SOUTH EASTERN KENYA UNIVERSITY References

Halliday and resnik; (1988-). Fundamentals of

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES physics. (3rd ed.) N.Y. John Wiley.
SPH 101: MECHANICS Mahendra K Verma; (2005). Introduction to
FIRST YEAR 1ST SEMESTER JAN, 2013 Mechanics. University Press.
Daniel Kleppner; (200). An Introduction to
Credit Hours: 3 Mechanics; MC Graw Hill Science Engineering
Lecturer: Mr. Ngumbi, P.K 1973-London
Objective Nelkon and parker; (1995). Advanced Level
To provide fundamental aspects of mechanics Physics. (7th Ed.). Oxford: Heineman.
and illustrate some of its basic phenomena U.S Department of war; (2005). Applied Physics
For Airplane Mechanics. University Press.
Expected Learning Outcomes
By the end of the course, the learner should be
able to:
• Describe unit and dimension of
measurements and error analysis
• State and prove the Newton’s laws of
motion and state their applications in real
life systems
• Explain the conservation of energy and
momentum and static equilibrium
• Describe the plane motion and projectiles

Course Assessment
Examination - 70%
CATs - 30%
Total - 100% -

1
COURSE CONTENT 3.2 Newton’s laws of motion and their
1.0 Introduction application.
1.1. Units and Dimensions 3.3 Linear momentum and its conservation.
1.1.1. Definitions 3.4 Free body diagrams and analysis
1.1.2. Basic units and dimensions 3.5 Moments, Couples, Torque and
1.1.3. Dimensional analysis Applications.
1.1.4. Examples 3.6 Center of gravity.
1.2. Scalar and Vectors 3.7 Work, Energy, Power, Principle of
1.2.1. Definition conservation of energy.
1.2.2. Vector notation and 3.8 Elastic and inelastic collision
representation 3.9 Circular motion: Angular velocity,
1.2.3. Position vectors angular acceleration, rotation with
1.2.4. Unit vectors constant angular acceleration.
1.2.5. Vector operations 3.10 Rotational motion of a rigid body about
1.3. Composition and resolution of coplanar a fixed axis and Moments of inertia.
vector 3.11 Angular momentums and its
conservation. Rotational kinetic energy.
2.0 Part II: Motion in 1-D and 2-D 3.12 Hydrostatics
2.1 Introduction 3.12.1 Pressure in a fluid.
2.2 Rectilinear motion 3.12.2 Pressure gauges
2.2.1 Distance and displacement 3.12.3 Archimedes Principle.
2.2.2 Speed and velocity 3.13 Hydrodynamics
2.2.3 Position-time graphs 3.13.1 Equation of continuity
2.2.4 Velocity-time graphs 3.13.2 Bernouille’s Principle
2.2.5 Acceleration 3.13.3 Applications (Fluid flow, Pitot
2.2.6 Relative velocity tube, sprays)
2.3 Kinematic equations
2.4 Free fall
2.5 Projectile motion

3.0 Part III: Dynamics and Statics

3.1 Force, Impulse.

2
AN OVERVIEW: INTRODUCTION k-kilogram
Definition of physics s-second
Physics is defined as the study of the laws that whereby four quantities are added to the mks
determine the structure of the universe with the system to produce the standard reference
reference to matter and energy of which it system.
consists. The table below compares the first 3 basic
quantities in four stems
Definition of mechanics
Quantity System
It is due study of the interactions between matter SI mks scg Imperial
MASS kg kg g Poud (lb)
and the forces acting on matter.
LENGTH m m cm Foot (ft)
There are three broad classes of mechanics TIME s s s second (s)
dealing with solid bodies.
Kinematics- the study of motion of bodies Measurements and Quantities
without reference to the forces causing the In physics we usually deal with measurable
motion quantities, for these reasons unless dealing with
Dynamics- the study of motion concerned with counting of parameters you will be dealing with
the action of forces resulting in a change in quantities.
momentum. A QUANTITY = A NUMBER + UNIT
Statics- the study concerned with actional Under the SI system of units, the following are
forces where there is the change in momentum. the seven basic quantities measures
i.e. when a body is in equilibrium.
Quantity SI Unit Abbre
Physics and Units 1 Mass Kilogramme kg
It is a systematic study of the laws. It is very 2 Length Metre m
closely connected to measurements 3 Time Second s
For accurate reproducible measurements, a 4 Electric current Ampere A
frame of reference is needed i.e. agreed upon by 5 Thermodynamic Kelvin K
every one. temperature
These standard reference points are called units. 6 Luminous intensity Candela cd
International standard system currently in use is 7 Amount of mole mol
the SI Units system. It is an adaptation of the substance
earlier mks system
m-metre

3
Derived Quantities When we express the derived quantities, we
Any other quantities which could be express them (usually) in terms of M, L & T all
encountered can be derived from the basic SI Mass  = M 1 L0T 0
units. They are hence referred to as derived together e.g. Length = M 0 L1T 0
quantities and have derived units. Time  = M 0 L0T 1
These abbreviations can also be used to
Basic Units and Dimensions represent the general unit of the quantity in
The term dimension can be used in two senses; question.
In the first sense, it refers to the basic SI Hence M  kg , g , lb
quantities; mass, length, time, ….. etc.
Thus Area = Length
2

In this sense it is said that when any derived unit

depends on the rth power of the basic unit it is Area  = Length 2  = L2  = L2 = L2
said to be of r dimensions in the basic unit. From this expression we should see that the
Example magnitude of area is independent of mass and
Area = Length  Length time and depends only on the square of the unit
Therefore it is said,
= Length 2 of length used.

area has two dimensions in length. Volume  = Length3  = L3  = L3 = L3

Volume = Length  Length  Length
= Length 3 Therefore Definition of dimensions

it is said, area has three dimensions in length. The dimensions of a physical quantity are the

We have a special type of notation with units powers which the basic units must be raised to

and dimension involving i.e. QUANTITY  express the quantity completely.

which refers to units and or its dimensions in

Note on parameters ratios
terms of the basic units. This is denoted in the
Certain physical quantities are measured by the
following way for the first three basic quantities
ratio of two similar quantities i.e. the two
which we denote by the three abbreviations M,
similar quantities have the same units and thus
L & T.
Mass  = M the quantity has no units or dimensions e.g.

Length = L  , angle ( rads ) =

s arc length
=
i.e. Time  = T r radians
Strain, specific gravity, Poisson’s ratio etc

4
The Dimension of Equation (Dimensional represents speed, a acceleration, and t a
analysis) time interval.
This is the relation stating the units or 1
2. Given that the equation y = x + k x 3 is
dimensions of a derived quantity in terms of the 2
basic units or dimensions. The dimension of dimensionally correct and that y and x
equation of a quantity is found by expressing it have the dimensions of length, determine
is in terms of other physical quantities whose the dimensions of k .
dimensions are known.e.g. 3. Hooke’s law states that the force, F, in a
dis tan ce , d spring extended by a length x is given
Velocity , v =
time , t d by F = −k x . From Newton’s second
or v =
t
law F = ma , where m is the mass and
So, the dimensions of v ,
a is the acceleration, calculate the
v  = d  = L = LT −1
t  T  dimension of the spring constant k .
4. The coefficient of thermal expansion, 
of a metal bar of length l whose length
velocity , v
acceleration , a =
time , t v expands by l when its temperature
or a =
t
increases by T is given by
So, the dimensions of a ,
l =  l T . What are the dimensions of

a  = v  = LT  = LT −2
−1
?
t  T 
5. Suppose we are told that the acceleration
In the SI system L  m , T  s . So, in terms of
a of a particle moving with uniform
basic units
speed v in a circle of radius r is
v  = ms −1
proportional to some power of r, say rn,
a  = ms −2 and some power of v, say vm. How can
In this way we can determine the units of ant we determine the values of n and m?
quantity which can be expressed by a
mathematical relation. Exercise .
Determine whether the following equations are
Example dimensionally correct.
1. Show that the expression v = at is (a) The volume of a cylinder of radius r and
dimensionally correct, where v length h., V =  r 2 h .

5
(b) v = u + a t for an object with initial speed u,
(constant) acceleration a and final speed v after Mathematical Notation of Vectors
a time t. A vector being a quantity with magnitude and

(c) E = m c 2 where E is energy, m is mass and c direction, it can be denoted in two ways
Graphically – using diagrams
is the speed of light.
Symbolically – using notation
(d) c = f  , where c is the speed of light,  is
Since a vector also includes direction, it is
the wavelength and f is the frequency
important to note that direction can only be
given with respect to a system of reference.
NB: Dimensional analysis is a way of checking
This system is commonly referred to as the
that equations might be true. It does not prove
coordinate system.
that they are definitely correct.
NB: (i) vector notation
A vector may be denoted by a variable. There
are special ways of writing these variables. A
SCALARS AND VECTORS →

Definitions vector quantity A is written as A or A . For our

At this level quantities can be broadly separated →

purpose we shall denoted vector A as A .
into two types
Scalars:- a scalar is a quantity which has
(a) Graphic Vectors I
magnitude but without direction.
Graphical description of vector requires a frame
(e.g. Mass = 5 kg, Length = 1m or Time = 2.5 s)
of reference especially for the vector direction.
Vectors:-a vector is a quantity which has both
The frame of reference is the coordinate system.
magnitude as well as direction.
There are three common types:
Consider length which is a scalar (e.g. length of
1 m has no direction). If we travel or take this Cartesian system ( x , y , z )

length in a particular direction, then it becomes Cylindrical polar system ( x ,  , z )

a vector. Examples of vector include; spherical polar system (r ,  ,  )

Displacement- distance travelled in a particular We will only use the x , y , z system and
direction e.g. if you travel 100 metres east or in although it is 3-dimensional, one dimension
any other direction this is a vector. corresponds to a given direction or along a
Velocity- the rate of change of displacement straight line and two dimensions correspond to a
Acceleration- the rate of change of velocity plane.
e.t.c.

6
 In graphical method, a vector is represented by a It is a orthogonal system i.e. all the axes are at
line with an arrow at one end. The line is right angles to each other.
usually proportional to the magnitude of the We can measure length along any of the axis as
vector and the arrow points in the direction in long as we know what units we are using. The
which the vector is acting. E.g. if we have a direction of the vector is specified by the use of
displacement of 1 m due north, then certain free vectors called unit vectors. It is
diagrammatically the can be written as; called a unit vector because it has a unit
magnitude i.e. they all have magnitudes of one,
1. These are vector of unit magnitude along
N
Length ∝ 1 m each of the axes.
z
W
E
k̂
S
Distance between consecutive
divisions ≡ 1 unit of length
There are two types of vectors x
î
Free vector – These are non-localised vectors
which are the same wherever they are. They can ĵ
y
be moved around in a given coordinate system.
There are three unit vectors in the
Bound vectors – (Also called localised
x , y , z system i.e.
vectors). They are vectors which are measured
î - unit vector along the + ve x-axis direction
from a particular reference point e.g. from the
origin of the coordinate system.
ĵ - unit vector along the + ve y-axis direction
(b) Graphic Vectors II
The x , y , z coordinate system is as shown k̂ - unit vector along the + ve z-axis direction
below.
z Note: The negative (− ve ) unit vectors denote
unit vectors along − ve direction of the
y
respective axis.

→
x
1cm O origin (c) Position Vector r
y

7
There is a localised position vector which is the
vector or a point in space P measured with Symbolic Analysis
respect to the x , y , z coordinate system from Components of a Vector.
the origin O (0 , 0 , 0) . Let P have the coordinates Still refering to the same diagram of OP, we can

( x1 , y1 , z1 ) where x1 , y1 and z1 are all go from O to P by travelling along or parallel to

the coordinate axis i.e. by travelling distance;
variables.
x - along the x-axis
In diagrammatic form it’s represented as;
y - along the y-axis
z1 z - along the z-axis
C P
The components of a vector are the parts of the
vector travelled along a particular coordinate
axis. In this way a three dimensional vector in
A
x1 x , y , z coordinate system is said to have x , y
O
and z components. i.e.
y1 B →
the x - components of r = x1
The position of point P is denoted by vector OP, →

→ the y - components of r = y1
OP . OP denotes the line segment from O to P
→
while the arrow gives the direction. From the the z - components of r = z1
diagram we can go from O to P if we follow the so that we can also describe the component in
→ → → → the following i.e. by using a subscript. e.g.
path OA+ AB + BC = OP
→

We can also say that in terms of the unit vectors the x - components of r = rx
→
î , ĵ and k̂ : the y - components of r = r y
→
OA = x1iˆ →
the z - components of r = rz
→
AB = y1 ĵ →
so that it is also possible to write r as
→
BC = z1 k̂ → 
 r = rx î + r y ĵ + rz k̂ 
→
OP = x1 î + y1 ĵ + z1 k̂
Consider in 2-dimensions where P has
The position vector is generally denoted (in coordinates P ( x1 , y1 )
→
→

most books as r )  r = x1 î + y1 ĵ + z1 k̂ 

8
 → → →
In 2-dimension, if OP makes an angle  with
OP = OA+ AP
the x-axis, then from trigonometry, it should be
= x1 î + y1 ĵ
apparent that,
→ → →
But OP = r so, r = x1 î + y1 ĵ ry y1 r
Sin  = Sin  = Cos  = x
r or r and r or

Magnitude of Vectors x1
Cos  =
r
We have looked at the magnitude of the part of
From which we get if we make the coordinate
a position vector. These are the x1 , y1 and z1 .
variable the subject, x1 = r Cos  and
We can now define the magnitude of the total
y1 = r Sin 
position vector. The magnitude of OP is simply
the distance travelled from O to P. i.e. It is So in 2-dimension we can further describe the
→ →
denoted by OP = OP  modulus of a vector position vector r in terms of  as;
→ → → 
 r = rx î + r y ĵ 
→ →
As OP = r , then OP = OP or r = r
→
Using Pythagoras theorem, we can find the
r = r Cos  iˆ + r Sin  ˆj
→

( )
magnitude of r in both 3- and 2-dimensions. →
r = r Cos  iˆ + Sin  ˆj
In 3-dimensions
→ → → →
OP = OA+ AB + BC Unit Vectors

 
→ 1
OP = x12 + y12 + z12 2 Vector quantities often are expressed in terms of
unit vectors. A unit vector is a dimensionless

r= x + y +z
2
1
2
1
2
1  1
2
vector having a magnitude of exactly 1. Unit
vectors are used to specify a given direction and
In 2-dimensions have no other physical significance. They are
1
→  → 2 → 2 → 2 2 used solely as a convenience in describing a
OP =  OA + AB + BC 
  direction in space. It is usually denoted by a hat
→
→
OP = r
( ) or caret. E.g. the unit vector A = Â . If a
But
→ →
→ vector has a unit A i.e A = 1 , then it is also a
OA = x1
→
unit vector.
AP = y1
and

so, 
r = x12 + y12  1
2

9
 →
Grouping similar components and operating on
e.g. if r = rx î + ry ĵ , then the unit vector r̂ is
them accordingly
→
r gives
defined as r̂ = →

A+ B = ( Ax + B x )î + (A y + B y ) ĵ + ( Az + B z )k̂ S
→ →
r
→
r =r ubstituting into both LHS and RHS of
so as
→
components in terms of component gives

C x î + C y ĵ + C z k̂ = ( A x + B x )î + (A y + B y ) ĵ + ( Az + B z )
r
r̂ =
then r

For the equality to be true, the coefficients of î ,

Equality of Two Vectors
ĵ and k̂ must be equal. i.e.
For many purposes, two vectors A and B may
C x = Ax + B x
be defined to be equal if they have the same
magnitude and point in the same direction. That C y = Ay + B y
→ →
is, A = B only if A = B and if A and B point in C z = Az + B z

the same direction along parallel lines. This

property allows us to move a vector to a Example
position parallel to itself in a diagram without A particle undergoes three consecutive
affecting the vector.

(
displacements: d1 = 15iˆ + 29 ˆj + 10kˆ cm , )

(
d 2 = 23iˆ − 14 ˆj − 5kˆ cm and)

( )
Vector Operations
d 3 = − 13iˆ + 15 ˆj cm . Find the components of
Let there be vectors
→ the resultant displacement and its magnitude.s
A = Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az k̂
→
B = B x î + B y ĵ + B z k̂ Example
→
→
A vector a = miˆ − 3 ˆj + 2kˆ and
C = C x î + C y ĵ + C z k̂
→
Then the following are defined b = (2 + n)iˆ − 6 ˆj + nk . Find the values of m
Addition: → →
and n such that 2 a = b .
→ → →
If C = A+ B ......................................................1
Then, Subtraction:
→ →
A+ B = A x î + A y ĵ + Az k̂ + B x î + B y ĵ + B z k̂ If
→ → →
C = A − B .........................................................2

10
Note: subtraction of a vector is the addition of a C z = Az
negative vector
→ → →
So we can rewrite as C = A + − B Dot product (scalar product)
The dot product between two vectors
The negative of a vector has the same
magnitude as the +ve vector only that it acts on A and B is denoted as A • B and is defined in

the opposite direction. i.e. the unit vectors are – the following ways;
ve. In component form,

( )
→ → Definition 1
A − B = A x î + A y ĵ + Az k̂ − B x î + B y ĵ + B z k̂
A • B = AB Cos 
Grouping similar components on RHS gives
AB - the scalar and magnitude of vector A and
A − B = ( A x − B x )î + (A y − B y ) ĵ + ( Az − B z )k̂
→ →

B
Substituting into (2) in component form gives
A - the magnitude of vector A
C x î + C y ĵ + C z k̂ = ( A x − B x )î + (A y − B y ) ĵ + ( Az − B z )k̂
B - the magnitude of vector B

Which is only true if  - the angle between A and B

C x = Ax − B x Let us apply this definition to the unit vector.

C y = Ay − B y iˆ .iˆ = iˆ iˆ cos 

C z = Az − B z In this case î = 1 (since unit vectors have a unit

magnitude.
Multiplication of a vector by a scalar.
→
If C = A............................................................3 In terms of the angle  between î and î in this
Where  is a scalar case are parallel vectors; such that the angle
In component form we can write (3) as between them is zero (0). i.e  = 00 .
(
C x î + C y ĵ + C z k̂ =  A x î + A y ĵ + Az k̂ ) So, iˆ .iˆ = 1cos  or iˆ .iˆ = 1 (since cos 00 = 1 )
Simplifying the RHS gives iˆ .ˆj = iˆ ˆj cos 
C x î + C y ĵ + C z k̂ = A x î + A y ĵ + Az k̂
so, from the sketch,  = 900 ,
For this expression to be true, the components ˆˆ
So, i . j = 0 or (since cos 900 = 0 )
on either side must be equal to
ˆ ˆ
It also follows that i .k = 0
C x = A x

C y = A y

11
It should be apparent that the dot product of any
two perpendicular unit vector is zero.

Conversely,  iˆ .iˆ = ˆj.jˆ = kˆ .kˆ = 1

Definition 2

A• B = (A X i + A y j + Az k )• (B X i + B y j + B z k )
→ →

= AX i • (BX i + By j + Bz k ) + AY j • (BX i + By j + Bz k )
+ Az k • (BX i + By j + Bz k )

= A X B X (i • i ) + A X B y (i • j ) + A X B z (i • k ) +
AY B X ( j • i ) + A y B y ( j • j ) + Az B z ( j • k ) +
Az B X (k • i ) + Az B y (k • j ) + Az B z (k • k )

= AX BX (i • i ) + Ay By ( j • j ) + Az Bz (k • k )
= AX BX + Ay By + Az Bz

Examples

12
Motion in 1-D and 2-D
Introduction Types of motion
A body is said to be in motion if it is • Linear motion: A body is said to be in
continuously changing its position w.r.t the linear motion if it moves in a straight line
surrounding. E.g. a running athlete, earth (rectilinear motion) or along a curved path
rotating round the sun. (curvilinear motion).
In our study of motion, we describe the moving • Rotational motion: Occurs when a body
object as a particle (point mass) regardless of its stays in one place and turns round about a
size. This just means that the object in question fixed axis. e.g. a fan, earth’s rotation.
is small in size compared to the distance that it • Oscillatory: This is when a body moves to
moves for the times of interest. and fro about a mean position e.g. a
The motion of a particle is completely known if pendulum.
the particle’s position in space is known at all
times. Distance and Displacement
A particles position is the location of the particle Distance is a scalar quantity representing the
w.r.t a chosen reference point which is interval between two points. Measured in metre
considered to be the origin of the coordinate
Displacement is a vector quantity and can be
system.
defined as distance between the initial position
We shall describe motion in terms of space and
x i to a final position x f of an object. It must be
time while ignoring the agents that caused that
motion. This portion of classical mechanics is the shortest interval connecting the initial and
called kinematics. final points, which is a straight line.
Motion in one dimension (linear motion) and
Changes in position are given by changes in the
motion in two dimensions (projectile motion)
value of x and written as x .
are the subtitles of kinematics they are also
The change in coordinate x is the
called as 1D and 2D kinematics. Some
mathematical symbols, equations and graphics displacement of the particle and occurs over

will be used to show the relations of basic time interval t .

concepts. If a particle is moving, we can easily determine

its change in position as it moves from an initial
position x i to a final position x f .

13
Its displacement is given by x f − xi and written Average velocity for a particle for the ratio of

as x = x f − xi the particle’s displacement x to the time

interval t during which that displacement
From this definition we see that x is positive if
occurred: i.e
x f is greater than x i and negative if x f is less
x x f − x i
than x i . Displacements have units of length v= =
t t 2 − t1
(meters) Average velocity tell us about the average
behavior of a body during the given time
Speed and Velocity interval.
Speed
Speed can be defined as “how fast something Instantaneous velocity is the velocity a body at
moves” or it can be explained more a given instant of time. It is gotten by the
scientifically as “the distance covered in a unit gradient to the curve at the point of interest.
of time” or rate of change of distance. It is a It is given by
scalar quantity. dx
v=
dis tan ce, s dt
speed = SI is m / s
time, t In the language of calculus, instantaneous
velocity is given by the limit
Velocity x dx
v = lim = .
t →0 t dt
This is the speed in a given direction or simply
the “rate of change of displacement”. This is a derivative of x w.r.t t

Given that the displacement of a body is x

and the time taken is t , then; Examples

displacemet , x 1. A particle moves along the x axis.

x
velocity, v = or v =
change in time, t t Its x coordinate varies with time according

SI is m / s to the expression x = −4t + 2t 2 where x is

NB: velocity can be: in meters and t is in seconds.

Positive i.e. when the body moves away from (a) Determine the displacement of the

the reference point or origin particle in the time intervals

Negative i.e. when the body moves towards the t = 0 s to t = 1s and t = 1s to t = 3s

reference point or origin (b) Calculate the average velocity during

these two time intervals.
Average and instantaneous velocity

14
 Position
II

IV
(c) Find the instantaneous velocity of the
particle at t = 2.5s III

Time

The gradient of a position –time graph gives

2. A car travels 17 km due east, then does a U-
velocity/speed.
turn, and travels 23 km due west.
From the above graphs, three cases arise:
(a) What total distance has the car traveled?
(b) What is the total displacement of the car?
Case I
(c) If the entire trip took 2.0 hours, determine
For every increase in time t , x = 0 . Therefore
the average speed of the car.
the gradient is zero hence velocity v = 0 .
(d) If the entire trip took 2.0 hours, determine
This means the body is at rest/ stationary.
the average velocity of the car

3. If a car moves 150m to the east and then

Case II
70m to the west, calculate the average speed
For every increase in time t , x is positive
and velocity of the car if the travel takes10
and constant. Therefore the gradient hence
seconds.
velocity v is constant and positive.
This means that the body is moving at a
Position – Time Graph
constant speed, away from the reference
Consider the position-time graphs below;
point/origin

Case III
For every increase in time t , x is negative
and constant. Therefore the gradient hence
velocity v is constant and negative.

15
This means that the body is moving at a
constant speed, towards the reference
point/origin.

NB: The values of velocity in case I, case II and

case III is the average velocity of the body
during the time of study.

Case IV
For every increase in time t , x cannot be
The average acceleration of the particle is
clearly defined for the whole period of motion.
defined as the ratio of change in velocity v x to
The gradient hence velocity can only be
obtained for a particular instant of time by the time interval t during which the change

obtaining the tangent to the curve at that point v x v x f − v x i

occurred. a x = =
of interest. t t f − ti

This is the so called instantaneous velocity

It is given by; Velocity – Time graph
x dx Consider the velocity-time graphs below;
vx  lim =
 t → 0 t dt
Velocity

Acceleration II
In most occurrences, the velocity of a body
I
changes while the body is moving. When this
occurs with time, the body is said to be IV
accelerating.
III
Consider a particle moving along the x -axis at
Time
a velocity v xi at time t i and a velocity v xf at
The gradient of a velocity – time graph gives
time t f .
acceleration.
From the above graphs, three cases arise:

16
 vx dvx
ax  lim =
Case I  t →0 t dt

For every increase in time t , v = 0 . Therefore

the gradient is zero hence acceleration, a = 0 . Example
The position of a particle moving along the x -
This means the body is moving at a constant
speed. axis depends on the time as per the following
equation for four seconds
t4
Case II x = 4t 2 − 2t 3 +
4
For every increase in time t , v is positive
where x is in meters and t in seconds. Determine
and constant. Therefore the gradient hence
it speed and acceleration at 2 seconds.
acceleration a is constant and positive.
This means that the body is accelerating.
Applications of speed - time graph
These can be used in deriving the equations of
Case III
motion (kinematic equations)
For every increase in time t , v is negative
and constant. Therefore the gradient hence
The equations of motion
acceleration a is constant and negative.
In a uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion,
This means that the acceleration of the body is
the variable quantities are time, velocity,
decreasing.
displacement and acceleration. The equations of
motion are simple relations that exist between
NB: The values of acceleration in case I, case II
these quantities.
and case III is the average acceleration of the
The following are the three equations of motion:
body during the time of study.
i. v = u + at
1 2
Case IV ii. x = x 0 + ut + at
2
For every increase in time t , v cannot be
iii. v 2 = u 2 + 2a ( x − x 0 )
clearly defined for the whole period of motion.
The gradient hence acceleration can only be
Derivation of the First Equation of Motion
obtained for a particular instant of time by
Consider a particle moving along a straight line
obtaining the tangent to the curve at that point
with uniform acceleration 'a'. At t = 0, let the
of interest.
particle be at A and u be its initial velocity and
This is the so called instantaneous acceleration.
time t, v be its final velocity.
It is given by;

17
 velocity v − u x − x0
Acceleration(a ) = = = ………………………. (b)
time t t
v−u v+u
a= Averagevelocity = …………………. (c)
t 2
v = u + at …………………… (i) From equation (b) and equation (c) we get,
x − x0 u + u + at
= …………………...….. (d)
t 2
Multiplying equation (a) and equation (d) we
get,
v 2 = u 2 + 2a(x − x 0 ) …………… (iii)
Second Equation of Motion
total displacement Derivations of Equations of Motion
Average velocity =
totaltime (Graphically)
x − x0 First Equation of Motion
= …….1
t
Average velocity can also be written as
y
v+u
Averagevelocity = …….2 v B
2
From equations (1) and (2)
velocity

x − x0 v + u
= ……3
t 2
The first equation of motion is v = v0 + at u C
A
Substituting the value of v in equation (3), we
get D
x
x − x0 u + u + at O time t
=
t 2
1 2 Consider an object moving with a uniform
x = x 0 + ut + at ……… (ii)
2 velocity in a straight line. Let it be given a
uniform acceleration ‘ a ’ at time t = 0 when its
Third Equation of Motion initial velocity is u . As a result of the
The first equation of motion is v = u + at . acceleration, its velocity increases to v (final
v − u = at . .. .. .. ……………………….…. (a) velocity) in time t . Slope of the v - t graph gives
total displacement the acceleration of the moving object.
Average velocity =
totaltime

18
 BC v − u displacement' x − x0 ' in time‘t’ is given by the
Thus, acceleration = slope = AB = =
AC t − 0
area enclosed by the v - t graph.
v−u
a=
t
v = u + at ………….. (i)

Second Equation of Motion

Let u be the initial velocity of an object and ' a '
the acceleration produced in the body. The
displacement in time t is given by the area S = area of the trapezium OABD.
enclosed by the velocity-time graph for the time
interval 0 to t.
=
1
(b1 + b2 )h
2

=
1
(OA + BD )AC
2

=
1
(u + v )t ………… 1
2
But
v−u v−u
a= or t =
t a
Substituting the value of t in equation (1) we
get,
Distance travelled S = area ABDO of the
v 2 = u 2 + 2a(x − x 0 ) …………………… (iii)
trapezium
S = area of rectangle ACDO + area of DABC
1 Examples
= OD  OA + BC  AC
2 1. A jet lands on an aircraft carrier at 63m/s.
a) What is its acceleration if it stops in 2 secs.
= t u +
1
(v − u )  t
2 b) What is the displacement of the plane while
(v = u + at in equation (i) of motion; v - u = at) it is stopping.
1 2 Solutions
x = x 0 + ut + at ……………………….. (ii)
2

Third Equation of Motion

Let ' u ' be the initial velocity of an object and
‘a’ is the acceleration produced in the body. The

19
 b) A relative to B
2. A car traveling at a constant speed of 45m/s
passes a trooper hidden behind a billboard. a) Here we find the velocity that B appears to
One second after the speeding car passes be moving at when A is the frame of
the billboard, the trooper sets out from the reference (i.e to someone in A)
billboard to catch it, accelerating at a Car B is in the opposite direction of A
constant rate of 3m/s2. How long does it hence its velocity is negative.
take her to overtake the car? BV A = −V B − V A = −(V A + V B )
b) Here we find the velocity that A appears to
Relative Velocity be moving at when B is the frame of
Relative velocity: Is the velocity of one object reference (i.e to someone in B)
relative to another’s point of view Car B is in the opposite direction of A
Reference Frame: The frame of reference for hence its velocity is negative.
the observer’s point of view - the observer will V = V A − (−V B ) = +(V A + V B )
A B
always be at rest in his/her frame of reference.

Relative velocity of an object moving relative

Example
to an observer is determined by subtracting
vectors. i.e.

Free Falling Bodies

A freely falling object is any object moving
Consider two cars, car A moving at velocities freely under the influence of gravity alone,
VA to the right and car B moving at VB to the regardless of its initial motion. Objects thrown
left. upward or downward and those released from
VA VB rest are all falling freely once they are released.
VA VA Any freely falling object experiences
Determine the velocity of
acceleration directed downward, regardless of
a) B relative to A
its initial motion.

20
 (a) Time at which the stone reaches its
If we neglect air resistance and assume that the maximum height,
free-fall acceleration does not vary with altitude (b) Maximum height,
over short vertical distances, then the motion of (c) Time at which the stone returns to the
a freely falling object moving vertically is height from which it was thrown,
equivalent to motion in one dimension under (d) Velocity of the stone at this instant
constant acceleration. The equations of motion
developed for objects moving with constant Solution
acceleration can be applied. a) Initial velocity=20 m/s
Final velocity=0
Down ward To calculate the time t B at which the
motion stone reaches maximum height, we use
equation
i. v = v0 + gt
vB = vo − gt
1 2
ii. y = y 0 + v0 t + gt 20.0
2 tB = = 2.04 s
9.80
iii. v 2 = v02 + 2 g ( y − y 0 ) b)
1 2
y max = y B + v 0 t − gt
Upward motion 2
i. v = v0 − gt
2
(
= (20  2.04) + 9.8  (2.04) = 20.4m
1 2
)
1 2
ii. y = y 0 − v0 t + gt
2 c) When the stone is back at the height
iii. v = v − 2 g ( y − y0 )
2 2
0 from which it was thrown the y
coordinate is again zero.
Examples yst = y A + v0t −
2
1
2
(
gt = (20t ) − 9.8t 2 = 0
1 2
)
1. A stone thrown from the top of a building is
t (20 − 4.9t ) = 0
given an initial velocity of 20.0 m/s straight
This is a quadratic equation and so has
upward. The building is 50.0 m high, and
two solutions One solution is t=0
the stone just misses the edge of the roof on
corresponding to the time the stone
its way down, as shown in Figure below.
starts its motion. The other solution is
Using tA=0 as the time the stone leaves the
t=4.08s which is the solution we are
thrower’s hand at position A, determine the;
after.

21
 d) Velocity at t=4.08s
v = vo + gt = 20 − (9.8  4.08) = 20.0m / s 5. A stone is dropped from the top of a 95 m
building. A second stone is dropped 0.75 s
v 2 = v02 − 2 g ( y − y0 ) but displacement at
later. How far from the ground is the second
point of throw is zero. Hence
stone when the first stone hits the ground?
v = v0 = 20m / s

6. A student through a stone vertically upwards

+20m/s is the initial velocity of the body
from the base of a 51 m building at the same
moving upwards while -20m/s is the
time a second student on the top of the
velocity of the falling object at the point
building drops a stone. If the two stones
of throw.
collide 12 m from the ground, what was the
The body hits the point of throw with a
initial velocity of the thrown stone?
velocity equal in magnitude but opposite
in direction to the initial velocity.
7. A model rocket is launched straight upward
with an initial speed of 50.0 m/s. It
2. A ball thrown vertically upward is caught by
accelerates with a constant up-ward
the thrower after 20.0 s. Find
acceleration of 2.00 m/s2 until its engines
(a) the initial velocity of the ball and,
stop at an altitude of 150 m.
(b) the maximum height it reaches.
(a) What can you say about the motion of
the rocket after its engines stop?
3. A ball is thrown vertically upward from the
(b) What is the maximum height reached by
ground with an initial speed of 15.0 m/s.
the rocket?
(a) How long does it take the ball to reach
(c) How long after lift-off does the rocket
its maximum height?
reach its maximum height?
(b) What is its maximum height?
(d) How long is the rocket in the air?
(c) Determine the velocity and acceleration
of the ball at t = 2.00 s.
8. How long does it take to travel 3.0 km if you
are traveling at a constant speed of 20 m/s?
4. A ball is dropped from rest from a height h
above the ground. Another ball is thrown
9. A stone thrown vertically downwards from
vertically upward from the ground at the
the top of a building at a velocity of 5.0m/s.
instant the first ball is released. Determine
this stone is observed passing by a window
the speed of the second ball if the two balls
that has a height of 2.0 m. assuming that the
are to meet at a height h/2 above the ground.
22
 bottom of the window is 25 m from the
ground, how long does it take for the stone 17. A lacrosse ball that is thrown straight
to pass by the window upwards reaches a maximum height of 4.5
meters. At what speed was it thrown?
10. A ball is dropped from a very high ledge. vo=9.39 m/s
a) how far does it travel in the first 3.0
seconds? 18. A soccer player heads the ball and sends it
b) how fast is it moving at that time? flying vertically upwards at a speed of 12.0
m/s. How high above the players’ head does
11. A car traveling at 40 m/s hits the brakes the ball travel? d=7.35 m
when it sees a red light 100 meters away.
What acceleration is required in order for 19. A snow ball is thrown upward at a speed of
the car to stop before it reaches the light? 27 m/s. How high (above the position from
12. A ball is thrown upwards at 23 m/s. How which it was thrown) is the snow ball 3.5
far up does it go? seconds later? Also, how fast is it moving at
that time? In what direction? d=34.5m,
13. A ball which is thrown straight upward v=7.3 m/s down
reaches a height of 26 meters. At what
speed was it thrown? How much time 20. A mis-hit golf ball flies straight up in the air.
elapses before it returns to the point where it Exactly 4.0 seconds later it lands right next
was thrown? to the tee. How high up did the golf ball go?
d=19.6 m
14. A rocket speeds up uniformly from 120 m/s
to 160 m/s during a 10 second interval.
21. A cliff diver on an alien planet dives off of
How far does it travel during this time?
a 32 m tall cliff and lands in a sea of
hydrochloric acid 1.20 seconds later.
15. A ball is dropped over the edge of a
Assuming that the extra-terrestrial’s initial
building. How fast is the ball moving 2.0
speed was zero, what is the free fall
seconds after being dropped? v=19.6 m/s
acceleration of this strange world? g = 44.4
m/s2
16. A rock is dropped from a bridge that is 28
meters above a river. How long does it take
the rock to hit the water? t=2.39 s

23
22. Two people are standing on the edge of a between its final position vector rf and its initial
building that is 42 meters high (back on position vector ro:
earth!). One person throws a tennis ball r  r f − ro
straight downward at a speed of 16 m/s. At We define the velocity of a particle during the
the same exact time, the other person throws
time interval r as the displacement of the
a tennis ball straight upward at 16 m/s. How
particle divided by that time interval:
long after the first tennis ball lands will the
r
v=
second tennis ball arrive at the ground? t2- t
t1= (4.985 s) – (1.719 s) = 3.27 s Multiplying or dividing a vector quantity by a
scalar quantity changes only the magnitude of
Motion in two dimensions the vector, not its direction. Because
The position, velocity and acceleration vectors displacement is a vector quantity and the time
Let describe the position of a particle by its interval is a scalar quantity, we conclude that
position vector r, drawn from the origin of some the average velocity is a vector quantity directed
coordinate system to the particle located in the along r .
xy plane, as in Figure below. The instantaneous velocity v is defined as the
r
limit of the average velocity as t
t
approaches zero:
r dr
v = lim =
t →0 t dt
That is, the instantaneous velocity equals the
derivative of the position vector with respect to
At time to the particle is at point A, and at some time. The direction of the instantaneous velocity
later time tf it is at point B. The path from A to vector at any point in a particle’s path is along a
B is not necessarily a straight line. As the line tangent to the path at that point and in the
particle moves from A to B in the time interval direction of motion. The magnitude of the
its position vector changes from ro to rf. instantaneous velocity vector is called the speed.
displacement is a vector quantity and the
displacement of the particle is the difference As a particle moves from one point to another
between its final position and its initial position. along some path, its instantaneous velocity
We now formally define the displacement vector changes from vo at time to to v at time tf .
vector r for the particle as being the difference Knowing the velocity at these points allows us

24
to determine the average acceleration of the (speed) remains constant, as in curved-
particle. path (two-dimensional) motion.
The average acceleration of a particle as it iii. Both the magnitude and the direction of
moves from one position to another is defined as the velocity vector may change
the change in the instantaneous velocity vector simultaneously.
v divided by the time t during which that
change occurred:
v f − v0 v
a= = Projectile Motion
t f − t0 t
Projectile is a body thrown with an initial

When the average acceleration of a particle velocity in the vertical plane and then it moves
changes during different time intervals, it is in two dimensions under the action of gravity.
useful
Its motion is called projectile motion. The path
to
of a projectile is called its trajectory.
define
its Examples: A golf ball in flight, a bullet fired
instant from a rifle and a jet of water from a hole near
aneous acceleration a. the bottom of a water tank.
The instantaneous acceleration a is defined as
r Projectile motion is a case of two-dimensional
the limiting value of the ratio as t
t motion. In dealing with projectile motion two
approaches zero: assumptions are made
v dv
v = lim =
t →0 t dt • The free fall acceleration g is constant over
the range of motion and is directed down
NB: It is important to recognize that various ward
changes can occur when a particle accelerates. • The effect of air resistance is negligible.

With these assumptions, we find that the path of

i. The magnitude of the velocity vector
a projectile is a parabola. To show that the
(the speed) may change with time as in
trajectory of a projectile is a parabola, let us
straight-line (one-dimensional) motion.
choose our reference frame such that the y
ii. The direction of the velocity vector may
direction is vertical and positive is upward.
change with time even if its magnitude
Because air resistance is neglected, we know
25
that a y = − g and that ax = 0 Furthermore, let us This means that the

assume that at t = 0, the projectile leaves the horizontal component of

origin with initial velocity v0 , as shown in velocity does not change

throughout the projectile
Figure 1. The vector v 0 makes an angle  with
motion
the horizontal, where  is the angle at which the
3. Displacement along x- 3. Displacement along
projectile leaves the origin.
axis at any time t y-axis at any time t
1 1 2
x = u xt + axt 2 y = u yt − gt
2 2
 x = u cos  . t 1 2
y = u sin  . t − gt
2

Net velocity at any instant of time t

v x = u cos 

v y = u sin  − gt
From the definitions of the cosine and sine
u v = v x2 + v y2 ………………………………2
functions we have sin  = x and
u
uy  vy 
cos  = therefore, the table below gives a  = tan −1   Where  is the angle that the
u  vx 
summary of y and x components of this motion. resultant velocity (v) makes with the horizontal
at any instant?
X axis Y axis
1. Component of 1. Component of initial Time to reach the maximum height
initial velocity along x- velocity along y- Angular Projectile motion is symmetrical about
axis. axis. the highest point. The object will reach the
u x = u cos  u y = u sin  highest point in time t . At the highest point, the
vertical component of velocity v y becomes equal
2. Velocity component 2. Velocity component
along the x-axis at any along the y-axis at to zero.
instant t. any instant t.
vx = u x + axt vy = u y + ayt

v x = u cos  + 0 = u cos  v y = u sin  − gt

26
v y = u sin  − gt

At t = t, vy = 0

0 = u sin  − gt

u sin 
t=
g

Equation for vertical distance (y component)

1 2
Time of Flight T y = u sin  .t − gt
2
Angular Projectile motion is symmetrical about
T
the highest point. The object will reach the At t = , y = H − and − t = T
2
T
highest point in time t = .At the highest point,
2
1 2
H = u sin  .t − gt
the vertical component of velocity v y becomes 2
equal to zero. Substituting the value of T from equation 3 we
get
v y = u sin  − gt 2
u sin  1  u sin  
H = u sin  . − g  
T g 2  g 
At t = , vy = 0
2
u 2 sin 2  u 2 sin 2 
H= −
T g 2g
0 = u sin  − g.
2

u 2 sin 2 
2u sin  H=
T= ……………………………..3 2g
g

Range R
Range is the total horizontal distance covered
during the time of flight. From equation for
horizontal motion, x = vxt

Maximum height H when t = T , x = R thus;

Let consider the figure below

27
 2u sin  → → →
R = v x T = vu cos  If we start from the origin, r = ro + s
g
→ → →

2u 2 sin  cos  u 2 sin 2 r=s  ro = oiˆ + oˆj

R= =
g g →
r = xi + yi

Using the trigonometric identity  1 

xiˆ + yiˆ = ut cos  iˆ +  ut sin  − gt 2  ˆj
2 sin  cos  = sin 2  2 
This gives x = u t sin 
u 2 sin 2 1 2
R= y = u t sin  − g t ..............................( A)
g 2
From x = ut sin  , making t the subject,
The maximum value of R from Equation above x
t=
u2
u t sin 
is Rmax = . This result follows from the fact
g x
Substituting t = into x = u t sin 
that the maximum value of sin 2 is 1, which ut sin 
2
occurs when 2 = 90 0 . Therefore, R is a u sin  1  x 
y=  − g  
u cos  2  u cos  
maximum when  = 45 0 . In addition, a point
having Cartesian coordinates (R, 0) can be 1 x2
= x tan  − g 2
reached by using either one of two 2 u cos 2 

complementary values of  , such as 75° and 15° x − gx 2

 y = x tan 2
sec 2 
as shown in the figure below. Of course, the 2u

maximum height and time of flight for one of

Equation of Trajectory (Path of projectile)
these values of  are different from the
maximum height and time of flight for the Take the form y = ax − bx 2

complementary value. At any instant t

x
x = u cos  .t or t =
u cos 

1 2
Proof that the path of a projectile is parabolic Also, y = u sin  .t − gt
2
1 2
s = ut + at
2
Substituting for t
s x = ut cos 

1 2
 s y = ut sin  − gt
2

28
 x 1 x2 Initial vertical velocity, vy = 0 m/s
y = u sin  . − g.
u cos  2 (u cos  )2 Vertical acceleration, g = -9.8 m/s2

Unknowns: Time interval, t

From trigonometry, Horizontal displacement, x

2
 1 
  = sec 2  If the initial height is 44 m, then the vertical
 cos  
displacement is y = -44 m
x = vx t and y = vy t + ½ gt2
1 x . sec 
2 2
 y = x. tan  − g. or a. y = vyo t + ½ gt2
2 u2

 1 x 2 . sec 2   2 with vyo = 0, y= ½ gt2

y = (tan  ) −  g . 2
 x ……….1
 2 u 
t2 = 2 y /g = 2 (-44 m)/ -9.8 m = 9.0 m/s2
This equation is of the form y = ax − bx 2 where hence t = 3.0 s
'a' and 'b are constants. This is the equation of a b. x = vx t
parabola. This equation of motion is valid for
 x = (+15 m/s) (3.0 s) = +45 m
launch angles in the range 0    .
2

2. A ball is thrown with a velocity of 4.36 m/s

Examples
at an angle of 81 above the horizontal.
1. A stone is thrown horizontally at +15 m/s
a) How many seconds is the ball in the air?
from the top of a cliff that is 44 m high.
(time of flight)
a) How long does the stone take to
b) How high does the ball go? (maximum
reach the bottom of the cliff?
height)
b) How far from the base of the cliff
c) How far (horizontally) does the ball go?
does the stone strike the ground?
(range)
c) Sketch the trajectory of the stone.

solution
Solution
Known:
Known: Horizontal velocity, vx = +15 m/s
Initial velocity (4.36 m/s, 81 above horizontal
Initial height = 44 m

29
Unknowns: t = (vyf – vyi)/g or t = (0 – 4.31 )/g sec
Time of flight (t)
Maximum vertical displacement (y) Then t = 0.44 s
Range (x)
But… That’s only to go to the maximum height.
Always start by resolving the components of the (Up only!)
original velocity of the projectile. (You’ll need
these every time!) For the entire trip:
2 (t) = 2 (.44 s) = 0.88 s
4.36 m/s
vvi b. Calculate the maximum height reached by
81 the ball.
vh
vxi = 4.36 m/s (cos 81) = 0.682 m/s Let’s use an equation for distance and

vyi = 4.36 m/s (sin 81) = 4.31 m/s acceleration. Remember… this is just “up”. So
only use the 0.44 s for the “up” trip.

a. Calculate the time of flight.

Remember, the ball goes up, then it y = vyi t + ½ gt2

comes down.
y = vyi t + ½ gt2 = (4.31 m/s)

All we need to calculate is the time for the ball (0.44 s) + ½ (-9.8 m/s2) (0.44 s)2

to go up to its maximum height and stop. (The

time it takes to come down is the same!) y = + 0.95 m

Let’s see… the ball starts out going “up” at d. Calculate the range (distance the ball goes

vyi = 4.31 m/s. horizontally)

It’s vyf = 0 m/s Since the ball has only constant velocity
horizontally, simply use:

It’s acceleration is always -9.8 m/s2. x = vx t

x = (0.682 m/s) (0.88 s)

Using g = (vyf – vyi)/t x = 0.60 m

we can solve for t by rearranging the equation to

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Why 0.88 s this time??? It’s for the entire trip!
Up and Down! v=?

5. A projectile is launched at an angle of 30°

Exercise
and lands 60 m away. What was its initial
1. A cannon shoots a cannonball horizontally
speed?
off a cliff at 100m/s. The cannonball hits
the ground 150m away from the base of the
6. A projectile is launched with a speed of 40
cliff. How high was the cliff and with what
m/s at an angle of 60° from the top of a 30
velocity did the cannonball strike the
m cliff. Find the projectile’s
ground?
a. Max height
b. Total time in the air
2. A pelican flying along a horizontal path
drops a fish from a height of 5.4m. The fish
7. A ball is kicked towards a fence from a
travels 8 m horizontally before it hits the
point 32.0 m away. The velocity of the ball
water below. What is the pelican’s initial
as it leaves the kicker’s foot is 20.0 m/s at an
speed?
angle of 37.0 with the horizontal. The top
of the fence is 2.50 m. Air resistance is
3. A rocket is launched at 100m/s at an angle
negligible.
of 55˚ above the ground. Find the total time
Plane of fence
in the air, the rocket’s max height and its
range. 20.0 m/s
37.0 2.50 m

4. A ball is thrown with a speed of 40m/s at an 32.0 m

angle of 30°. When the baseball is thrown
a) Find the time it takes for the ball to
the fielder is 100m from the plate. It is
reach the plane of the fence.
thrown from 1m above the ground and
b) Will the ball hit the fence? If so, how
caught 2.5m above the ground. With what
far from the top of the fence will it hit?
velocity should the fielder have to run to
If not, how far above the fence will it
make the catch? At what distance from the
pass?
plate is the catch made?

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8. The missile is launched at 150/s at an angle
of 35˚ above the horizon from 250 high.
a) Find the max height of the missile.
b) Find the range if it is a direct hit.
c) Find the velocity with which it strikes
the ship.

9. A missile is launched with a velocity of

250m/s at an angle of 45˚ above the ground.
a) Find d for direct hit
b) Show the missile clears the cliff
c) Max height the missile reaches
d) Find the projectile’s velocity at 2sec

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