केवल कार्ाालर्ीन उपर्ोग हे तु

For Official Use Only

भारत सरर्ार - रेल मांत्रालय

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA - MINISTRY OF RAILWAYS

वायरलेस नेटवर्क (वाई-फाई ससस्टम) र्े मूल ससद्ाांत और भारतीय

रेलवे में उनर्े अनुप्रयोग
Fundamentals of wireless networks (Wi-Fi systems)
and their applications in Indian Railways

Maharajpur, Gwalior - 474005

CAMTECH/S/PROJ/2023-24/SP10A 1

वायरलेस नेटवर्क (वाई-फाई ससस्टम) र्े मल

ू
ससद्ाांत और भारतीय रे लवे में उनर्े अनप्र
ु योग
पर हस्तपुस्स्तर्ा

Handbook on
Fundamentals of wireless networks (Wi-Fi
systems) and their applications in Indian Railways

Prepared by: Ashish Telang, SSE (Telecom)/ CAMTECH

Under the guidance of: Sh. Triambak Tiwari, Director (S&T) In-charge/ CAMTECH

End User – For S&T Telecom officials and maintenance staff of Indian Railways

फरवरी 2024/ February 2024

र्ेमटे र्/एस/2023-24/एसपी10A
CAMTECH/S/PROJ/2023-24/SP10A

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Table of Contents
Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................... 2
Disclaimer .................................................................................................................................. 5
1 Chapter ............................................................................................................................... 6
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 6
1.1 What is Wi-Fi? ...................................................................................................................... 6
1.2 Wireless Network .................................................................................................................. 6
1.3 Wireless LAN (WLAN) ........................................................................................................ 6
1.4 Wi-Fi Standards.................................................................................................................... 7
1.4.1 IEEE 802.11 .....................................................................................................................................7
1.4.2 IEEE 802.11b or Wi-Fi 1..................................................................................................................8
1.4.3 IEEE 802.11a or Wi-Fi 2 ..................................................................................................................8
1.4.4 IEEE 802.11g or Wi-Fi 3..................................................................................................................8
1.4.5 IEEE 802.11n or Wi-Fi 4..................................................................................................................8
1.4.6 IEEE 802.11ac or Wi-Fi 5 ................................................................................................................8
1.4.7 IEEE 802.11ax or Wi-Fi 6 ................................................................................................................8
1.4.8 IEEE P802.11be or Wi-Fi 7..............................................................................................................9

2 Chapter ............................................................................................................................. 10
IEEE 802.11 Architecture ....................................................................................................... 10
2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 10
2.1.1 Service set identifier (SSID) ........................................................................................................... 10
2.1.2 Basic service set identifier (BSSID) ............................................................................................... 11

2.2 Wireless LAN Transmission Technology ......................................................................... 11

2.2.1 Microwave Transmission ............................................................................................................... 11
2.2.2 Spread Spectrum Transmission ...................................................................................................... 11
2.2.3 Infrared Transmission ..................................................................................................................... 12

2.3 Components of IEEE 802.11 Architecture ....................................................................... 12

2.3.1 WLAN Stations (STA) ................................................................................................................... 12
2.3.2 Access Point (AP) .......................................................................................................................... 12
2.3.3 Basic Service Set (BSS) ................................................................................................................. 12

2.4 Advantages & Disadvantages of IEEE 802.11 Architecture ........................................... 15

2.4.1 Advantages ..................................................................................................................................... 15
2.4.2 Disadvantages ................................................................................................................................. 15

3 Chapter ............................................................................................................................. 16
Wi-Fi System Components ...................................................................................................... 16
3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 16

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3.2 Wireless Access Point ......................................................................................................... 16

3.2.1 Common types of access point configurations ............................................................................... 16
3.2.2 Key benefits of upgrading to WAPs ............................................................................................... 17
3.2.3 Wireless access point vs. wireless router ........................................................................................ 17
3.2.4 Wireless access point vs. Wi-Fi extender ....................................................................................... 18

3.3 PoE (Power over Ethernet) ................................................................................................ 18

3.3.1 How Does PoE (Power over Ethernet) work? ................................................................................ 18

3.4 PoE Switch........................................................................................................................... 18

3.4.1 PoE Implementation ....................................................................................................................... 19
3.4.2 Why Do You Need the PoE Switch? .............................................................................................. 19

3.5 Benefits of PoE .................................................................................................................... 20

4 Chapter ............................................................................................................................. 21
Wireless Network Security ...................................................................................................... 21
4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 21
4.2 Wireless network security threats ..................................................................................... 21
4.2.1 Piggybacking and Wardriving ........................................................................................................ 21
4.2.2 Wardriving ..................................................................................................................................... 22
4.2.3 Evil Twin Attacks ........................................................................................................................... 22
4.2.4 IP spoofing ..................................................................................................................................... 22
4.2.5 DNS-cache poisoning ..................................................................................................................... 22

4.3 Wireless security protocols ................................................................................................ 22

4.3.1 WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) ................................................................................................... 22
4.3.2 WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access) ...................................................................................................... 23
4.3.3 WPA2 ............................................................................................................................................. 23
4.3.4 WPA3 ............................................................................................................................................. 24

4.4 Best Practices for Wi-Fi Security ...................................................................................... 24

4.4.1 Change the Wi-Fi’s default SSID name ......................................................................................... 24
4.4.2 Change default passwords .............................................................................................................. 25
4.4.3 Enabling Two-Factor Authentication (2FA) .................................................................................. 25
4.4.4 Encrypting Data .............................................................................................................................. 25
4.4.5 Using a Strong Password ................................................................................................................ 25
4.4.6 Using MAC Filtering...................................................................................................................... 25
4.4.7 Disabling SSID Broadcast .............................................................................................................. 26
4.4.8 Enabling WPA3 Security ............................................................................................................... 26
4.4.9 Disabling Remote Administration .................................................................................................. 26
4.4.10 Using a Firewall ............................................................................................................................. 26

5 Chapter ............................................................................................................................. 27
Wi-Fi system Installation & Troubleshooting ........................................................................ 27
5.1 Hardware overview of Access Point (D-Link DAP-2610) ............................................... 27
5.2 Basic Installation................................................................................................................. 28

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5.2.1 Method 1 - PoE with PoE Switch or Router ................................................................................... 28

5.2.2 Method 2 - PoE without PoE Switch or Router .............................................................................. 28

5.3 Installation Considerations ................................................................................................ 29

5.4 Troubleshooting Wireless Network................................................................................... 30
5.4.1 Can connect to the network but cannot retrieve data ...................................................................... 32
5.4.2 Device Disconnecting from the Network Intermittently ................................................................ 32

5.5 Troubleshooting Access Point ............................................................................................ 32

6 Chapter ............................................................................................................................. 33
Wi-Fi at Railway Stations (RailWire) ..................................................................................... 33
6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 33
6.2 RailWire .............................................................................................................................. 33
6.2.1 How to use RailWire (Station Wi-Fi) ............................................................................................. 33

6.3 Wi-Fi deployment using GPON at Class B, C, D, E Railway Stations........................... 34

6.3.1 Access Network Infrastructure ....................................................................................................... 34
6.3.2 Access Points (AP) ......................................................................................................................... 34

6.4 Schematic diagram Class B, C stations............................................................................. 35

6.5 Schematic diagram Class D and E stations ...................................................................... 36
6.6 Network Architecture......................................................................................................... 37
6.6.1 Backbone Bandwidth .................................................................................................................... 37
6.6.2 Protection Architecture ................................................................................................................. 37
6.6.3 Number of PoPs ............................................................................................................................. 37
6.6.4 NON PoPs ...................................................................................................................................... 38

6.7 General Equipment Requirements ................................................................................... 38

6.7.1 Specifications of Access Points ...................................................................................................... 38
6.7.2 Specifications of Optical Line Terminal (OLT) .............................................................................. 39
6.7.3 Specifications of Optical Network Terminal (ONT) .................................................................. 40

7 Chapter ............................................................................................................................. 41
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) ....................................................................................... 41
References ................................................................................................................................ 43
CAMTECH Publications......................................................................................................... 44
Our Objective ........................................................................................................................... 45

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Disclaimer
It is clarified that the information given in this booklet does not
supersede any existing provisions laid down in the IR Telecom
Engineering Manual, Railway Board and RDSO publications. This
document is not statuary and instructions given are for the purpose
of learning only. The diagrams and figures given in the booklet are
indicative only. If at any point contradiction is observed, then
Telecom Engineering Manual, Railway Board/RDSO guidelines may
be referred or prevalent Zonal Railways instructions may be
followed.

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1 Chapter
Introduction

1.1 What is Wi-Fi?

Wi-Fi is a wireless networking technology that uses radio waves to provide wireless local area
networking of devices and Internet access. It refers to IEEE 802.11 family of standards.

Wi-Fi is designed to work seamlessly with Ethernet, which is wired. Compatible devices can
network through wireless access points with each other as well as with wired devices and the
Internet. Different versions of Wi-Fi are specified by various IEEE 802.11 protocol standards,
with different radio technologies determining radio bands, maximum ranges, and speeds that
may be achieved.

Wi-Fi most commonly uses the 2.4 gigahertz (120 mm) UHF and 5 gigahertz (60 mm) SHF
radio bands that are subdivided into multiple channels.

In Indian Railways, it is used to augment Railnet to connect many devices supporting Wi-Fi wireless
connectivity. Railnet is the general purpose Enterprise Wide Area network of Indian Railways. Wi-
Fi network is allowed to be established as a part of Railnet.

1.2 Wireless Network

A wireless network is a computer network that uses wireless data connections between network
nodes. Wireless networking allows homes, telecommunications networks and business
installations to avoid the costly process of introducing cables into a building, or as a connection
between various equipment locations. Examples of wireless networks include cell phone
networks, wireless local area networks (WLANs), wireless sensor networks, satellite
communication networks, and terrestrial microwave networks.

1.3 Wireless LAN (WLAN)

A wireless LAN (WLAN) is a wireless computer network that links two or more devices
using wireless communication to form a local area network (LAN) within a limited area such
as a home, school, computer laboratory, campus, or office building. This gives users the ability
to move around within the area and remain connected to the network. Through a gateway, a
WLAN can also provide a connection to the wider Internet.

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Wireless LANs based on the IEEE 802.11 standards are the most widely used computer
networks in the world. These are commonly called Wi-Fi, which is a trademark belonging to
the Wi-Fi Alliance. They are used for home and small office networks that link together laptop
computers, printers, smartphones, Web TVs and gaming devices with a wireless router, which
links them to the Internet. Hotspots provided by routers at restaurants, coffee shops, hotels,
libraries, and airports allow consumers to access the internet with portable wireless devices.

1.4 Wi-Fi Standards

Wi-Fi technology is based on the IEEE 802.11 series of wireless connectivity standards, which
have revolutionized how we communicate and access information.
Following are the IEEE standards for Wi-Fi.

1.4.1 IEEE 802.11

IEEE 802.11 is part of the IEEE 802 set of local area network (LAN) technical standards, and
specifies the set of medium access control (MAC) and physical layer (PHY) protocols for
implementing wireless local area network (WLAN) computer communication. The standard
and amendments provide the basis for wireless network products using the Wi-Fi brand and are
the world's most widely used wireless computer networking standards.

IEEE 802.11 is used in most home and office networks to allow laptops, printers, smartphones,
and other devices to communicate with each other and access the Internet without connecting
wires.

The standards are created and maintained by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE) LAN/MAN Standards Committee (IEEE 802). The base version of the
standard was released in 1997 and has had subsequent amendments.

IEEE 802.11 uses various frequencies including, but not limited to, 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, 6 GHz,
and 60 GHz frequency bands. Although IEEE 802.11 specifications list channels that might be
used, the radio frequency spectrum availability allowed varies significantly by regulatory
domain.

The protocols are typically used in conjunction with IEEE 802.2, and are designed to interwork
seamlessly with Ethernet, and are very often used to carry Internet Protocol traffic.

The 802.11 family consists of a series of half-duplex over-the-air modulation techniques that
use the same basic protocol. The 802.11 protocol family employs carrier-sense multiple access
with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) whereby equipment listens to a channel for other users
(including non 802.11 users) before transmitting each frame.

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1.4.2 IEEE 802.11b or Wi-Fi 1

It was introduced to the market in 1999 with Apple’s announcement. It also operated at 2.4
GHz, but to reduce interference from microwave ovens, cordless phones, baby monitors, and
other sources, and to achieve higher data rates, it incorporated modulation schemes called
direct-sequence spread spectrum/complementary code keying (DSSS/CCK). Wi-Fi 1 enabled
wireless communications at distances of ~38m indoors and ~140m outdoors.

1.4.3 IEEE 802.11a or Wi-Fi 2

It was also introduced in 1999, was the successor to IEEE 802.11b. It was the first Wi-Fi
specification to feature a multi-carrier modulation scheme (OFDM) to support high data rates,
unlike Wi-Fi 1’s single-carrier design. It supported 5 GHz operation and its 20 MHz bandwidth
supported multiple data rates.

1.4.4 IEEE 802.11g or Wi-Fi 3

It was introduced in 2003. It allowed for faster data rates of up to 54 Mbit/s in the same 2.4 GHz
frequency band as IEEE 802.11b, thanks to an OFDM multi-carrier modulation scheme and
other enhancements. This was appealing to mass market users, as 2.4 GHz devices were less
expensive than 5 GHz devices.

1.4.5 IEEE 802.11n or Wi-Fi 4

It was introduced in 2009 to support the 2.4 GHz and 5GHz frequency bands, with up to 600
Mbit/s data rates, multiple channels within each frequency band, and other features. IEEE
802.11n data throughputs enabled the use of WLAN networks in place of wired networks, a
significant feature enabling new use cases and reduced operational costs for end users and IT
organizations.

1.4.6 IEEE 802.11ac or Wi-Fi 5

It was introduced in 2013 to support data rates at up to 3.5 Gbit/s, with still-greater bandwidth,
additional channels, better modulation, and other features. It was the first Wi-Fi standard to
enable the use of multiple input/multiple output (MIMO) technology so that multiple antennas
could be used on both sending and receiving devices to reduce errors and boost speed.

1.4.7 IEEE 802.11ax or Wi-Fi 6

It is the most recent standard in the series, published in 2021, and devices based on it are now
being deployed in billions of devices per year.
Although its theoretical data rate is 9.6 Gbit/s, this standard isn’t primarily about boosting Wi-
Fi speeds per se. Rather, it addresses the fact that Wi-Fi usage is now so pervasive that network
performance can be degraded in areas of dense Wi-Fi traffic, such as sports stadiums, concert

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halls, and public transportation hubs, and more and more even in our homes where routers must
communicate with a growing number of digital gadgets simultaneously.

IEEE 802.11ax offers many enhancements. It employs a multi-user mechanism that allows the
9.6 Gbit/s data rate to be split among various devices. It also supports routers sending data to
multiple devices in one broadcast frame over the air, and it lets Wi-Fi devices schedule
transmissions to the router. Mechanisms to support longer-range outdoor operations are also
added.
Collectively, these features improve aggregate throughput and support the increasing use of Wi-
Fi in data-heavy situations and in applications such as video and cloud access, where real-time
performance and low power consumption for battery-powered devices are required. In
particular, high-definition video is expected to be the dominant type of traffic in many
forthcoming Wi-Fi deployments.

1.4.8 IEEE P802.11be or Wi-Fi 7

It is now under development at the IEEE Standards Association (IEEE SA) by a group of
technical and industry experts, with an estimated completion sometime in 2024.

This standard represents a major evolutionary milestone in Wi-Fi technology, with 4x faster
data rates (~40 Gbit/s) and twice the bandwidth (320 MHz channels vs. 160 MHz channels for
Wi-Fi 6). It also supports more efficient and reliable use of available and contiguous spectrum
through multi-band/multi-channel aggregation and other means. The standard features
numerous enhancements to MIMO protocols and many other advancements and refinements of
existing Wi-Fi capabilities.

The result of all these technical improvements is that to the user, Wi-Fi 7 technology will be
much faster, have much lower latency, will support many more devices, and will perform much
better in congested Wi-Fi spaces and where Wi-Fi networks overlap.

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2 Chapter
IEEE 802.11 Architecture

2.1 Introduction
The IEEE 802.11 standard outlines the architecture and defines the MAC and physical layer
specifications for wireless LANs (WLANs). Wi-Fi uses high-frequency radio waves instead of
cables for connecting the devices in LAN. Given the mobility of WLAN nodes, they can move
unrestricted within the network coverage zone. The 802.11 structure is designed to
accommodate mobile stations that participate actively in network decisions. Furthermore, it can
seamlessly integrate with 2G, 3G, and 4G networks.

The 802.11 standard defines layered protocol architecture to implement the services as given
below.
 Association: Establishes an initial association between a station and an access point.
 Re-association: Enables an established association to be transferred from one access
point to another, allowing a mobile station to move
 Dis-association: A notification from either a station or an access point that an existing
association is terminated
 Authentication: Used to establish the identity of station to each other
 Privacy: used to prevent the content of message from being read by other than the
intended recipient. The standard provides for the optional use of encryption to assure
privacy.

Network remains an important issue for WLANs. Authentication is done by the following
identifiers.

2.1.1 Service set identifier (SSID)

It is a name that identifies a particular 802.11 wireless LAN. A client device receives broadcast
messages from all access points within range advertising their SSIDs. The client device can
then either manually or automatically—based on configuration—select the network with which
to associate. The SSID can be up to 32 characters long. As the SSID displays to users, it
normally consists of human-readable characters. However, the standard does not require this.
The SSID is defined as a sequence of 1–32 octets each of which may take any value.

It is legitimate for multiple access points to share the same SSID if they provide access to the
same network as part of an extended service set.

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2.1.2 Basic service set identifier (BSSID)

A related field is the BSSID or Basic Service Set Identifier, which uniquely identifies each BSS
(the SSID however, can be used in multiple, possibly overlapping, BSSs). In an infrastructure
BSS, the BSSID is the MAC address of the wireless access point (WAP). In an IBSS, the BSSID
is a locally administered MAC address generated from a 48-bit random number. The
individual/group bit of the address is set to 0. The universal/local bit of the address is set to 1.

A BSSID with a value of all 1s is used to indicate the broadcast BSSID. A broadcast BSSID
may only be used during probe requests.

2.2 Wireless LAN Transmission Technology

There are three main ways by which WLANs transmit information: microwave, spread
spectrum and infrared.

2.2.1 Microwave Transmission

Motorola's WLAN product transmits data by using low powered microwave radio signals. It
operates at the 18GHz frequency band.

2.2.2 Spread Spectrum Transmission

With this transmission technology, there are two methods used by wireless LAN products:
frequency hopping and direct sequence modulation.

2.2.2.1 Frequency Hopping

The signal jumps from one frequency to another within a given frequency range. The transmitter
device "listens" to a channel, if it detects an idle time (i.e. no signal is transmitted), it transmits
the data using the full channel bandwidth. If the channel is full, it "hops" to another channel and
repeats the process. The transmitter and the receiver "jump" in the same manner.

2.2.2.2 Direct Sequence Modulation

This method uses a wide frequency band together with Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA). Signals from different units are transmitted at a given frequency range. The power
levels of these signals are very low (just above background noise). A code is transmitted with
each signal so that the receiver can identify the appropriate signal transmitted by the sender
unit.
The frequency at which such signals are transmitted is called the ISM (industrial, scientific and
medical) band. This frequency band is reserved for ISM devices. The ISM band has three
frequency ranges: 902-928, 2400-2483.5 and 5725-5850 MHz.

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2.2.3 Infrared Transmission

This method uses infrared light to carry information. There are three types of infrared
transmission: diffused, directed and directed point-to-point.

2.2.3.1 Diffused
The infrared light transmitted by the sender unit fills the area (e.g. office). Therefore the receiver
unit located anywhere in that area can receive the signal.

2.2.3.2 Directed
The infrared light is focused before transmitting the signal. This method increases the
transmission speed.

2.2.3.3 Directed point-to-point

Directed point-to-point infrared transmission provides the highest transmission speed. Here the
receiver is aligned with the sender unit. The infrared light is then transmitted directly to the
receiver.

2.3 Components of IEEE 802.11 Architecture

The components of an IEEE 802.11 architecture are WLAN Stations (STA) & Access Point
(AP) as building blocks.

2.3.1 WLAN Stations (STA)

WLAN Stations (STA) comprise all devices and equipment that are connected to the wireless
LAN. They locate & connect to access points to reach network resources. They are identified
by an IEEE 48-bit data link control address.

2.3.2 Access Point (AP)

They connect WLAN stations to the wired or Distribution‖ network. They bridges frames to /
from WLAN and Distribution network. They are identified by 48-bit data link control address.
The range at which stations can communicate with AP is the Basic Service Area.

2.3.3 Basic Service Set (BSS)

When two or more stations come together to communicate with each other, they form a Basic
Service Set (BSS). The minimum BSS consists of two stations.

BSS is the basic building block of the IEEE 802.11 architecture. A BSS is defined as a group
of stations that co-ordinate their access to the medium under a given instance of the medium
access control.

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The geographical area covered by the BSS is known as the basic service area (BSA). A BSA
may extend over an area with the diameter of tens of meters. Conceptually all the stations in a
BSS can communicate directly with all other stations in a BSS.
BSS consists of BSS Master & BSS Client.

2.3.3.1 BSS Master

 Access point connected to a wired LAN
 802.11 functionality provided by the access point
 Acts as a gateway between the wireless clients and the wired network
 Clients on the WLAN communicate with one another through the access point
 BSS is identified by the Service Set Identity (SSID)
- Alphanumeric, 2-32 characters, case sensitive
- SSID appears in beacons, probe requests and probe responses.

2.3.3.2 BSS Clients

 Wireless stations
 Use the same SSID to connect to the BSS

Depending upon the mode of operation, BSS can be categorized into the following types:

2.3.3.3 Infrastructure BSS

Communication between stations takes place through access points. The AP and its associated
wireless clients define the coverage area and form the BSS.

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2.3.3.4 Ad-Hoc or Independent BSS (IBSS)

It supports mutual communication between wireless clients. An ad-hoc network is
spontaneously created and does not support access to wired networks.

In this configuration, no single node is

required to act as a server. The stations
communicate directly with one another in
a peer-to-peer basis. Generally, IBSS
covers a limited area instead of a large
network. Typically covering a specific
area, IBSS is used for specific, short-term
purposes with a limited number of nodes.

2.3.3.5 Extended Service Set

An Extended Service Set is a set of one or more interconnected BSSs and integrated local area
networks (LANs) that appear as a single BSS to the logical link control layer at any station
associated with one of those BSSs. The set of interconnected BSSs must have a common service
set identifier (SSID). They can work on the same channel, or work on different channels to
boost aggregate throughput. This is also termed as Bridging mode. The beauty of the ESS is the
entire network looks like an independent basic service set to the Logical Link Control layer
(LLC). This means that stations within the ESS can communicate or even move between BSS′s
transparently to the LLC.

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2.3.3.6 Distribution system

A distribution system (DS) connects access points in an extended service set. The concept of a
DS can be used to increase network coverage through roaming between cells. DS can be wired
or wireless. Current wireless distribution systems are mostly based on WDS or MESH
protocols, though other systems are in use.

2.3.3.7 Roaming
In an environment with multiple access points (like a large office building or campus), a device
can move from the range of one AP to another and still maintain its connection. This is possible
due to the underlying architecture of the IEEE 802.11 standard which allows for roaming
between APs.

2.3.3.8 Authentication and Association

Before a station can send or receive data frames on a WLAN, it needs to establish its identity
with an AP. This process is called authentication. After authentication, the station then
establishes a data link-layer connection with the AP through a process called association.

2.4 Advantages & Disadvantages of IEEE 802.11 Architecture

2.4.1 Advantages
Fault Tolerance: The centralized architecture minimizes the bottlenecks and introduces
resilience in the WLAN equipment.
Flexible Architecture: Supports both temporary smaller networks and larger, more permanent
ones.
Prolonged Battery Life: Efficient power-saving protocols extend mobile device battery life
without compromising network connections.

2.4.2 Disadvantages
Noisy Channels: Due to reliance on radio waves, signals may experience interference from
nearby devices.
Greater Bandwidth and Complexity: Due to necessary data encryption and susceptibility to
errors, WLANs need more bandwidth than their wired counterparts.
Speed: Generally, WLANs offer slower speeds compared to wired LANs.

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3 Chapter
Wi-Fi System Components

3.1 Introduction
Wireless local area networks (WLANs) use the same basic structure of components as the
traditional Ethernet-wired networks. However, instead of cables, WLANs use infrared or radio
frequency technology to transmit data around the network.

3.2 Wireless Access Point

A Wireless Access Point (Wireless AP or just AP) is a network
device that transmits and receives data over a wireless local
area network (WLAN), serving as the interconnection point
between the WLAN and a fixed wire network. Conceptually,
an AP is like an Ethernet hub, but instead of relaying LAN
frames only to other 802.3 stations, an AP
relays 802.11 frames to all other 802.11 or 802.3 stations in the
same subnet. When a wireless device moves beyond the range
of one AP, it is handed over to the next AP.

Using a WAP lets you create a wireless network within your existing wired network (Railnet),
so you can accommodate wireless devices thereby to provide Railnet/Internet services.

3.2.1 Common types of access point configurations

3.2.1.1 Root access point

In this configuration, an access point is connected directly to a wired LAN, providing a
connection point for wireless users. If more than one access point is connected to the LAN,
users can roam from one area of a facility to another without losing their network connection.

3.2.1.2 Repeater access point

An access point or mesh extender can be configured as a standalone repeater to extend the range
of your infrastructure or overcome an obstacle that blocks radio communication.
The repeater forwards traffic between wireless users and the wired network by sending data to
either another repeater or an access point that is connected to the wired network. The data is
sent through the route that provides the best performance for the client.

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3.2.1.3 Bridges
Access points can be configured as root or non-root bridges to join multiple networks. An access
point in this role will establish a wireless link with a non-root bridge. Traffic is then passed over
the wireless link to the wired network.

3.2.1.4 Workgroup bridge

Access points that are in workgroup bridge mode can "associate" to other access points as clients
and provide network connections for devices connected to Ethernet ports.
For example, if your business needs wireless connectivity for a group of network printers, you
can connect the printers to a hub or a switch, connect the hub or switch to the access point
Ethernet port, and configure the access point as a workgroup bridge. The workgroup bridge will
then "associate" to an access point on your network.

3.2.1.5 Central unit in an all-wireless network

In an all-wireless network, an access point acts as a standalone root unit. It is not attached to a
wired LAN. Instead, the access point functions as a hub that links all stations together. It serves
as the focal point for communications, increasing the communication range of wireless users.

3.2.2 Key benefits of upgrading to WAPs

WAPs are a more convenient, secure, and cost-efficient alternative to using wires and cables to
connect every computer or device in your network. And using WAPs to set up a wireless
network can provide many advantages and benefits for your small business.
For one, a wireless network is more convenient to access. Adding new users is a lot less
complicated, too. And you can easily provide Internet access to guest users by giving them a
password to access your wireless network securely.
Also you can easily segment users, including guests, to help protect your network resources and
assets.

3.2.3 Wireless access point vs. wireless router

Typically, wireless routers are used in homes and small businesses where all users can be
supported by one combined AP and router to provide internet access to wireless capable devices.
Wireless APs are traditionally used in larger businesses and venues where many APs are
required to provide an internet connection to support thousands of users. The number of access
points needed will increase depending on the number of network users and the physical size of
the network.

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3.2.4 Wireless access point vs. Wi-Fi extender

Wireless APs are traditionally used in larger businesses and venues where many APs are
required to provide service to support thousands of users with devices connected to the network.
Gone are the days of a wired router and Ethernet cable in the home office -- APs are entering
the home office market for large homes, and some people use them to provide Wi-Fi to their
outside property. A Wi-Fi extender repeats the signal from your router and expands internet
coverage by creating a second network. An extender is a more common tool for extending home
office networks, as it can only support a limited number of devices at a time.

3.3 PoE (Power over Ethernet)

Power over Ethernet, or PoE, is an access layer technology that combines data signals and
electrical power into a single Ethernet cable to power networked devices such as wireless access
points (WAPs), IP cameras and VoIP phones.

3.3.1 How Does PoE (Power over Ethernet) work?

Some devices are not capable of being powered through ethernet ports, which might destroy the
device if being plugged into a PSE (PoE Switch). PSE must also ensure that the power level
supplied to PD is enough and will not destroy it. To meet those requirements, PoE has an IEEE
standardized mechanism called auto negotiation.

Auto negotiation initiates a handshake procedure that establishes how much power the PD or
connected device requires. The handshake needs to be established while PD is off, as PD needs
the power to boot and initialize. Using auto negotiation, PSE (PoE Switch) avoids powering up
devices that are not capable of receiving power over Ethernet ports. Thus, it avoids damaging
the Ethernet port or the device itself.

3.4 PoE Switch

A PoE switch provides PoE power to
network devices such as access
points, surveillance cameras, IP
phones, lighting, and other IoT
devices. PoE switches often are
capable of prioritizing and
optimizing PoE power allocations
for critical network devices.

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3.4.1 PoE Implementation

Implementing PoE on the LAN network connection requires an effort for planning and
designing. Powered devices, power requirements, switch ports, switch power supplies, and PoE
standards should be checked before implementing PoE on the LAN network. Below are the
ways we can implement PoE on our network using network switches.

1. Endspan – is a PoE switch and sometimes called “endpoint”. The ethernet port of the
switch can supply both power and data to devices that support PoE like PD.

2. Midspan – if there is an existing non-PoE switch on the network and needs to power up a
device that requires PoE, then a PoE device needs to be put in between the non-PoE switch
and a PD. The PoE device will connect to the non-PoE switch and will supply power to
PD. A commonly known midspan is a PoE injector.
3.

3.4.2 Why Do You Need the PoE Switch?

Traditional switches cannot supply power for end devices over Ethernet. This requires
additional PSEs and extension cables.

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PoE switches minimize cable usage and make things easier by saving costs on power outlets,
infrastructure equipment and electrical installation.

3.5 Benefits of PoE

Using Power over Ethernet provides a number of advantages during installation:

 Time and cost savings

PoE can reduce the time and expense of having electrical power cabling installed. Network
cables do not require a qualified electrician to install. Reduction of power outlets required per
installed device saves money. It also reduces energy costs by allowing for centralized control
over lighting, window shades, and heating and cooling.

 Flexibility
Without being tethered to electrical outlets, devices such as monitors, security cameras, and
wireless access points can be positioned in ideal locations and be easily repositioned if moved.

 Safety
Power delivery using PoE is designed to intelligently protect network equipment from overload,
under powering, and incorrect installation. It also eliminates the danger of working with or
around dangerous high-voltage power sources.

 Reliability
PoE power comes from a central and universally compatible source and not from a collection
of distributed wall adapters. It can be backed up by an uninterruptible power supply (UPS),
allowing for continuous operation even during power failures. PoE also allows for devices to
be easily disabled or reset from a centralized controller.

 Scalability
Having power available on the network means that the installation and distribution of network
connections are simple and effective.

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4 Chapter
Wireless Network Security

4.1 Introduction
In wireless network, security is a big concern because it uses a more open medium for
communication in comparison to wired networks. While wireless networks provide
convenience and flexibility, they also increase network vulnerability. Wireless networks are
less stable, due to interference from other wireless devices & networks. Whereas in wired
networks, only authorized systems are connected by extending a dedicated physical cable to
gain the access to that network.

Wireless or Wi-Fi security is the protection of devices and networks connected in a wireless
environment. Without Wi-Fi security, various security threats such as unauthorized access,
denial of service attacks, IP and MAC spoofing, session hijacking and eavesdropping etc. may
be occurred.

In Wireless networks, Access Points (APs) create the hot spot areas (wireless coverage area).
The systems with appropriate wireless adopters of that hot spot area can gain access to those
network services, since there is no need of physical connection. This is a very serious security
problem in wireless network.

The administrator as well as the users of wireless networks to be very strict vigilant to take
appropriate precautions to prevent this serious problem of gaining unauthorized access to
wireless networks. Otherwise their data security is under serious threat. Hence, the
administrator as well users have to take the advance security precautions while configuring their
wireless networks.

4.2 Wireless network security threats

Following are some examples of security threats to a wireless network.

4.2.1 Piggybacking and Wardriving

Unauthorized users can use open or unsecured wireless networks to conduct illegal activity,
monitor web traffic, steal information, and more. They can do this by "piggybacking" on the
internet service of real subscribers. They tap into the unsecure service to set up their own
internet connections, without the legitimate users' knowledge.

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4.2.2 Wardriving
There is another version of the above mentioned practice, known as "wardriving." Individuals
drive, walk, or cycle slowly through densely populated areas with wireless-equipped laptops or
smartphones, searching for unsecured wireless networks to connect.

4.2.3 Evil Twin Attacks

In an evil twin attack, an adversary gathers information about a public network access point,
then sets up their system to impersonate it. The adversary uses a broadcast signal stronger than
the one generated by the legitimate access point; then, unsuspecting users connect using the
stronger signal. Because the victim is connecting to the internet through the attacker’s system,
it’s easy for the attacker to use specialized tools to read any data the victim sends over the
internet. This data may include credit card numbers, username and password combinations, and
other personal information.

4.2.4 IP spoofing
Attackers use IP spoofing to penetrate wireless networks by impersonating trusted IP addresses.
This approach may allow attackers to plant malware, initiate distributed-denial-of-service
(DDoS) attacks, or carry out other nefarious acts.

4.2.5 DNS-cache poisoning

Wireless networks are also susceptible to a threat known as DNS-cache poisoning, often called
DNS spoofing. This tactic involves hacking a network and diverting network traffic to an
attacker's computer or server or to another out-of-network device. The risk for users is
connecting to a malicious version of a legitimate network they want to access.

4.3 Wireless security protocols

A more common method of protecting Wi-Fi networks and devices is the use of security
protocols that utilize encryption. Encryption in digital communications encodes data and then
decodes it only for authorized recipients.
There are several types of encryption standards or security protocols in use today, like WEP,
WPA and WPA2.

4.3.1 WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy)

It is a security algorithm for IEEE 802.11 wireless networks; its intention is to provide data
confidentiality comparable to that of a traditional wired network. Although its name implies
that it is as secure as a wired connection, WEP has been demonstrated to have numerous flaws
& it is the oldest and least secure method and should be avoided. WPA and WPA2 are good
choices, but provide better protection when you use longer and more complex passwords (all

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devices on a wireless network must use the same kind of encryption and be configured with the
same password).

4.3.2 WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access)

Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) and Wi-Fi Protected Access II (WPA2) are two security
protocols and security certification programs developed by the Wi-Fi Alliance to secure
wireless computer networks.

The WPA protocol implements much of the IEEE 802.11i standard. Specifically, the Temporal
Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP) was adopted for WPA. WEP used a 40-bit or 104-bit encryption
key that must be manually entered on wireless access points and devices and does not change.
TKIP employs a per-packet key, meaning that it dynamically generates a new 128-bit key for
each packet and thus prevents the types of attacks that compromised WEP.

WPA also includes a message integrity check. This is designed to prevent an attacker from
capturing, altering and/or resending data packets. This replaces the cyclic redundancy check
(CRC) that was used by the WEP standard. CRC's main flaw was that it did not provide a
sufficiently strong data integrity guarantee for the packets it handled.

WPA uses a message integrity check algorithm called Michael to verify the integrity of the
packets. Michael is much stronger than a CRC, but not as strong as the algorithm used in WPA2.
Researchers have since discovered a flaw in WPA that relied on older weaknesses in WEP and
the limitations of Michael to retrieve the key stream from short packets to use for re-injection
and spoofing.

4.3.3 WPA2
WPA2, a later version of WPA, was developed in 2004. It replaces RC4 and TKIP with two
stronger encryption and authentication mechanisms:
 Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), an encryption mechanism; and
 Counter Mode with Cipher Block Chaining Message Authentication Code Protocol
(CCMP), an authentication mechanism.

Also meant to be backward compatible, WPA2 supports TKIP as a fallback if a device cannot
support CCMP.
Developed by the U.S. government to protect classified data, AES comprises three symmetric
block ciphers. Each cipher encrypts and decrypts data in blocks of 128 bits using 128-, 192- and
256-bit keys. Although the use of AES requires more computing power from APs and clients,
ongoing improvements in computer and network hardware have mitigated performance
concerns.

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CCMP protects data confidentiality by allowing only authorized network users to receive data.
It uses cipher block chaining message authentication code to ensure message integrity.

WPA2 also introduced more seamless roaming, enabling clients to move from one AP to
another on the same Wi-Fi network without having to re-authenticate, using Pairwise Master
Key (PMK) caching or pre-authentication.

4.3.4 WPA3
In January 2018, the Wi-Fi Alliance announced WPA3 as a replacement to WPA2. WPA3 is
the most recent wireless security standard and the one experts now consider the most secure.

WPA3 mandates the adoption of Protected Management Frames, which help guard against
eavesdropping and forging. It also standardizes the 128-bit cryptographic suite and disallows
obsolete security protocols. WPA3-Enterprise has optional 192-bit security encryption and a
48-bit IV for heightened protection of sensitive corporate, financial and governmental data.
WPA3-Personal uses CCMP-128 and AES-128.

WPA3 addresses WPA2's KRACK vulnerability with a more secure cryptographic handshake,
replacing the PSK four-way handshake with Simultaneous Authentication of Equals (SAE), a
version of the Internet Engineering Task Force's dragonfly handshake in which either client or
AP can initiate contact. Each device then transmits its authentication credentials in a discrete,
one-off message, instead of in a give-and-take, multipart conversation. Importantly, SAE also
eliminates the reuse of encryption keys, requiring a new code with every interaction. Without
open-ended communication between AP and client or encryption key reuse, cybercriminals
can't as easily eavesdrop or insert themselves into an exchange.

SAE limits users to active, on-site authentication attempts -- flagging anyone who has exceeded
a certain number of password guesses. This capability should make the typical Wi-Fi network
more resistant to offline dictionary attacks. By mandating a new encryption passphrase for each
connection, SAE also enables a feature called forward secrecy, which aims to prevent attackers
who have cracked a passcode from using it to decrypt data they previously captured and saved.

4.4 Best Practices for Wi-Fi Security

Following are some of the best practices with respect to improving wireless network security.

4.4.1 Change the Wi-Fi’s default SSID name

SSID stands for ("Service Set Identifier”). It’s a unique ID which consists of 32 characters and
is used for naming wireless networks. It is just a technical term for network name. Changing
the SSID name of your network is a good idea because others will know to which network they

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are connecting. You will find this setting under “wireless setting” on your router setting page.
Do not use any personal information for SSID name.

4.4.2 Change default passwords

Most network devices, including wireless access points, are pre-configured with default
administrator passwords to simplify setup. These default passwords are easily available to
obtain online, and so provide only marginal protection. Changing default passwords makes it
harder for attackers to access a device. Use and periodic changing of complex passwords is your
first line of defense in protecting your device.

4.4.3 Enabling Two-Factor Authentication (2FA)

Two-factor authentication adds an extra layer of security to the login process. It requires users
to enter both a username and password, as well as a code that is generated by an authenticator
app. This makes it more difficult for someone to gain unauthorized access to the network.

To enable two-factor authentication, access the wireless router's configuration page and enable
the feature. Be sure to download an authenticator app such as Google Authenticator or Authy
and have it available when logging in.

4.4.4 Encrypting Data

Encrypting data is another important best practice for wireless network security. Data
encryption scrambles data so that it can only be decrypted and read by authorized users. This
helps to protect sensitive information from being accessed by unauthorized individuals.

Encryption can be implemented in a number of ways, including through the use of encryption
software, hardware, or services. Make sure that users are aware of the importance of encrypting
sensitive data and that they know how to properly encrypt files.

4.4.5 Using a Strong Password

Using a strong password is one of the most important best practices for wireless network
security. A strong password is at least eight characters long and includes a mix of upper- and
lower-case letters, numbers, and symbols. Passwords should be changed regularly to ensure that
they remain secure.

4.4.6 Using MAC Filtering

Using MAC filtering is another best practice for wireless network security. MAC addresses are
unique identifiers assigned to devices that connect to a network.
By allowing only devices with specific MAC addresses to connect to the network, you can help
to prevent unauthorized access. MAC filtering can be implemented by accessing the wireless

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router's configuration page and adding the MAC addresses of devices that are allowed to
connect to the network.

4.4.7 Disabling SSID Broadcast

Another best practice for wireless network security is to turn off SSID broadcast. Anyone within
the wireless network’s range can see the network name when SSID broadcast is enabled. By
going to the wireless router’s setup page and turning off the SSID broadcast capability, you can
disable SSID broadcast.
Making it more challenging for unauthorized users to connect to the network is the aim. If
someone is within the network’s range and uses a wireless network scanner, they can still see
the SSID, but it won’t be as simple to access.

4.4.8 Enabling WPA3 Security

Enabling WPA3 security is another best practice for wireless network security. WPA3 is the
most recent and most secure wireless security protocol. It provides stronger protection than
WPA2 and should be used whenever possible.

Ensure that before procuring, you check for routers that offer this most modern security
protocol. It is crucial to ensure that WPA3 is enabled because earlier protocols were simpler to
hack.

4.4.9 Disabling Remote Administration

Disabling remote administration is another best practice for wireless network security. When
remote administration is enabled, it allows anyone with the proper credentials to access the
router's configuration page and make changes to the network. This can be a security risk, as it
allows unauthorized individuals to potentially gain access to the network. To disable remote
administration, access the wireless router's configuration page and disable the feature. This will
help to prevent unauthorized access to the network.

4.4.10 Using a Firewall

Using a firewall is another best practice for wireless network security. A firewall helps to protect
the network by blocking incoming traffic that is not authorized. This can be especially important
in preventing attacks from malware and other malicious software.

To use a firewall, access the wireless router's configuration page and enable the feature. There
are typically two types of firewalls: network-based and host-based. Network-based firewalls are
typically used in business environments, while host-based firewalls can be used on individual
devices.

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5 Chapter
Wi-Fi system Installation & Troubleshooting

5.1 Hardware overview of Access Point (D-Link DAP-2610)

Solid Red Indicates the access point has

malfunctioned.
1. Power/Status Blinking Red This LED will blink during boot-up.
Solid Green Indicates that the DAP-2610 is working
properly.
2. Power Receptor Connect the supplied power adapter. Power Receptor
(*Note no longer used, replaced by PoE)
3. LAN (PoE) Port Connect to a Power over Ethernet (PoE) switch or router
via an Ethernet cable.
4. Reset Button Press and hold for five seconds to reset the access point to
the factory default settings. Press and hold for one second
to reboot the access point.

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5.2 Basic Installation

To power the access point, you can use one of the following 2 methods:
 Method 1 - Use if you have a PoE switch or router.
 Method 2 - Use if you do not have a PoE switch or router and do not have a power outlet
near the location of the access point.

5.2.1 Method 1 - PoE with PoE Switch or Router

1. Connect one end of your Ethernet cable to the LAN (PoE) port on the access point.
2. Connect the other end into one port on a PoE switch or router.

AP

PoE Switch

5.2.2 Method 2 - PoE without PoE Switch or Router

1. Connect one end of an Ethernet cable into the Data In port on the PoE base unit and
the other end into one port on your switch, router, or computer.
2. Connect one end of an Ethernet cable into the P+Data Out port on the PoE base unit
and the other end into the LAN (PoE) port on the Access Point.
3. Use the supplied power adapter. Connect the power adapter to the Power In receptor
on the PoE adapter.
4. Connect the power cable to the power adapter and then connect the other end into a
power outlet.
5. Purchase separately a DPE-101GI PoE injector if you need to connect the Access Point
without a PoE Switch.

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AP

PoE base unit

Switch or Router

5.3 Installation Considerations

The Access Point lets you access your network using a wireless connection from virtually
anywhere within the operating range of your wireless network. Keep in mind, however, that the
number, thickness and location of walls, ceilings, or other objects that the wireless signals must
pass through, may limit the range. Typical ranges vary depending on the types of materials and
background RF (radio frequency) noise in your home or business. The key to maximizing
wireless range is to follow these basic guidelines:
 Keep the number of walls and ceilings between the access point and other network devices
to a minimum. Each wall or ceiling can reduce your adapter’s range from 3-90 feet (1-30
meters.) Position your devices so that the number of walls or ceilings is minimized.
 Be aware of the direct line between network devices. A wall that is 1.5 feet thick (.5
meters), at a
 45-degree angle appears to be almost 3 feet (1 meter) thick. At a 2-degree angle it looks
over 42 feet (14 meters) thick! Position devices so that the signal will travel straight
through a wall or ceiling (instead of at an angle) for better reception.
 Building Materials make a difference. A solid metal door or aluminum studs may have a
negative effect on the range. Try to position access points, wireless routers, and computers
so that the signal passes through drywall or open doorways. Materials and objects such as
glass, steel, metal, walls with insulation, water (fish tanks), mirrors, file cabinets, brick,
and concrete will degrade your wireless signal.

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 Keep your product away (at least 3-6 feet or 1-2 meters) from electrical devices or
appliances that generate RF noise.
 If you are using 2.4 GHz cordless phones or X-10 (wireless products such as ceiling fans,
lights, and home security systems), your wireless connection may degrade dramatically
or drop completely. Make sure your 2.4 GHz phone base is as far away from your wireless
devices as possible. The base transmits a signal even if the phone in not in use.

5.4 Troubleshooting Wireless Network

Find below some troubleshooting steps for the following scenarios:

S. N. Scenario Troubleshooting Steps

1. SSID is visible but  Verify Encryption Type (WEP, WPA, or WPA2) and
cannot connect to it. Security Key or Passphrase
 Verify that the SSID is standard and capitalized
correctly using only letters and numbers
 Reboot the Access Point (AP) or Router
 Reboot the client (computer, printer, and so on)
 Verify that the Access Point or Router is within the
realistic indoor range for the wireless standard it uses
and that the client supports that wireless standard (for
example both devices support 802.11n)
 Verify that the client can support the security type
used by the Access Point or Router

2. No SSIDs are  Verify that Wi-Fi is enabled (BIOS for computers,

visible. menu settings for printers and projectors)
 If the system has a Wi-Fi switch, verify that it is in the
On position
 Verify that the Wi-Fi radio is enabled in the driver or
management software
 Verify that the Access Point or Router is within the
realistic indoor range for the wireless standard it uses
and that the client supports that wireless standard. For
example, verify that both devices support the 802.11n
standard.
 Reboot both the client device and the Access Point or
Router.

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3. Some SSIDs are  Verify that the Access Point or Router is set to
visible, but the "Broadcast SSID"
specific ones you  Verify that the Access Point or Router is within the
require. realistic indoor range for the wireless standard it uses
and that the client supports that wireless standard. For
example, verify that both devices support the 802.11n
standard.
 Reboot both the client device and the Access Point or
Router.
 Verify that the client can support the security type
used by the Access Point or Router

4. Can connect to the  Certain information is required before troubleshooting

correct SSID but this issue can begin.
cannot obtain an IP  1. IP Address
Address. 2. Subnet Mask Address
3. Default Gateway Address
4. DNS Server information
 Reboot or restart the router or gateway
 Do all the devices have the same Subnet Mask
address?
 Do all the IP addresses start with the same numbers
(they are in the same range or subnet). For instance,
they all start with 192.168.1.x or 10.1.52.x
 Make sure there are no devices with the same IP
address. If there are, this causes an IP conflict, and 1
or both devices fail to connect.
 Use PING to verify that an IP address is seen on the
Network

> Select Start and enter CMD into the Run search box
> Enter the following at the Command Prompt:

 > Ping
 192.xxx.xxx.xxx
 If the IP address is seen and found, you see four lines
of replies showing the time taken to check the network
connection (in milliseconds)

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 If you receive a "Request Timeout" message, either

the IP address is not recognized or it cannot be found
on the network.

5.4.1 Can connect to the network but cannot retrieve data

 Verify SSID, Security type, and Encryption Key or Passphrase
 Delete the Network Profile and reconnect
 Verify that the Access Point or Router is within the realistic indoor range for the wireless
standard it uses and that the client supports that wireless standard. For example, verify
that both devices support the 802.11n standard.
 If possible, update the Access Point or Router to the current firmware version
 Update client device firmware or drivers
 Reboot both the client device and the Access Point or Router
 Check if the client device can connect and transfer traffic to other networks.
 If possible, Disable firewalls for troubleshooting purposes only.

5.4.2 Device Disconnecting from the Network Intermittently

 Update firmware and drivers on both the client device and the Access Point or Router
 Move the client and Access Point or Router closer together
 If possible, change the channel setting on the router. Channels 1, 6, and 11 are usually
the best options.
 Verify that there is not a secondary program trying to manage the wireless adapter.
 Adjust the antennas on the Access Point or Router to be perpendicular to the direction
of the client (not pointing toward or away from the client)
 Check if this problem happens on other wireless networks.
 Log in to the router and check the "Uptime." If the uptime is always fairly short, the
router may be rebooting and dropping all clients.
 Reseat the wireless adapter on the client device.

5.5 Troubleshooting Access Point

Here are some basic steps that you can perform to troubleshoot the AP:
 Check the LED blinking pattern to identify possible errors.
 Check whether the AP is receiving power from the switch.
 Check whether the connected switch can learn the MAC address of the AP.
 Check whether the AP works correctly by using a different cable and different switch
port.
 Verify that the required ports are open on the firewall.

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6 Chapter
Wi-Fi at Railway Stations (RailWire)

6.1 Introduction
Envisaged in 2015 Rail Budget, the project of providing free Wi-Fi Internet facility at stations
is one of the largest and fastest public Wi-Fi networks of the world and aims to convert the
Railway platform into a platform for digital inclusion. The main objective of this to provide free
Wi-Fi for the passengers at station for leveraging entertainments on their personal devices as
well as for Students, especially competitive examination aspirants from remote locations with
limited access to internet, use the station Wi-Fi facilities for their examination preparations.

This project was launched in association with Railtel Corporation for providing the
infrastructure and Google for providing the internet bandwidth. RailTel has provided public
Wi-Fi under the brand name of Railwire.

6.2 RailWire
Currently 6108+ stations are live with RailTel’s RailWire Wi-Fi. Passengers can use this facility
for streaming High Definition (HD) Videos, download of movies, songs, games, and do their
offices work online within the station premises.
The Wi-fi is free for the first 30 min of usage every day at 1 mbps speed. For using the Wi-Fi
facility further at higher speed, the user needs to choose a plan with higher speed by paying a
nominal fee.

6.2.1 How to use RailWire (Station Wi-Fi)

 Switch on the Wi-Fi mode on you smartphone
 Select the RailWire Wi-Fi network
 Enter Mobile and get one-time password (OTP) through SMS
 Enter OTP and start accessing High speed Wi-Fi

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6.3 Wi-Fi deployment using GPON at Class B, C, D, E Railway Stations

Figure 6.1: Wi-Fi Deployment at Railway Stations

6.3.1 Access Network Infrastructure

The network was built by installing Optical Line Terminating Equipment (OLTE) at all the B,
C, D and E Stations and use Optical Network Terminal (ONT) to deliver internet to Access
Points (AP) at each platform and from the Access point, it reaches to the customer through Wi-
Fi. Tejas make OLT with appropriate redundancy cards to maintain an uptime of 99.95% was
used. This includes Optical Switches, Optical Splitters, ONTs, APs, Management systems and
accessories for each station.

6.3.2 Access Points (AP)

One Access Point shall be installed in each of the Class D and E Stations, at a location where
the public generally assemble. At B and C Stations, Two APs will be installed. Appropriate
cabling, connectors, conduits and the appropriate passive infrastructure for each station should
be completed without disturbing existing installations.

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6.4 Schematic diagram Class B, C stations

Figure 6.2: Schematic diagram Class B, C stations

Figure 6.3: Field setup at Class B, C stations

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To extend the connectivity from OLT through Optical Fibre Cable (OFC),to the ONTs at the
Platforms in B and C Category Stations. The length of the OFC Cable shall be 250 Meters for
ONT-1 and 450 Meters for ONT-2 as per the diagram given in the figures above. Therefore, the
distance between two ONTS will be 200 Meters distance. However, this is based on the
assumption that the Indian Railways Telecommunication Room/OFC hut will be at the end of
the platform. If the room is in the middle of the platform, cable lengths will change accordingly.

6.5 Schematic diagram Class D and E stations

Figure 6.5: Schematic diagram Class D and E stations

Figure 6.4: field set up at Class D and E stations

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To extend the connectivity from OLT through Optical Fibre Cable (OFC), to the ONTs at the
Platforms in D and E Category Stations. The length of the OFC Cable shall be shall be ~10
Meters as per the diagram given in the above figures. The distance between ONT to the Access
Point should limit to 100 meters and connectivity should be through CAT6 cable. The Access
Points are to be placed where Passengers are crowded.

6.6 Network Architecture

Figure 6.6: Connectivity at POP Station

6.6.1 Backbone Bandwidth

RailTel MPLS are used for providing bandwidth at the proposed PoP (Point of Presence).

6.6.2 Protection Architecture

Protection paths to provide redundancy in case of failures of fibre, equipment or port failures
were incorporated. The traffic shall be routed through a redundant path to the nearest PoP on
the other side of the network.

6.6.3 Number of PoPs

RailTel provided two nos. of 1 Gbps Internet Uplink at selected PoPs. Depending on the
network architecture as show in the above figure.

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6.6.4 NON PoPs

At places where Railtel OFC is not Available, as per railway board no.2020/tele Dev/Wi -Fi
facility at stns dated 03/04.09.2020. VPN Solution for internet connect ivity to extend Wi-Fi
services to be deployed. Based upon this SIMs should be procured in the name of Indian
railways and Tata Trusts should procure 4G/LTE Standard Dongle/System with Unlimited data
plan as Provided by the Communication Service provider for a duration of 12 months or till the
time OFC connectivity is rolled out.

6.7 General Equipment Requirements

 Standards Compliance: The equipment shall comply with ITU-T G.984.x standards
with an upgrade path to ITU-T G.987.x XG-PON standards.
 Reliability: The equipment and network architecture shall ensure network uptime of
99.95%.
 Redundancy: The equipment shall support power module redundancy. It shall support
standard, inter-operable and open protection schemes.
 Scalability: The network and the equipment shall be capable of scaling to utilize all the
ports to full capacity.
 Security: The equipment shall have protection against security breaches and shall not
cause vulnerabilities in the connected network.
 Physical protection: As appropriate, caps/ blanks shall be provided to cover spare ports
and slots in the equipment (OLT, ONT & AP).

6.7.1 Specifications of Access Points

Table 6.1: Specification of Access Point

S. N. Description Specifications
1. Standard IEEE 802.11a/b/n/ac
2. Frequency Bands Supported 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz
3. LAN Ports No. of Gigabit Ethernet
4. Max Transmit Power 20 dBm
5. Power Power Over Ethernet, 12V DC/802.3at
(PoE+)
6. Operating Temperature 0 Deg C – 50 Deg C
7. Storage Temperature -25 Deg C to 75 Deg C
8. Humidity 0-95% Condensing
9. Power Consumption 50W

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6.7.2 Specifications of Optical Line Terminal (OLT)

Table 6.2: Specifications of Optical Line Terminal (OLT)

S. N. Description Specifications
1. Network Uplink Ports Should support Gigabit Ethernet and 10
Gigabit
Ethernet
2. Carrier Ethernet Ports Should Support 10 Gigabit Ethernet with
Bidirectional SFPs
3. OLT Ports 4 Nos as per ITU-T G.984
4. Protocols to be supported IEEE 802.1Q, IEEE 802.1ad
Link Aggregation (802.3ad) STP, RSTP
(IEEE 802.1D-2004)
IGMP Snooping IGMP v1/v2/v3
Broadcast/Multicast storm recovery
Traffic Policing
QoS (DSCP/802.1p) ERPS (ITU G.8032)
MAC learning, MAC limiting DHCP
relay Agent with Option-82
Pluggable SFP/XFP for Ethernet ports
5. Node Management Interfaces Configurable management VLAN
WEB based (HTTPS) Telnet
SNMP v1/v2c
10/100BaseT Management Interface
6. Power -48 V DC
7. Operating Temperature 0 Deg C – 65 Deg C
8. Storage Temperature -25 Deg C to 75 Deg C
9. Humidity 0-90% Condensing
10. Mounting Rack Mountable
11. Redundancy to be supported 1+1 Power redundancy
12. Backplane/Switching Fabric Both the backplane and the switching
fabric of the OLT shall be non-blocking.

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6.7.3 Specifications of Optical Network Terminal (ONT)

S. N. Description Specifications
1. OLT Ports 1 No. as per ITU-T G.984 Specs
2. LAN ports POE+ based 4 Nos. of LAN Ports
3. Operating Temperature 0 Deg C – 65 Deg C
4. Storage Temperature -25 Deg C to 75 Deg C
5. Humidity 0-90% Condensing
6. Mounting Rack Mountable
7. Power supply -48V MCB/ 230V MCB
8. Backplane/Switching Fabric Both the backplane and the switching
fabric of the ONT shall be non-blocking

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7 Chapter
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

1. What does Wi-Fi mean?

Wi-Fi is a wireless networking technology that uses radio waves to provide wireless high-speed
Internet access. It refers to IEEE 802.11x standards.

2. How does Wi-Fi work?

On the technical side, the IEEE 802.11 standard defines the protocols that enable
communications with current Wi-Fi-enabled wireless devices, including wireless routers and
wireless access points. Wireless access points support different IEEE standards.
Each standard is an amendment that was ratified over time. The standards operate on varying
frequencies, deliver different bandwidth, and support different numbers of channels.

3. What is a wireless access point?

A wireless access point (AP) allows wireless devices to connect to the wireless network. Having
a Cisco wireless network makes it easy to bring new devices online and provides flexible
support to mobile workers.
What a wireless access point does for your network is similar to what an amplifier does for your
home stereo. An access point takes the bandwidth coming from a router and stretches it so that
many devices can go on the network from farther distances away. But a wireless access point
does more than simply extend Wi-Fi. It can also give useful data about the devices on the
network, provide proactive security, and serve many other practical purposes.

4. What is a wireless router?

Wireless routers are commonly found in homes. They're the hardware devices that Internet
service providers use to connect you to their cable or xDSL Internet network.
A wireless router is sometimes referred to as a wireless local area network (WLAN) device. A
wireless network is also called a Wi-Fi network.
A wireless router combines the networking functions of a wireless access point and a router.

5. What is a desktop Wi-Fi router?

The most common way for users to connect to the Internet wirelessly is with a desktop wireless
(Wi-Fi) router. These routers look like small boxes with multiple short antennas to help
broadcast the signal throughout a home or workplace. The farther a user is from the base Wi-Fi
router, the weaker the signal. So multiple wireless routers, called range extenders, usually are

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placed throughout the workspace. Wi-Fi range extenders, placed in an array, boost or extend
Internet coverage.

6. What is a mobile hotspot?

A mobile hotspot is a common feature on smartphones with both tethered and untethered
connections. When you turn on your phone’s mobile hotspot, you share your wireless network
connection with other devices that can then access the Internet.

7. What is portable Wi-Fi hotspot?

A portable Wi-Fi hotspot is a mobile hotspot obtained through a cell phone carrier. It's a small
device that uses cellular towers that broadcast high-speed 3G or 4G broadband signals. Multiple
devices, like iPads and laptops, can then connect wirelessly to the device, which in
turn seamlessly connects to the Internet where ever you travel. Similar to a cell phone, the
portable hotspot's monthly cost is based on the data usage plan you select. A portable Wi-Fi
hotspot is a more reliable way to access the Internet than searching for static public Wi-Fi
hotspots.

8. How does 802.11 work?

The 802.11 protocol series uses carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance
(CSMA/CA). This means that devices first check a channel for other active users, including
those not using the 802.11 standard, before sending each frame. While some might refer to these
as “packets,” the more technically accurate term is “frame.”

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References
1. IRISET Notes TA2 – Data Communication & Networking
2. IRISET Notes TA3 – Data Networks of IR
3. Technical data collected from RTM Div.
4. Relevant information from IEEE, Railtel, Cisco & other websites

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CAMTECH Publications
CAMTECH is continuing its efforts in the documentation and up-gradation of information on
maintenance practices of Signalling & Telecom assets. Over the years a large number of
publications on Signalling & Telecom subjects have been prepared in the form of handbooks,
pocket books, pamphlets and video films. These publications have been uploaded on the Internet
as well as Railnet.
For viewing/downloading these publications

On Internet:
Visit www.indianrailways.gov.in
Go to About Indian Railways → Railway Board Directorates →Efficiency &
Research→CAMTECH, Gwalior → Other Important links → Publications for download →S&T
Engineering (Yearwise/ Subjectwise).

On Railnet:
Visit Railway Board website at 10.1.2.21
Go to Railway Board Directorates → →Efficiency & Research→CAMTECH, Gwalior → Other
Important links → Publications for download →S&T Engineering (Yearwise/ Subjectwise).

Alternatively the CAMTECH publications can be viewd/downloaded through following link on

Internet/Railnet:

https://indianrailways.gov.in/railwayboard/view_section.jsp?lang=0&id=0,1,304,366,538,2713
,2718,2722,2731

A limited number of publications in hard copy are also available in CAMTECH library which
can be issued by deputing staff with official letter from controlling officer. The letter should be
addressed to Director (S&T), CAMTECH, Gwalior.
For any further information regarding publications please contact:
Director (S&T) – 0751-2470185 (O)(BSNL)
SSE/Tele - 9755549287 (CUG)
Or
Email at [email protected] Or FAX to 0751-2470841 (BSNL)
Or
Write at
Director (S&T)
Indian Railways Centre for Advanced Maintenance Technology,
In front of Hotel Adityaz, Airport Road, Maharajpur,
Gwalior (M.P.) 474005

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Our Objective

To upgrade Maintenance Technologies and Methodologies and achieve

improvement in Productivity and Performance of all Railway assets and
manpower which inter-alia would cover Reliability, Availability and
Utilisation.

If you have any suggestion & any specific comments, please write to us:
Contact person : Director (Signal & Telecommunication)
Postal Address : Centre for Advanced Maintenance Technology, Opposite
Hotel Adityaz, Near DD Nagar, Maharajpur,
Gwalior (M.P.) Pin Code – 474 005
Phone : 0751 - 2470185
Email : [email protected]

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



INDIAN RAILWAYS
Centre for Advanced Maintenance Technology
Maharajpur, Gwalior (M.P.) – 474 005

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