatids separate. The nucleus re-forms and the somehow reduce its number of chromosome sets before fertilization
cell divides. can occur again, or there will be a continual doubling in the number of
• d. The kinetochore becomes attached to the mitotic spindle. Sister chromosome sets in every generation.
chromatids line up at the metaphase plate. The kinetochore breaks Prophase-Proleptotene, Leptotene, Zygotene, Pachytene, Diplotene
apart and the sister chromatids separate. The nucleus re-forms and the and Diakinesis.
cell divides.
 17/03/2018

This process is revealed visually after the exchange as

chiasmata
The term meiosis was coined J.B Farmer in 1905
Sexual reproduction includes a nuclear division, known as meiosis,
that reduces the number of chromosome sets.
Homologous chromosomes are matched pairs containing genes for
the same traits in identical locations along their length.
Meiocytes- These are cells where meiosis occurs.
Meiocytes of the gonads are called Gonocytes which maybe
spermatocytes in male and oocytes in female.
The meiocytes in plants sporangium are called Sporocytes
(Microsporocytes and megasporocytes)

Meiosis I
This process is revealed visually after the exchange as chiasmata
• Early in prophase I, the chromosomes can be seen clearly
microscopically. As the nuclear envelope begins to break down.
The key event in prometaphase I is the attachment of the spindle fiber
microtubules to the kinetochore proteins at the centromeres.
• The proteins associated with homologous chromosomes bring the
pair close to each other. The tight pairing of the homologous
chromosomes is called synapsis.  The microtubules assembled from centrosomes at opposite poles of the
cell grow toward the middle of the cell.

• In synapsis, the genes on the chromatids of the homologous

At the end of prometaphase I, each tetrad is attached to microtubules
chromosomes are precisely aligned with each other. from both poles, with one homologous chromosome attached at one pole
and the other homologous chromosome attached to the other pole.
• An exchange of chromosome segments between non-sister
homologous chromatids occurs and is called crossing over. The nuclear membrane has broken down entirely.
 17/03/2018

METAPHASE
During metaphase I, the homologous chromosomes are
arranged in the center of the cell with the kinetochores facing
opposite poles. • In telophase I, the separated chromosomes arrive at opposite
The orientation of each pair of homologous chromosomes at poles. The remainder of the typical telophase events may or
the centre of the cell is random. may not occur depending on the species. In some organisms,
ANAPHASE 1 the chromosomes decondense and nuclear envelopes form
In anaphase I, the spindle fibers pull the linked chromosomes
around the chromatids in telophase I.
apart. The sister chromatids remain tightly bound together at the
centromere. It is the chiasma connections that are broken in
anaphase I as the fibers attached to the fused kinetochores pull the
homologous chromosomes apart

RANDOMISATION OF HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOME Meiosis II

 17/03/2018

 In prophase II, if the chromosomes decondensed in

telophase I, they condense again.
If nuclear envelopes were formed, they fragment into
vesicles. The centrosomes duplicated during interkinesis
move away from each other toward opposite poles, and new
spindles are formed.
In prometaphase II, the nuclear envelopes are completely
broken down, and the spindle is fully formed.
Each sister chromatid forms an individual kinetochore that
attaches to microtubules from opposite poles.
Meiosis and mitosis are both preceded by one round of DNA replication; however, meiosis includes
two nuclear divisions. The four daughter cells resulting from meiosis are haploid and genetically
distinct. The daughter cells resulting from mitosis are diploid and identical to the parent cell.

A diploid cell has ________ the number of chromosomes as a haploid

In metaphase II, the sister chromatids are maximally cell. (a) one-fourth (b) one-half (c) twice (d) four times
condensed and aligned at the center of the cell.
An organism’s traits are determined by the specific combination of
In anaphase II, the sister chromatids are pulled apart by the inherited ________. (a) cells (b) genes (c) proteins (d) chromatids
spindle fibers and move toward opposite poles.
In telophase II, the chromosomes arrive at opposite poles Chromosomes are duplicated during what portion of the cell cycle?
and begin to decondense. Nuclear envelopes form around the
chromosomes. (a) G1 phase (b) S phase (c) prophase (d) prometaphase
Cytokinesis separates the two cells into four genetically
unique haploid cells. At this point, the nuclei in the newly Separation of the sister chromatids is a characteristic of which stage
produced cells are both haploid and have only one copy of of mitosis? (a)prometaphase (b). metaphase (c). anaphase (d)
the single set of chromosomes. telophase
 17/03/2018

Separation of the sister chromatids is a characteristic of which stage

of mitosis? (a) prometaphase (b). metaphase (c). anaphase (d)
telophase

Which eukaryotic cell-cycle event is missing in binary fission?

(a) cell growth (b) DNA duplication (c) mitosis (d) cytokinesis

FtsZ proteins direct the formation of a ________ that will eventually

form the new cell walls of the daughter cells.
(a) contractile ring (b) cell plate (c) cytoskeleton (d) septum
 17/03/2018

MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS

CELL CYCLE
The cell cycle is an ordered series of events involving cell
growth and cell division that produces two new daughter cells.

Cells on the path to cell division proceed through a series of

precisely timed and carefully regulated stages of growth.

DNA replication, and division that produce two genetically

identical cells. A cell moves through a series of phases in an orderly manner. During interphase, G1 involves cell growth
and protein synthesis, the S phase involves DNA replication and the replication of the centrosome, and G2 involves
further growth and protein synthesis. The mitotic phase follows interphase. Mitosis is nuclear division during which
duplicated chromosomes are segregated and distributed into daughter nuclei. Usually the cell will divide after mitosis
in a process called cytokinesis in which the cytoplasm is divided and two daughter cells are formed.

The cell cycle has two major phases: interphase and the mitotic • INTERPHASE
phase. During interphase, the cell undergoes normal processes while
During interphase, the cell grows and DNA is replicated. also preparing for cell division.
For a cell to move from interphase to the mitotic phase, many
internal and external conditions must be met. The three stages
During the mitotic phase, the replicated DNA and cytoplasmic of interphase are called G1, S, and G2.
contents are separated and the cell divides. G1 Phase
Auxetic growth- an increase in cell mass The first stage of interphase is called the G1 phase, or first
Multiplicative growth-increase in cell number due to cell gap, because little change is visible.
division
Accretionary growth- due to accumulation of extracellular During the G1 stage, the cell is quite active at the biochemical
products. level.
 17/03/2018

The cell is accumulating the building blocks of chromosomal G2 Phase

DNA and the associated proteins, as well as accumulating
enough energy reserves to complete the task of replicating each In the G2 phase, or second gap, the cell replenishes its energy
chromosome in the nucleus. stores and synthesizes the proteins necessary for chromosome
manipulation.
S Phase
Throughout interphase, nuclear DNA remains in a semi-
condensed chromatin configuration. Some cell organelles are duplicated, and the cytoskeleton is
dismantled to provide resources for the mitotic spindle.
In the S phase, replication results in the formation of two
identical copies of each chromosome sister chromatids
At this stage, each chromosome is made of two sister  There may be additional cell growth during G2. The final
chromatids. The centrosome is duplicated during the S phase. preparations for the mitotic phase must be completed before the
cell is able to enter the first stage of mitosis.

The two centrosomes will give rise to the mitotic spindle, the
apparatus that orchestrates the movement of chromosomes during
The Mitotic Phase
mitosis. To make two daughter cells, the contents of the nucleus and the
cytoplasm must be divided.
The centrosome consists of a pair of rod-like centrioles at right
angles to each other. Centrioles help organize cell division.
The mitotic phase is a multistep process during which the
Centrioles are not present in the centrosomes of many eukaryotic duplicated chromosomes are aligned, separated, and moved to
species, such as plants and most fungi. opposite poles of the cell, and then the cell is divided into two new
identical daughter cells.
 17/03/2018

PROPHASE
During prophase, the “first phase,” several events must occur
to provide access to the chromosomes in the nucleus.
The first portion of the mitotic phase, mitosis, is composed of five
stages, which accomplish nuclear division-prophase, prometaphase, The nuclear envelope starts to break into small vesicles, and
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. the Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum fragment and
The second portion of the mitotic phase, called cytokinesis, is the disperse to the periphery of the cell.
physical separation of the cytoplasmic components into two daughter The nucleolus disappears and centrosomes begin to move to
cells. opposite poles of the cell.
The microtubules that form the basis of the mitotic spindle
extend between the centrosomes, pushing them farther apart as
the microtubule fibres lengthen. The sister chromatids begin to
coil more tightly and become visible under a light microscope.

Stages in Mitosis PROMETAPHASE

During prometaphase, many processes that were begun in
prophase continue to advance and culminate in the formation of
a connection between the chromosomes and cytoskeleton. The
remnants of the nuclear envelope disappear.
The mitotic spindle continues to develop as more microtubules
assemble and stretch across the length of the former nuclear
area.
Chromosomes become more condensed and visually discrete.
Each sister chromatid attaches to spindle microtubules at the
centromere via a protein complex called the kinetochore.
 17/03/2018

METAPHASE TELOPHASE
• During metaphase, all of the chromosomes are aligned in a • During telophase, all of the events that set up the duplicated
plane called the metaphase plate, or the equatorial plane, chromosomes for mitosis during the first three phases are
midway between the two poles of the cell. The sister reversed. The chromosomes reach the opposite poles and
chromatids are still tightly attached to each other. At this begin to decondense (unravel). The mitotic spindles are
time, the chromosomes are maximally condensed. broken down into monomers that will be used to assemble
cytoskeleton components for each daughter cell. Nuclear
envelopes form around chromosomes.

ANAPHASE CYTOKINESIS
• During anaphase, the sister chromatids at the equatorial plane
• Cytokinesis is the second part of the mitotic phase during which
are split apart at the centromere. Each chromatid, now called
cell division is completed by the physical separation of the
a chromosome, is pulled rapidly toward the centrosome to
cytoplasmic components into two daughter cells. Although the
which its microtubule was attached. The cell becomes visibly
stages of mitosis are similar for most eukaryotes, the process of
elongated as the non-kinetochore microtubules slide against
cytokinesis is quite different for eukaryotes that have cell walls,
each other at the metaphase plate where they overlap.
such as plant cells.
 17/03/2018

Proto-oncogenes
The genes that code for the positive cell-cycle regulators are called
proto-oncogenes. Proto-oncogenes are normal genes that, when
mutated, become oncogenes-genes that cause a cell to become
cancerous. Consider what might happen to the cell cycle in a cell with a
recently acquired oncogene!
Significance of Mitosis
It helps the cell in maintaining proper size
Maintain the equilibrium in the amount of DNA and RNA in the cell
Provides opportunity for growth and development to organs and body
of organisms.

Which of the following is the correct order of events in mitosis? Meiosis

Sexual reproduction requires fertilization, a union of two cells from
• a. Sister chromatids line up at the metaphase plate. The kinetochore two individual organisms.
becomes attached to the mitotic spindle. The nucleus re-forms and the
cell divides. The sister chromatids separate. If those two cells each contain one set of chromosomes, then the
resulting cell contains two sets of chromosomes.
• b. The kinetochore becomes attached to the mitotic spindle. The sister
chromatids separate. Sister chromatids line up at the metaphase plate. The number of sets of chromosomes in a cell is called its ploidy level.
The nucleus re-forms and the cell divides. Haploid cells contain one set of chromosomes. Cells containing two
• c. The kinetochore becomes attached to metaphase plate. Sister sets of chromosomes are called diploid.
chromatids line up at the metaphase plate. The kinetochore breaks If the reproductive cycle is to continue, the diploid cell must
down and the sister chromatids separate. The nucleus re-forms and the somehow reduce its number of chromosome sets before fertilization
cell divides. can occur again, or there will be a continual doubling in the number of
• d. The kinetochore becomes attached to the mitotic spindle. Sister chromosome sets in every generation.
chromatids line up at the metaphase plate. The kinetochore breaks Prophase-Proleptotene, Leptotene, Zygotene, Pachytene, Diplotene
apart and the sister chromatids separate. The nucleus re-forms and the and Diakinesis.
cell divides.
 17/03/2018

This process is revealed visually after the exchange as

chiasmata
The term meiosis was coined J.B Farmer in 1905
Sexual reproduction includes a nuclear division, known as meiosis,
that reduces the number of chromosome sets.
Homologous chromosomes are matched pairs containing genes for
the same traits in identical locations along their length.
Meiocytes- These are cells where meiosis occurs.
Meiocytes of the gonads are called Gonocytes which maybe
spermatocytes in male and oocytes in female.
The meiocytes in plants sporangium are called Sporocytes
(Microsporocytes and megasporocytes)

Meiosis I
This process is revealed visually after the exchange as chiasmata
• Early in prophase I, the chromosomes can be seen clearly
microscopically. As the nuclear envelope begins to break down.
The key event in prometaphase I is the attachment of the spindle fiber
microtubules to the kinetochore proteins at the centromeres.
• The proteins associated with homologous chromosomes bring the
pair close to each other. The tight pairing of the homologous
chromosomes is called synapsis.  The microtubules assembled from centrosomes at opposite poles of the
cell grow toward the middle of the cell.

• In synapsis, the genes on the chromatids of the homologous

At the end of prometaphase I, each tetrad is attached to microtubules
chromosomes are precisely aligned with each other. from both poles, with one homologous chromosome attached at one pole
and the other homologous chromosome attached to the other pole.
• An exchange of chromosome segments between non-sister
homologous chromatids occurs and is called crossing over. The nuclear membrane has broken down entirely.
 17/03/2018

METAPHASE
During metaphase I, the homologous chromosomes are
arranged in the center of the cell with the kinetochores facing
opposite poles. • In telophase I, the separated chromosomes arrive at opposite
The orientation of each pair of homologous chromosomes at poles. The remainder of the typical telophase events may or
the centre of the cell is random. may not occur depending on the species. In some organisms,
ANAPHASE 1 the chromosomes decondense and nuclear envelopes form
In anaphase I, the spindle fibers pull the linked chromosomes
around the chromatids in telophase I.
apart. The sister chromatids remain tightly bound together at the
centromere. It is the chiasma connections that are broken in
anaphase I as the fibers attached to the fused kinetochores pull the
homologous chromosomes apart

RANDOMISATION OF HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOME Meiosis II

 17/03/2018

 In prophase II, if the chromosomes decondensed in

telophase I, they condense again.
If nuclear envelopes were formed, they fragment into
vesicles. The centrosomes duplicated during interkinesis
move away from each other toward opposite poles, and new
spindles are formed.
In prometaphase II, the nuclear envelopes are completely
broken down, and the spindle is fully formed.
Each sister chromatid forms an individual kinetochore that
attaches to microtubules from opposite poles.
Meiosis and mitosis are both preceded by one round of DNA replication; however, meiosis includes
two nuclear divisions. The four daughter cells resulting from meiosis are haploid and genetically
distinct. The daughter cells resulting from mitosis are diploid and identical to the parent cell.

A diploid cell has ________ the number of chromosomes as a haploid

In metaphase II, the sister chromatids are maximally cell. (a) one-fourth (b) one-half (c) twice (d) four times
condensed and aligned at the center of the cell.
An organism’s traits are determined by the specific combination of
In anaphase II, the sister chromatids are pulled apart by the inherited ________. (a) cells (b) genes (c) proteins (d) chromatids
spindle fibers and move toward opposite poles.
In telophase II, the chromosomes arrive at opposite poles Chromosomes are duplicated during what portion of the cell cycle?
and begin to decondense. Nuclear envelopes form around the
chromosomes. (a) G1 phase (b) S phase (c) prophase (d) prometaphase
Cytokinesis separates the two cells into four genetically
unique haploid cells. At this point, the nuclei in the newly Separation of the sister chromatids is a characteristic of which stage
produced cells are both haploid and have only one copy of of mitosis? (a)prometaphase (b). metaphase (c). anaphase (d)
the single set of chromosomes. telophase
 17/03/2018

Separation of the sister chromatids is a characteristic of which stage

of mitosis? (a) prometaphase (b). metaphase (c). anaphase (d)
telophase

Which eukaryotic cell-cycle event is missing in binary fission?

(a) cell growth (b) DNA duplication (c) mitosis (d) cytokinesis

FtsZ proteins direct the formation of a ________ that will eventually

form the new cell walls of the daughter cells.
(a) contractile ring (b) cell plate (c) cytoskeleton (d) septum
 17/03/2018

MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS

CELL CYCLE
The cell cycle is an ordered series of events involving cell
growth and cell division that produces two new daughter cells.

Cells on the path to cell division proceed through a series of

precisely timed and carefully regulated stages of growth.

DNA replication, and division that produce two genetically

identical cells. A cell moves through a series of phases in an orderly manner. During interphase, G1 involves cell growth
and protein synthesis, the S phase involves DNA replication and the replication of the centrosome, and G2 involves
further growth and protein synthesis. The mitotic phase follows interphase. Mitosis is nuclear division during which
duplicated chromosomes are segregated and distributed into daughter nuclei. Usually the cell will divide after mitosis
in a process called cytokinesis in which the cytoplasm is divided and two daughter cells are formed.

The cell cycle has two major phases: interphase and the mitotic • INTERPHASE
phase. During interphase, the cell undergoes normal processes while
During interphase, the cell grows and DNA is replicated. also preparing for cell division.
For a cell to move from interphase to the mitotic phase, many
internal and external conditions must be met. The three stages
During the mitotic phase, the replicated DNA and cytoplasmic of interphase are called G1, S, and G2.
contents are separated and the cell divides. G1 Phase
Auxetic growth- an increase in cell mass The first stage of interphase is called the G1 phase, or first
Multiplicative growth-increase in cell number due to cell gap, because little change is visible.
division
Accretionary growth- due to accumulation of extracellular During the G1 stage, the cell is quite active at the biochemical
products. level.
 17/03/2018

The cell is accumulating the building blocks of chromosomal G2 Phase

DNA and the associated proteins, as well as accumulating
enough energy reserves to complete the task of replicating each In the G2 phase, or second gap, the cell replenishes its energy
chromosome in the nucleus. stores and synthesizes the proteins necessary for chromosome
manipulation.
S Phase
Throughout interphase, nuclear DNA remains in a semi-
condensed chromatin configuration. Some cell organelles are duplicated, and the cytoskeleton is
dismantled to provide resources for the mitotic spindle.
In the S phase, replication results in the formation of two
identical copies of each chromosome sister chromatids
At this stage, each chromosome is made of two sister  There may be additional cell growth during G2. The final
chromatids. The centrosome is duplicated during the S phase. preparations for the mitotic phase must be completed before the
cell is able to enter the first stage of mitosis.

The two centrosomes will give rise to the mitotic spindle, the
apparatus that orchestrates the movement of chromosomes during
The Mitotic Phase
mitosis. To make two daughter cells, the contents of the nucleus and the
cytoplasm must be divided.
The centrosome consists of a pair of rod-like centrioles at right
angles to each other. Centrioles help organize cell division.
The mitotic phase is a multistep process during which the
Centrioles are not present in the centrosomes of many eukaryotic duplicated chromosomes are aligned, separated, and moved to
species, such as plants and most fungi. opposite poles of the cell, and then the cell is divided into two new
identical daughter cells.
 17/03/2018

PROPHASE
During prophase, the “first phase,” several events must occur
to provide access to the chromosomes in the nucleus.
The first portion of the mitotic phase, mitosis, is composed of five
stages, which accomplish nuclear division-prophase, prometaphase, The nuclear envelope starts to break into small vesicles, and
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. the Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum fragment and
The second portion of the mitotic phase, called cytokinesis, is the disperse to the periphery of the cell.
physical separation of the cytoplasmic components into two daughter The nucleolus disappears and centrosomes begin to move to
cells. opposite poles of the cell.
The microtubules that form the basis of the mitotic spindle
extend between the centrosomes, pushing them farther apart as
the microtubule fibres lengthen. The sister chromatids begin to
coil more tightly and become visible under a light microscope.

Stages in Mitosis PROMETAPHASE

During prometaphase, many processes that were begun in
prophase continue to advance and culminate in the formation of
a connection between the chromosomes and cytoskeleton. The
remnants of the nuclear envelope disappear.
The mitotic spindle continues to develop as more microtubules
assemble and stretch across the length of the former nuclear
area.
Chromosomes become more condensed and visually discrete.
Each sister chromatid attaches to spindle microtubules at the
centromere via a protein complex called the kinetochore.
 17/03/2018

METAPHASE TELOPHASE
• During metaphase, all of the chromosomes are aligned in a • During telophase, all of the events that set up the duplicated
plane called the metaphase plate, or the equatorial plane, chromosomes for mitosis during the first three phases are
midway between the two poles of the cell. The sister reversed. The chromosomes reach the opposite poles and
chromatids are still tightly attached to each other. At this begin to decondense (unravel). The mitotic spindles are
time, the chromosomes are maximally condensed. broken down into monomers that will be used to assemble
cytoskeleton components for each daughter cell. Nuclear
envelopes form around chromosomes.

ANAPHASE CYTOKINESIS
• During anaphase, the sister chromatids at the equatorial plane
• Cytokinesis is the second part of the mitotic phase during which
are split apart at the centromere. Each chromatid, now called
cell division is completed by the physical separation of the
a chromosome, is pulled rapidly toward the centrosome to
cytoplasmic components into two daughter cells. Although the
which its microtubule was attached. The cell becomes visibly
stages of mitosis are similar for most eukaryotes, the process of
elongated as the non-kinetochore microtubules slide against
cytokinesis is quite different for eukaryotes that have cell walls,
each other at the metaphase plate where they overlap.
such as plant cells.
 17/03/2018

Proto-oncogenes
The genes that code for the positive cell-cycle regulators are called
proto-oncogenes. Proto-oncogenes are normal genes that, when
mutated, become oncogenes-genes that cause a cell to become
cancerous. Consider what might happen to the cell cycle in a cell with a
recently acquired oncogene!
Significance of Mitosis
It helps the cell in maintaining proper size
Maintain the equilibrium in the amount of DNA and RNA in the cell
Provides opportunity for growth and development to organs and body
of organisms.

Which of the following is the correct order of events in mitosis? Meiosis

Sexual reproduction requires fertilization, a union of two cells from
• a. Sister chromatids line up at the metaphase plate. The kinetochore two individual organisms.
becomes attached to the mitotic spindle. The nucleus re-forms and the
cell divides. The sister chromatids separate. If those two cells each contain one set of chromosomes, then the
resulting cell contains two sets of chromosomes.
• b. The kinetochore becomes attached to the mitotic spindle. The sister
chromatids separate. Sister chromatids line up at the metaphase plate. The number of sets of chromosomes in a cell is called its ploidy level.
The nucleus re-forms and the cell divides. Haploid cells contain one set of chromosomes. Cells containing two
• c. The kinetochore becomes attached to metaphase plate. Sister sets of chromosomes are called diploid.
chromatids line up at the metaphase plate. The kinetochore breaks If the reproductive cycle is to continue, the diploid cell must
down and the sister chromatids separate. The nucleus re-forms and the somehow reduce its number of chromosome sets before fertilization
cell divides. can occur again, or there will be a continual doubling in the number of
• d. The kinetochore becomes attached to the mitotic spindle. Sister chromosome sets in every generation.
chromatids line up at the metaphase plate. The kinetochore breaks Prophase-Proleptotene, Leptotene, Zygotene, Pachytene, Diplotene
apart and the sister chromatids separate. The nucleus re-forms and the and Diakinesis.
cell divides.
 17/03/2018

This process is revealed visually after the exchange as

chiasmata
The term meiosis was coined J.B Farmer in 1905
Sexual reproduction includes a nuclear division, known as meiosis,
that reduces the number of chromosome sets.
Homologous chromosomes are matched pairs containing genes for
the same traits in identical locations along their length.
Meiocytes- These are cells where meiosis occurs.
Meiocytes of the gonads are called Gonocytes which maybe
spermatocytes in male and oocytes in female.
The meiocytes in plants sporangium are called Sporocytes
(Microsporocytes and megasporocytes)

Meiosis I
This process is revealed visually after the exchange as chiasmata
• Early in prophase I, the chromosomes can be seen clearly
microscopically. As the nuclear envelope begins to break down.
The key event in prometaphase I is the attachment of the spindle fiber
microtubules to the kinetochore proteins at the centromeres.
• The proteins associated with homologous chromosomes bring the
pair close to each other. The tight pairing of the homologous
chromosomes is called synapsis.  The microtubules assembled from centrosomes at opposite poles of the
cell grow toward the middle of the cell.

• In synapsis, the genes on the chromatids of the homologous

At the end of prometaphase I, each tetrad is attached to microtubules
chromosomes are precisely aligned with each other. from both poles, with one homologous chromosome attached at one pole
and the other homologous chromosome attached to the other pole.
• An exchange of chromosome segments between non-sister
homologous chromatids occurs and is called crossing over. The nuclear membrane has broken down entirely.
 17/03/2018

METAPHASE
During metaphase I, the homologous chromosomes are
arranged in the center of the cell with the kinetochores facing
opposite poles. • In telophase I, the separated chromosomes arrive at opposite
The orientation of each pair of homologous chromosomes at poles. The remainder of the typical telophase events may or
the centre of the cell is random. may not occur depending on the species. In some organisms,
ANAPHASE 1 the chromosomes decondense and nuclear envelopes form
In anaphase I, the spindle fibers pull the linked chromosomes
around the chromatids in telophase I.
apart. The sister chromatids remain tightly bound together at the
centromere. It is the chiasma connections that are broken in
anaphase I as the fibers attached to the fused kinetochores pull the
homologous chromosomes apart

RANDOMISATION OF HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOME Meiosis II

 17/03/2018

 In prophase II, if the chromosomes decondensed in

telophase I, they condense again.
If nuclear envelopes were formed, they fragment into
vesicles. The centrosomes duplicated during interkinesis
move away from each other toward opposite poles, and new
spindles are formed.
In prometaphase II, the nuclear envelopes are completely
broken down, and the spindle is fully formed.
Each sister chromatid forms an individual kinetochore that
attaches to microtubules from opposite poles.
Meiosis and mitosis are both preceded by one round of DNA replication; however, meiosis includes
two nuclear divisions. The four daughter cells resulting from meiosis are haploid and genetically
distinct. The daughter cells resulting from mitosis are diploid and identical to the parent cell.

A diploid cell has ________ the number of chromosomes as a haploid

In metaphase II, the sister chromatids are maximally cell. (a) one-fourth (b) one-half (c) twice (d) four times
condensed and aligned at the center of the cell.
An organism’s traits are determined by the specific combination of
In anaphase II, the sister chromatids are pulled apart by the inherited ________. (a) cells (b) genes (c) proteins (d) chromatids
spindle fibers and move toward opposite poles.
In telophase II, the chromosomes arrive at opposite poles Chromosomes are duplicated during what portion of the cell cycle?
and begin to decondense. Nuclear envelopes form around the
chromosomes. (a) G1 phase (b) S phase (c) prophase (d) prometaphase
Cytokinesis separates the two cells into four genetically
unique haploid cells. At this point, the nuclei in the newly Separation of the sister chromatids is a characteristic of which stage
produced cells are both haploid and have only one copy of of mitosis? (a)prometaphase (b). metaphase (c). anaphase (d)
the single set of chromosomes. telophase
 17/03/2018

Separation of the sister chromatids is a characteristic of which stage

of mitosis? (a) prometaphase (b). metaphase (c). anaphase (d)
telophase

Which eukaryotic cell-cycle event is missing in binary fission?

(a) cell growth (b) DNA duplication (c) mitosis (d) cytokinesis

FtsZ proteins direct the formation of a ________ that will eventually

form the new cell walls of the daughter cells.
(a) contractile ring (b) cell plate (c) cytoskeleton (d) septum
 17/03/2018

MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS

CELL CYCLE
The cell cycle is an ordered series of events involving cell
growth and cell division that produces two new daughter cells.

Cells on the path to cell division proceed through a series of

precisely timed and carefully regulated stages of growth.

DNA replication, and division that produce two genetically

identical cells. A cell moves through a series of phases in an orderly manner. During interphase, G1 involves cell growth
and protein synthesis, the S phase involves DNA replication and the replication of the centrosome, and G2 involves
further growth and protein synthesis. The mitotic phase follows interphase. Mitosis is nuclear division during which
duplicated chromosomes are segregated and distributed into daughter nuclei. Usually the cell will divide after mitosis
in a process called cytokinesis in which the cytoplasm is divided and two daughter cells are formed.

The cell cycle has two major phases: interphase and the mitotic • INTERPHASE
phase. During interphase, the cell undergoes normal processes while
During interphase, the cell grows and DNA is replicated. also preparing for cell division.
For a cell to move from interphase to the mitotic phase, many
internal and external conditions must be met. The three stages
During the mitotic phase, the replicated DNA and cytoplasmic of interphase are called G1, S, and G2.
contents are separated and the cell divides. G1 Phase
Auxetic growth- an increase in cell mass The first stage of interphase is called the G1 phase, or first
Multiplicative growth-increase in cell number due to cell gap, because little change is visible.
division
Accretionary growth- due to accumulation of extracellular During the G1 stage, the cell is quite active at the biochemical
products. level.
 17/03/2018

The cell is accumulating the building blocks of chromosomal G2 Phase

DNA and the associated proteins, as well as accumulating
enough energy reserves to complete the task of replicating each In the G2 phase, or second gap, the cell replenishes its energy
chromosome in the nucleus. stores and synthesizes the proteins necessary for chromosome
manipulation.
S Phase
Throughout interphase, nuclear DNA remains in a semi-
condensed chromatin configuration. Some cell organelles are duplicated, and the cytoskeleton is
dismantled to provide resources for the mitotic spindle.
In the S phase, replication results in the formation of two
identical copies of each chromosome sister chromatids
At this stage, each chromosome is made of two sister  There may be additional cell growth during G2. The final
chromatids. The centrosome is duplicated during the S phase. preparations for the mitotic phase must be completed before the
cell is able to enter the first stage of mitosis.

The two centrosomes will give rise to the mitotic spindle, the
apparatus that orchestrates the movement of chromosomes during
The Mitotic Phase
mitosis. To make two daughter cells, the contents of the nucleus and the
cytoplasm must be divided.
The centrosome consists of a pair of rod-like centrioles at right
angles to each other. Centrioles help organize cell division.
The mitotic phase is a multistep process during which the
Centrioles are not present in the centrosomes of many eukaryotic duplicated chromosomes are aligned, separated, and moved to
species, such as plants and most fungi. opposite poles of the cell, and then the cell is divided into two new
identical daughter cells.
 17/03/2018

PROPHASE
During prophase, the “first phase,” several events must occur
to provide access to the chromosomes in the nucleus.
The first portion of the mitotic phase, mitosis, is composed of five
stages, which accomplish nuclear division-prophase, prometaphase, The nuclear envelope starts to break into small vesicles, and
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. the Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum fragment and
The second portion of the mitotic phase, called cytokinesis, is the disperse to the periphery of the cell.
physical separation of the cytoplasmic components into two daughter The nucleolus disappears and centrosomes begin to move to
cells. opposite poles of the cell.
The microtubules that form the basis of the mitotic spindle
extend between the centrosomes, pushing them farther apart as
the microtubule fibres lengthen. The sister chromatids begin to
coil more tightly and become visible under a light microscope.

Stages in Mitosis PROMETAPHASE

During prometaphase, many processes that were begun in
prophase continue to advance and culminate in the formation of
a connection between the chromosomes and cytoskeleton. The
remnants of the nuclear envelope disappear.
The mitotic spindle continues to develop as more microtubules
assemble and stretch across the length of the former nuclear
area.
Chromosomes become more condensed and visually discrete.
Each sister chromatid attaches to spindle microtubules at the
centromere via a protein complex called the kinetochore.
 17/03/2018

METAPHASE TELOPHASE
• During metaphase, all of the chromosomes are aligned in a • During telophase, all of the events that set up the duplicated
plane called the metaphase plate, or the equatorial plane, chromosomes for mitosis during the first three phases are
midway between the two poles of the cell. The sister reversed. The chromosomes reach the opposite poles and
chromatids are still tightly attached to each other. At this begin to decondense (unravel). The mitotic spindles are
time, the chromosomes are maximally condensed. broken down into monomers that will be used to assemble
cytoskeleton components for each daughter cell. Nuclear
envelopes form around chromosomes.

ANAPHASE CYTOKINESIS
• During anaphase, the sister chromatids at the equatorial plane
• Cytokinesis is the second part of the mitotic phase during which
are split apart at the centromere. Each chromatid, now called
cell division is completed by the physical separation of the
a chromosome, is pulled rapidly toward the centrosome to
cytoplasmic components into two daughter cells. Although the
which its microtubule was attached. The cell becomes visibly
stages of mitosis are similar for most eukaryotes, the process of
elongated as the non-kinetochore microtubules slide against
cytokinesis is quite different for eukaryotes that have cell walls,
each other at the metaphase plate where they overlap.
such as plant cells.
 17/03/2018

Proto-oncogenes
The genes that code for the positive cell-cycle regulators are called
proto-oncogenes. Proto-oncogenes are normal genes that, when
mutated, become oncogenes-genes that cause a cell to become
cancerous. Consider what might happen to the cell cycle in a cell with a
recently acquired oncogene!
Significance of Mitosis
It helps the cell in maintaining proper size
Maintain the equilibrium in the amount of DNA and RNA in the cell
Provides opportunity for growth and development to organs and body
of organisms.

Which of the following is the correct order of events in mitosis? Meiosis

Sexual reproduction requires fertilization, a union of two cells from
• a. Sister chromatids line up at the metaphase plate. The kinetochore two individual organisms.
becomes attached to the mitotic spindle. The nucleus re-forms and the
cell divides. The sister chromatids separate. If those two cells each contain one set of chromosomes, then the
resulting cell contains two sets of chromosomes.
• b. The kinetochore becomes attached to the mitotic spindle. The sister
chromatids separate. Sister chromatids line up at the metaphase plate. The number of sets of chromosomes in a cell is called its ploidy level.
The nucleus re-forms and the cell divides. Haploid cells contain one set of chromosomes. Cells containing two
• c. The kinetochore becomes attached to metaphase plate. Sister sets of chromosomes are called diploid.
chromatids line up at the metaphase plate. The kinetochore breaks If the reproductive cycle is to continue, the diploid cell must
down and the sister chromatids separate. The nucleus re-forms and the somehow reduce its number of chromosome sets before fertilization
cell divides. can occur again, or there will be a continual doubling in the number of
• d. The kinetochore becomes attached to the mitotic spindle. Sister chromosome sets in every generation.
chromatids line up at the metaphase plate. The kinetochore breaks Prophase-Proleptotene, Leptotene, Zygotene, Pachytene, Diplotene
apart and the sister chromatids separate. The nucleus re-forms and the and Diakinesis.
cell divides.
 17/03/2018

This process is revealed visually after the exchange as

chiasmata
The term meiosis was coined J.B Farmer in 1905
Sexual reproduction includes a nuclear division, known as meiosis,
that reduces the number of chromosome sets.
Homologous chromosomes are matched pairs containing genes for
the same traits in identical locations along their length.
Meiocytes- These are cells where meiosis occurs.
Meiocytes of the gonads are called Gonocytes which maybe
spermatocytes in male and oocytes in female.
The meiocytes in plants sporangium are called Sporocytes
(Microsporocytes and megasporocytes)

Meiosis I
This process is revealed visually after the exchange as chiasmata
• Early in prophase I, the chromosomes can be seen clearly
microscopically. As the nuclear envelope begins to break down.
The key event in prometaphase I is the attachment of the spindle fiber
microtubules to the kinetochore proteins at the centromeres.
• The proteins associated with homologous chromosomes bring the
pair close to each other. The tight pairing of the homologous
chromosomes is called synapsis.  The microtubules assembled from centrosomes at opposite poles of the
cell grow toward the middle of the cell.

• In synapsis, the genes on the chromatids of the homologous

At the end of prometaphase I, each tetrad is attached to microtubules
chromosomes are precisely aligned with each other. from both poles, with one homologous chromosome attached at one pole
and the other homologous chromosome attached to the other pole.
• An exchange of chromosome segments between non-sister
homologous chromatids occurs and is called crossing over. The nuclear membrane has broken down entirely.
 17/03/2018

METAPHASE
During metaphase I, the homologous chromosomes are
arranged in the center of the cell with the kinetochores facing
opposite poles. • In telophase I, the separated chromosomes arrive at opposite
The orientation of each pair of homologous chromosomes at poles. The remainder of the typical telophase events may or
the centre of the cell is random. may not occur depending on the species. In some organisms,
ANAPHASE 1 the chromosomes decondense and nuclear envelopes form
In anaphase I, the spindle fibers pull the linked chromosomes
around the chromatids in telophase I.
apart. The sister chromatids remain tightly bound together at the
centromere. It is the chiasma connections that are broken in
anaphase I as the fibers attached to the fused kinetochores pull the
homologous chromosomes apart

RANDOMISATION OF HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOME Meiosis II

 17/03/2018

 In prophase II, if the chromosomes decondensed in

telophase I, they condense again.
If nuclear envelopes were formed, they fragment into
vesicles. The centrosomes duplicated during interkinesis
move away from each other toward opposite poles, and new
spindles are formed.
In prometaphase II, the nuclear envelopes are completely
broken down, and the spindle is fully formed.
Each sister chromatid forms an individual kinetochore that
attaches to microtubules from opposite poles.
Meiosis and mitosis are both preceded by one round of DNA replication; however, meiosis includes
two nuclear divisions. The four daughter cells resulting from meiosis are haploid and genetically
distinct. The daughter cells resulting from mitosis are diploid and identical to the parent cell.

A diploid cell has ________ the number of chromosomes as a haploid

In metaphase II, the sister chromatids are maximally cell. (a) one-fourth (b) one-half (c) twice (d) four times
condensed and aligned at the center of the cell.
An organism’s traits are determined by the specific combination of
In anaphase II, the sister chromatids are pulled apart by the inherited ________. (a) cells (b) genes (c) proteins (d) chromatids
spindle fibers and move toward opposite poles.
In telophase II, the chromosomes arrive at opposite poles Chromosomes are duplicated during what portion of the cell cycle?
and begin to decondense. Nuclear envelopes form around the
chromosomes. (a) G1 phase (b) S phase (c) prophase (d) prometaphase
Cytokinesis separates the two cells into four genetically
unique haploid cells. At this point, the nuclei in the newly Separation of the sister chromatids is a characteristic of which stage
produced cells are both haploid and have only one copy of of mitosis? (a)prometaphase (b). metaphase (c). anaphase (d)
the single set of chromosomes. telophase
 17/03/2018

Separation of the sister chromatids is a characteristic of which stage

of mitosis? (a) prometaphase (b). metaphase (c). anaphase (d)
telophase

Which eukaryotic cell-cycle event is missing in binary fission?

(a) cell growth (b) DNA duplication (c) mitosis (d) cytokinesis

FtsZ proteins direct the formation of a ________ that will eventually

form the new cell walls of the daughter cells.
(a) contractile ring (b) cell plate (c) cytoskeleton (d) septum
 17/03/2018

MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS

CELL CYCLE
The cell cycle is an ordered series of events involving cell
growth and cell division that produces two new daughter cells.

Cells on the path to cell division proceed through a series of

precisely timed and carefully regulated stages of growth.

DNA replication, and division that produce two genetically

identical cells. A cell moves through a series of phases in an orderly manner. During interphase, G1 involves cell growth
and protein synthesis, the S phase involves DNA replication and the replication of the centrosome, and G2 involves
further growth and protein synthesis. The mitotic phase follows interphase. Mitosis is nuclear division during which
duplicated chromosomes are segregated and distributed into daughter nuclei. Usually the cell will divide after mitosis
in a process called cytokinesis in which the cytoplasm is divided and two daughter cells are formed.

The cell cycle has two major phases: interphase and the mitotic • INTERPHASE
phase. During interphase, the cell undergoes normal processes while
During interphase, the cell grows and DNA is replicated. also preparing for cell division.
For a cell to move from interphase to the mitotic phase, many
internal and external conditions must be met. The three stages
During the mitotic phase, the replicated DNA and cytoplasmic of interphase are called G1, S, and G2.
contents are separated and the cell divides. G1 Phase
Auxetic growth- an increase in cell mass The first stage of interphase is called the G1 phase, or first
Multiplicative growth-increase in cell number due to cell gap, because little change is visible.
division
Accretionary growth- due to accumulation of extracellular During the G1 stage, the cell is quite active at the biochemical
products. level.
 17/03/2018

The cell is accumulating the building blocks of chromosomal G2 Phase

DNA and the associated proteins, as well as accumulating
enough energy reserves to complete the task of replicating each In the G2 phase, or second gap, the cell replenishes its energy
chromosome in the nucleus. stores and synthesizes the proteins necessary for chromosome
manipulation.
S Phase
Throughout interphase, nuclear DNA remains in a semi-
condensed chromatin configuration. Some cell organelles are duplicated, and the cytoskeleton is
dismantled to provide resources for the mitotic spindle.
In the S phase, replication results in the formation of two
identical copies of each chromosome sister chromatids
At this stage, each chromosome is made of two sister  There may be additional cell growth during G2. The final
chromatids. The centrosome is duplicated during the S phase. preparations for the mitotic phase must be completed before the
cell is able to enter the first stage of mitosis.

The two centrosomes will give rise to the mitotic spindle, the
apparatus that orchestrates the movement of chromosomes during
The Mitotic Phase
mitosis. To make two daughter cells, the contents of the nucleus and the
cytoplasm must be divided.
The centrosome consists of a pair of rod-like centrioles at right
angles to each other. Centrioles help organize cell division.
The mitotic phase is a multistep process during which the
Centrioles are not present in the centrosomes of many eukaryotic duplicated chromosomes are aligned, separated, and moved to
species, such as plants and most fungi. opposite poles of the cell, and then the cell is divided into two new
identical daughter cells.
 17/03/2018

PROPHASE
During prophase, the “first phase,” several events must occur
to provide access to the chromosomes in the nucleus.
The first portion of the mitotic phase, mitosis, is composed of five
stages, which accomplish nuclear division-prophase, prometaphase, The nuclear envelope starts to break into small vesicles, and
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. the Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum fragment and
The second portion of the mitotic phase, called cytokinesis, is the disperse to the periphery of the cell.
physical separation of the cytoplasmic components into two daughter The nucleolus disappears and centrosomes begin to move to
cells. opposite poles of the cell.
The microtubules that form the basis of the mitotic spindle
extend between the centrosomes, pushing them farther apart as
the microtubule fibres lengthen. The sister chromatids begin to
coil more tightly and become visible under a light microscope.

Stages in Mitosis PROMETAPHASE

During prometaphase, many processes that were begun in
prophase continue to advance and culminate in the formation of
a connection between the chromosomes and cytoskeleton. The
remnants of the nuclear envelope disappear.
The mitotic spindle continues to develop as more microtubules
assemble and stretch across the length of the former nuclear
area.
Chromosomes become more condensed and visually discrete.
Each sister chromatid attaches to spindle microtubules at the
centromere via a protein complex called the kinetochore.
 17/03/2018

METAPHASE TELOPHASE
• During metaphase, all of the chromosomes are aligned in a • During telophase, all of the events that set up the duplicated
plane called the metaphase plate, or the equatorial plane, chromosomes for mitosis during the first three phases are
midway between the two poles of the cell. The sister reversed. The chromosomes reach the opposite poles and
chromatids are still tightly attached to each other. At this begin to decondense (unravel). The mitotic spindles are
time, the chromosomes are maximally condensed. broken down into monomers that will be used to assemble
cytoskeleton components for each daughter cell. Nuclear
envelopes form around chromosomes.

ANAPHASE CYTOKINESIS
• During anaphase, the sister chromatids at the equatorial plane
• Cytokinesis is the second part of the mitotic phase during which
are split apart at the centromere. Each chromatid, now called
cell division is completed by the physical separation of the
a chromosome, is pulled rapidly toward the centrosome to
cytoplasmic components into two daughter cells. Although the
which its microtubule was attached. The cell becomes visibly
stages of mitosis are similar for most eukaryotes, the process of
elongated as the non-kinetochore microtubules slide against
cytokinesis is quite different for eukaryotes that have cell walls,
each other at the metaphase plate where they overlap.
such as plant cells.
 17/03/2018

Proto-oncogenes
The genes that code for the positive cell-cycle regulators are called
proto-oncogenes. Proto-oncogenes are normal genes that, when
mutated, become oncogenes-genes that cause a cell to become
cancerous. Consider what might happen to the cell cycle in a cell with a
recently acquired oncogene!
Significance of Mitosis
It helps the cell in maintaining proper size
Maintain the equilibrium in the amount of DNA and RNA in the cell
Provides opportunity for growth and development to organs and body
of organisms.

Which of the following is the correct order of events in mitosis? Meiosis

Sexual reproduction requires fertilization, a union of two cells from
• a. Sister chromatids line up at the metaphase plate. The kinetochore two individual organisms.
becomes attached to the mitotic spindle. The nucleus re-forms and the
cell divides. The sister chromatids separate. If those two cells each contain one set of chromosomes, then the
resulting cell contains two sets of chromosomes.
• b. The kinetochore becomes attached to the mitotic spindle. The sister
chromatids separate. Sister chromatids line up at the metaphase plate. The number of sets of chromosomes in a cell is called its ploidy level.
The nucleus re-forms and the cell divides. Haploid cells contain one set of chromosomes. Cells containing two
• c. The kinetochore becomes attached to metaphase plate. Sister sets of chromosomes are called diploid.
chromatids line up at the metaphase plate. The kinetochore breaks If the reproductive cycle is to continue, the diploid cell must
down and the sister chromatids separate. The nucleus re-forms and the somehow reduce its number of chromosome sets before fertilization
cell divides. can occur again, or there will be a continual doubling in the number of
• d. The kinetochore becomes attached to the mitotic spindle. Sister chromosome sets in every generation.
chromatids line up at the metaphase plate. The kinetochore breaks Prophase-Proleptotene, Leptotene, Zygotene, Pachytene, Diplotene
apart and the sister chromatids separate. The nucleus re-forms and the and Diakinesis.
cell divides.
 17/03/2018

This process is revealed visually after the exchange as

chiasmata
The term meiosis was coined J.B Farmer in 1905
Sexual reproduction includes a nuclear division, known as meiosis,
that reduces the number of chromosome sets.
Homologous chromosomes are matched pairs containing genes for
the same traits in identical locations along their length.
Meiocytes- These are cells where meiosis occurs.
Meiocytes of the gonads are called Gonocytes which maybe
spermatocytes in male and oocytes in female.
The meiocytes in plants sporangium are called Sporocytes
(Microsporocytes and megasporocytes)

Meiosis I
This process is revealed visually after the exchange as chiasmata
• Early in prophase I, the chromosomes can be seen clearly
microscopically. As the nuclear envelope begins to break down.
The key event in prometaphase I is the attachment of the spindle fiber
microtubules to the kinetochore proteins at the centromeres.
• The proteins associated with homologous chromosomes bring the
pair close to each other. The tight pairing of the homologous
chromosomes is called synapsis.  The microtubules assembled from centrosomes at opposite poles of the
cell grow toward the middle of the cell.

• In synapsis, the genes on the chromatids of the homologous

At the end of prometaphase I, each tetrad is attached to microtubules
chromosomes are precisely aligned with each other. from both poles, with one homologous chromosome attached at one pole
and the other homologous chromosome attached to the other pole.
• An exchange of chromosome segments between non-sister
homologous chromatids occurs and is called crossing over. The nuclear membrane has broken down entirely.
 17/03/2018

METAPHASE
During metaphase I, the homologous chromosomes are
arranged in the center of the cell with the kinetochores facing
opposite poles. • In telophase I, the separated chromosomes arrive at opposite
The orientation of each pair of homologous chromosomes at poles. The remainder of the typical telophase events may or
the centre of the cell is random. may not occur depending on the species. In some organisms,
ANAPHASE 1 the chromosomes decondense and nuclear envelopes form
In anaphase I, the spindle fibers pull the linked chromosomes
around the chromatids in telophase I.
apart. The sister chromatids remain tightly bound together at the
centromere. It is the chiasma connections that are broken in
anaphase I as the fibers attached to the fused kinetochores pull the
homologous chromosomes apart

RANDOMISATION OF HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOME Meiosis II

 17/03/2018

 In prophase II, if the chromosomes decondensed in

telophase I, they condense again.
If nuclear envelopes were formed, they fragment into
vesicles. The centrosomes duplicated during interkinesis
move away from each other toward opposite poles, and new
spindles are formed.
In prometaphase II, the nuclear envelopes are completely
broken down, and the spindle is fully formed.
Each sister chromatid forms an individual kinetochore that
attaches to microtubules from opposite poles.
Meiosis and mitosis are both preceded by one round of DNA replication; however, meiosis includes
two nuclear divisions. The four daughter cells resulting from meiosis are haploid and genetically
distinct. The daughter cells resulting from mitosis are diploid and identical to the parent cell.

A diploid cell has ________ the number of chromosomes as a haploid

In metaphase II, the sister chromatids are maximally cell. (a) one-fourth (b) one-half (c) twice (d) four times
condensed and aligned at the center of the cell.
An organism’s traits are determined by the specific combination of
In anaphase II, the sister chromatids are pulled apart by the inherited ________. (a) cells (b) genes (c) proteins (d) chromatids
spindle fibers and move toward opposite poles.
In telophase II, the chromosomes arrive at opposite poles Chromosomes are duplicated during what portion of the cell cycle?
and begin to decondense. Nuclear envelopes form around the
chromosomes. (a) G1 phase (b) S phase (c) prophase (d) prometaphase
Cytokinesis separates the two cells into four genetically
unique haploid cells. At this point, the nuclei in the newly Separation of the sister chromatids is a characteristic of which stage
produced cells are both haploid and have only one copy of of mitosis? (a)prometaphase (b). metaphase (c). anaphase (d)
the single set of chromosomes. telophase
 17/03/2018

Separation of the sister chromatids is a characteristic of which stage

of mitosis? (a) prometaphase (b). metaphase (c). anaphase (d)
telophase

Which eukaryotic cell-cycle event is missing in binary fission?

(a) cell growth (b) DNA duplication (c) mitosis (d) cytokinesis

FtsZ proteins direct the formation of a ________ that will eventually

form the new cell walls of the daughter cells.
(a) contractile ring (b) cell plate (c) cytoskeleton (d) septum
 17/03/2018

MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS

CELL CYCLE
The cell cycle is an ordered series of events involving cell
growth and cell division that produces two new daughter cells.

Cells on the path to cell division proceed through a series of

precisely timed and carefully regulated stages of growth.

DNA replication, and division that produce two genetically

identical cells. A cell moves through a series of phases in an orderly manner. During interphase, G1 involves cell growth
and protein synthesis, the S phase involves DNA replication and the replication of the centrosome, and G2 involves
further growth and protein synthesis. The mitotic phase follows interphase. Mitosis is nuclear division during which
duplicated chromosomes are segregated and distributed into daughter nuclei. Usually the cell will divide after mitosis
in a process called cytokinesis in which the cytoplasm is divided and two daughter cells are formed.

The cell cycle has two major phases: interphase and the mitotic • INTERPHASE
phase. During interphase, the cell undergoes normal processes while
During interphase, the cell grows and DNA is replicated. also preparing for cell division.
For a cell to move from interphase to the mitotic phase, many
internal and external conditions must be met. The three stages
During the mitotic phase, the replicated DNA and cytoplasmic of interphase are called G1, S, and G2.
contents are separated and the cell divides. G1 Phase
Auxetic growth- an increase in cell mass The first stage of interphase is called the G1 phase, or first
Multiplicative growth-increase in cell number due to cell gap, because little change is visible.
division
Accretionary growth- due to accumulation of extracellular During the G1 stage, the cell is quite active at the biochemical
products. level.
 17/03/2018

The cell is accumulating the building blocks of chromosomal G2 Phase

DNA and the associated proteins, as well as accumulating
enough energy reserves to complete the task of replicating each In the G2 phase, or second gap, the cell replenishes its energy
chromosome in the nucleus. stores and synthesizes the proteins necessary for chromosome
manipulation.
S Phase
Throughout interphase, nuclear DNA remains in a semi-
condensed chromatin configuration. Some cell organelles are duplicated, and the cytoskeleton is
dismantled to provide resources for the mitotic spindle.
In the S phase, replication results in the formation of two
identical copies of each chromosome sister chromatids
At this stage, each chromosome is made of two sister  There may be additional cell growth during G2. The final
chromatids. The centrosome is duplicated during the S phase. preparations for the mitotic phase must be completed before the
cell is able to enter the first stage of mitosis.

The two centrosomes will give rise to the mitotic spindle, the
apparatus that orchestrates the movement of chromosomes during
The Mitotic Phase
mitosis. To make two daughter cells, the contents of the nucleus and the
cytoplasm must be divided.
The centrosome consists of a pair of rod-like centrioles at right
angles to each other. Centrioles help organize cell division.
The mitotic phase is a multistep process during which the
Centrioles are not present in the centrosomes of many eukaryotic duplicated chromosomes are aligned, separated, and moved to
species, such as plants and most fungi. opposite poles of the cell, and then the cell is divided into two new
identical daughter cells.
 17/03/2018

PROPHASE
During prophase, the “first phase,” several events must occur
to provide access to the chromosomes in the nucleus.
The first portion of the mitotic phase, mitosis, is composed of five
stages, which accomplish nuclear division-prophase, prometaphase, The nuclear envelope starts to break into small vesicles, and
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. the Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum fragment and
The second portion of the mitotic phase, called cytokinesis, is the disperse to the periphery of the cell.
physical separation of the cytoplasmic components into two daughter The nucleolus disappears and centrosomes begin to move to
cells. opposite poles of the cell.
The microtubules that form the basis of the mitotic spindle
extend between the centrosomes, pushing them farther apart as
the microtubule fibres lengthen. The sister chromatids begin to
coil more tightly and become visible under a light microscope.

Stages in Mitosis PROMETAPHASE

During prometaphase, many processes that were begun in
prophase continue to advance and culminate in the formation of
a connection between the chromosomes and cytoskeleton. The
remnants of the nuclear envelope disappear.
The mitotic spindle continues to develop as more microtubules
assemble and stretch across the length of the former nuclear
area.
Chromosomes become more condensed and visually discrete.
Each sister chromatid attaches to spindle microtubules at the
centromere via a protein complex called the kinetochore.
 17/03/2018

METAPHASE TELOPHASE
• During metaphase, all of the chromosomes are aligned in a • During telophase, all of the events that set up the duplicated
plane called the metaphase plate, or the equatorial plane, chromosomes for mitosis during the first three phases are
midway between the two poles of the cell. The sister reversed. The chromosomes reach the opposite poles and
chromatids are still tightly attached to each other. At this begin to decondense (unravel). The mitotic spindles are
time, the chromosomes are maximally condensed. broken down into monomers that will be used to assemble
cytoskeleton components for each daughter cell. Nuclear
envelopes form around chromosomes.

ANAPHASE CYTOKINESIS
• During anaphase, the sister chromatids at the equatorial plane
• Cytokinesis is the second part of the mitotic phase during which
are split apart at the centromere. Each chromatid, now called
cell division is completed by the physical separation of the
a chromosome, is pulled rapidly toward the centrosome to
cytoplasmic components into two daughter cells. Although the
which its microtubule was attached. The cell becomes visibly
stages of mitosis are similar for most eukaryotes, the process of
elongated as the non-kinetochore microtubules slide against
cytokinesis is quite different for eukaryotes that have cell walls,
each other at the metaphase plate where they overlap.
such as plant cells.
 17/03/2018

Proto-oncogenes
The genes that code for the positive cell-cycle regulators are called
proto-oncogenes. Proto-oncogenes are normal genes that, when
mutated, become oncogenes-genes that cause a cell to become
cancerous. Consider what might happen to the cell cycle in a cell with a
recently acquired oncogene!
Significance of Mitosis
It helps the cell in maintaining proper size
Maintain the equilibrium in the amount of DNA and RNA in the cell
Provides opportunity for growth and development to organs and body
of organisms.

Which of the following is the correct order of events in mitosis? Meiosis

Sexual reproduction requires fertilization, a union of two cells from
• a. Sister chromatids line up at the metaphase plate. The kinetochore two individual organisms.
becomes attached to the mitotic spindle. The nucleus re-forms and the
cell divides. The sister chromatids separate. If those two cells each contain one set of chromosomes, then the
resulting cell contains two sets of chromosomes.
• b. The kinetochore becomes attached to the mitotic spindle. The sister
chromatids separate. Sister chromatids line up at the metaphase plate. The number of sets of chromosomes in a cell is called its ploidy level.
The nucleus re-forms and the cell divides. Haploid cells contain one set of chromosomes. Cells containing two
• c. The kinetochore becomes attached to metaphase plate. Sister sets of chromosomes are called diploid.
chromatids line up at the metaphase plate. The kinetochore breaks If the reproductive cycle is to continue, the diploid cell must
down and the sister chromatids separate. The nucleus re-forms and the somehow reduce its number of chromosome sets before fertilization
cell divides. can occur again, or there will be a continual doubling in the number of
• d. The kinetochore becomes attached to the mitotic spindle. Sister chromosome sets in every generation.
chromatids line up at the metaphase plate. The kinetochore breaks Prophase-Proleptotene, Leptotene, Zygotene, Pachytene, Diplotene
apart and the sister chromatids separate. The nucleus re-forms and the and Diakinesis.
cell divides.
 17/03/2018

This process is revealed visually after the exchange as

chiasmata
The term meiosis was coined J.B Farmer in 1905
Sexual reproduction includes a nuclear division, known as meiosis,
that reduces the number of chromosome sets.
Homologous chromosomes are matched pairs containing genes for
the same traits in identical locations along their length.
Meiocytes- These are cells where meiosis occurs.
Meiocytes of the gonads are called Gonocytes which maybe
spermatocytes in male and oocytes in female.
The meiocytes in plants sporangium are called Sporocytes
(Microsporocytes and megasporocytes)

Meiosis I
This process is revealed visually after the exchange as chiasmata
• Early in prophase I, the chromosomes can be seen clearly
microscopically. As the nuclear envelope begins to break down.
The key event in prometaphase I is the attachment of the spindle fiber
microtubules to the kinetochore proteins at the centromeres.
• The proteins associated with homologous chromosomes bring the
pair close to each other. The tight pairing of the homologous
chromosomes is called synapsis.  The microtubules assembled from centrosomes at opposite poles of the
cell grow toward the middle of the cell.

• In synapsis, the genes on the chromatids of the homologous

At the end of prometaphase I, each tetrad is attached to microtubules
chromosomes are precisely aligned with each other. from both poles, with one homologous chromosome attached at one pole
and the other homologous chromosome attached to the other pole.
• An exchange of chromosome segments between non-sister
homologous chromatids occurs and is called crossing over. The nuclear membrane has broken down entirely.
 17/03/2018

METAPHASE
During metaphase I, the homologous chromosomes are
arranged in the center of the cell with the kinetochores facing
opposite poles. • In telophase I, the separated chromosomes arrive at opposite
The orientation of each pair of homologous chromosomes at poles. The remainder of the typical telophase events may or
the centre of the cell is random. may not occur depending on the species. In some organisms,
ANAPHASE 1 the chromosomes decondense and nuclear envelopes form
In anaphase I, the spindle fibers pull the linked chromosomes
around the chromatids in telophase I.
apart. The sister chromatids remain tightly bound together at the
centromere. It is the chiasma connections that are broken in
anaphase I as the fibers attached to the fused kinetochores pull the
homologous chromosomes apart

RANDOMISATION OF HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOME Meiosis II

 17/03/2018

 In prophase II, if the chromosomes decondensed in

telophase I, they condense again.
If nuclear envelopes were formed, they fragment into
vesicles. The centrosomes duplicated during interkinesis
move away from each other toward opposite poles, and new
spindles are formed.
In prometaphase II, the nuclear envelopes are completely
broken down, and the spindle is fully formed.
Each sister chromatid forms an individual kinetochore that
attaches to microtubules from opposite poles.
Meiosis and mitosis are both preceded by one round of DNA replication; however, meiosis includes
two nuclear divisions. The four daughter cells resulting from meiosis are haploid and genetically
distinct. The daughter cells resulting from mitosis are diploid and identical to the parent cell.

A diploid cell has ________ the number of chromosomes as a haploid

In metaphase II, the sister chromatids are maximally cell. (a) one-fourth (b) one-half (c) twice (d) four times
condensed and aligned at the center of the cell.
An organism’s traits are determined by the specific combination of
In anaphase II, the sister chromatids are pulled apart by the inherited ________. (a) cells (b) genes (c) proteins (d) chromatids
spindle fibers and move toward opposite poles.
In telophase II, the chromosomes arrive at opposite poles Chromosomes are duplicated during what portion of the cell cycle?
and begin to decondense. Nuclear envelopes form around the
chromosomes. (a) G1 phase (b) S phase (c) prophase (d) prometaphase
Cytokinesis separates the two cells into four genetically
unique haploid cells. At this point, the nuclei in the newly Separation of the sister chromatids is a characteristic of which stage
produced cells are both haploid and have only one copy of of mitosis? (a)prometaphase (b). metaphase (c). anaphase (d)
the single set of chromosomes. telophase
 17/03/2018

Separation of the sister chromatids is a characteristic of which stage

of mitosis? (a) prometaphase (b). metaphase (c). anaphase (d)
telophase

Which eukaryotic cell-cycle event is missing in binary fission?

(a) cell growth (b) DNA duplication (c) mitosis (d) cytokinesis

FtsZ proteins direct the formation of a ________ that will eventually

form the new cell walls of the daughter cells.
(a) contractile ring (b) cell plate (c) cytoskeleton (d) septum