Wireless Communication (BTEC-601-18)

Unit 5: Evolution of Communication Generations

Introduction to Bluetooth:

Bluetooth technology is a high-speed low powered wireless technology link that is designed to connect
phones or other portable equipment together. It is a specification (IEEE 802.15.1) for the use of low-
power radio communications to link phones, computers, and other network devices over short distances
without wires. Wireless signals transmitted with Bluetooth cover short distances, typically up to 30 feet
(10 meters).

It is achieved by embedded low-cost transceivers into the devices. It supports the frequency band of
2.45GHz and can support upto 721KBps along with three voice channels. This frequency band has been
set aside by international agreement for the use of industrial, scientific, and medical devices (ISM).rd-
compatible with 1.0 devices.

It can connect up to “eight devices” simultaneously and each device offers a unique 48-bit address from
the IEEE 802 standard with the connections being made a point to point or multipoint.

History of Bluetooth

Bluetooth wireless technology was named after a Danish Viking and King, Harald Blatand; his last
name means “Bluetooth” in English. He is credited with uniting Denmark and Norway, just as Bluetooth
wireless technology is credited with uniting two disparate devices.

The Bluetooth technology emerged from the task undertaken by Ericsson Mobile Communications in
1994 to find an alternative to the use of cables for communication between mobile phones and other
devices. In 1998, the companies Ericsson, IBM, Nokia, and Toshiba formed the Bluetooth Special
Interest Group (SIG) which published the 1st version in 1999.
The first version was 1.2 standard with a data rate speed of 1Mbps. The second version was 2.0+EDR
with a data rate speed of 3Mbps. The third was 3.0+HS with a speed of 24 Mbps. The latest version is
4.0.

Connections

Generally, the devices which are connected through Bluetooth are very secure from hacking. As they
work with different frequencies & the devices which jump between these frequencies were 100s of times
for every second which is called the “frequency-hopping spread spectrum”.

This device is frequently used for connecting mobile devices otherwise fixed devices. But it is also
working to link a printer otherwise mouse toward a computer. As Bluetooth & Wi-Fi are frequently
complementary, so they work at the same time & provides the same connectivity, so you cannot find out
which hardware is connected. Most tablets, computers, smartphones simply permit connecting with one
device that is Bluetooth enabled at a time.
How Bluetooth Works?

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Bluetooth Network consists of a Personal Area Network or a piconet which contains a minimum of 2 to
a maximum of 8 BlueTooth peer devices- Usually a single master and upto 7 slaves. A master is a
device that initiates communication with other devices. The master device governs the communications
link and traffic between itself and the slave devices associated with it. A slave device is a device that
responds to the master device. Slave devices are required to synchronize they’re transmit/receive timing
with that of the masters.

In addition, transmissions by slave devices are governed by the master device (i.e., the master device
dictates when a slave device may transmit). Specifically, a slave may only begin its transmissions in a
time slot immediately following the time slot in which it was addressed by the master, or in a time slot
explicitly reserved for use by the slave device.

The frequency hopping sequence is defined by the Bluetooth device address (BD_ADDR) of the master
device. The master device first sends a radio signal asking for a response from the particular slave
devices within the range of addresses. The slaves respond and synchronize their hop frequency as well
as a clock with that of the master device.

Scatternets are created when a device becomes an active member of more than one piconet. Essentially,
the adjoining device shares its time slots among the different piconets.

Bluetooth Architecture

The Bluetooth architecture uses two networks like Piconet and Scatternet

Piconet Network

Piconet is one kind of wireless network that includes one main node namely the master node as well as
seven energetic secondary nodes are known as slave nodes. So, we can declare that there are eight active
nodes totally which are arranged at a10 meters distance. The message between these two nodes can be
done one-to-one otherwise one-to-many.

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Communication can be possible only among the master and slave but the communication like Slave-
slave cannot be possible. It also includes 255 parked nodes which are known as secondary nodes. These
cannot communicate until it gets altered to the active condition.

Scatternet Network

The formation of the Scatternet Network can be done through various piconets. On one piconet, a slave
is present which acts as a master otherwise it can be called primary within other piconets. So, this type
of node gets a message from the master within one piconet & transmits the message toward its slave in
another piconet wherever it works like a slave. So, this kind of node is called a bridge-node. In two
piconets, a station cannot be master.

Types of Bluetooth

This technology eliminates the necessity of wires and cables. At present, this technology has seen a fast
growth of Bluetooth-enabled devices.

Headsets

The most commonly known device is the Bluetooth headset. Generally, a headset allows a person to
make as well as receive calls through a mobile phone without using your hands otherwise wires. These
headsets are prepared with voice recognition, thus one can dial & talk without utilizing a mobile
handset.

Stereo Headset

The function of a stereo headset is similar to a normal headset without using wires. The connection of a
stereo headset can be done to any Bluetooth-enabled device like the music player. So, it permits the user
to hear the music in a short range of your music player device. This headset also supports mobile
phones.

Bluetooth System In-Car

An in-car Bluetooth system connects the mobile phone to the sound system in your vehicle. So, you can
make & receive phone calls through the speaker system without using a mobile device.

Printer

A printer with Bluetooth enabled can get files like pictures and text documents from any device that is
equipped with a blue tooth like a PDA or laptop & print the data without using wires. This device must
be connected to the printer for the purpose of printing to work properly.

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Webcam

A webcam enabled by Bluetooth mainly works as a usual webcam without the requirement of wires. The
wireless capabilities add mobility to the device, unlike traditional webcams, which remain docked onto
or near the computer.

GPS Device

A Bluetooth-enabled GPS device is an essential device as compared to normal GPS because it permits
you to converse through the device with voice. Once the device is communicated through voice then the
device will find the address and also provide the directions over the display using voice command.

Keyboard

A Bluetooth-enabled keyboard mainly works like a normal keyboard, without using wires to connect the
device to a PC. This keyboard also functions through particular smartphone devices.

Specifications

The Bluetooth specifications include the following.

Bluetooth Specification

Core Specifications: It defines the Bluetooth protocol stack and the requirements for testing and
qualification of Bluetooth-based products.

The Profiles Specification: It defines usage models that provide detailed information about how to
use the Bluetooth protocol for various types of applications.

The core specifications of Bluetooth consists of 5 layers

 Radio: Radio specifies the requirements for radio transmission – including frequency, modulation,
and power characteristics – for a Bluetooth transceiver.
 Baseband Layer: It defines physical and logical channels and link types (voice or data); specifies
various packet formats, transmit and receive timing, channel control, and the mechanism for

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frequency hopping (hop selection) and device addressing. It specifies point to point or point to
multipoint links. The length of a packet can range from 68 bits (shortened access code) to a
maximum of 3071 bits.

 LMP- Link Manager Protocol (LMP): It defines the procedures for link setup and ongoing link
management.
 Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP): It is responsible for adapting upper-
layer protocols to the baseband layer.
 Service Discovery Protocol (SDP): – Allows a Bluetooth device to query other Bluetooth devices
for device information, services provided, and the characteristics of those services.

The 1st three layers comprise the Bluetooth module whereas the last two layers make up the host. The
interfacing between these two logical groups is called Host Controller Interface.

How Secure Bluetooth Is?

This technology is considered as much secure wireless technology once we used safety measures.
Bluetooth-enabled devices also move radio frequencies frequently when connected paired to prevent an
easy attack. These devices offer different settings to allow the user for controlling the limit of Bluetooth
connections. The security level of a device for a “trusting” this device limits the connections to simply
that exact device.

By using the settings of service-level, you can also limit the types of activities allowed by your device to
connect in while on a Bluetooth connection. In any wireless technology, there is always some safety risk
involved. Hackers have planned different malicious attacks that utilize Bluetooth networking.
For instance, bluesnarfing refers to a hacker gaining official access to data over a device through
Bluetooth; “blue bugging” is once an attacker receives from your mobile & all the functions.

Bluetooth Versions & Its Specifications

The different versions as well as their specifications of Bluetooth mainly include the following.

 Bluetooth v1.0: The first standard introduced, it wasn’t actually used commercially because it
had difficulties with interoperability, which was supposed to be the main draw of a universal
communication standard.
 Bluetooth v1.1: Dubbed IEEE 802.15.1-2002 since the SIG didn’t exist, it fixed a lot of the
problems from the previous versions and added non-encrypted channels and signal strength
indicators.
 Bluetooth v1.2: Brought about much faster transfer speeds, introduced AFH and better
transmission conventions such as retransmission of corrupted data packets.
 Bluetooth v2.0+EDR: Again brought about faster transfer speeds, upto 3 Mbits/s theoretically.
EDR stood for ‘Enhanced Data Rate’, to signify this.
 Bluetooth v2.1+EDR: A major revision that let device pairing happen much faster and more
easily, as we know today.

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 Bluetooth v3.0+HS: Another major revision that allowed data transfer of upto 24 Mbits/s, but
not on the actual Bluetooth channel. The Bluetooth channel was used to pair devices, then the
actual transfer was done over a channelized WiFi link.
 Bluetooth v4.0 LE: Called Bluetooth Low Energy, this drastically lowered power required while
keeping data rates up, which opened up a whole new world of constantly connected devices such
as fitness bands, smart watches and the like. It wasn’t possible earlier to keep the link on for too
long because of battery and heat issues, so Bluetooth v4.0 LE was something of a milestone.

How Bluetooth Operates?

These devices should connect with each other for data exchange in a safe way with encryption. Once the
Bluetooth device approaches a range of another device then an electronic conversation can be occurred
to decide whether they believe each other or not, so that data can be shared. Here electronic conversion
can be done wirelessly without operating a device.
The different peripherals like smart watches, activity trackers have connected toward similar essential
devices like smart phones from a Piconet to a PAN (personal-area network) that may fill a whole
building or may include a distance, not above that among the smart phone within your pocket & the
smart watch on your wrist.

Connect with a Smart Phone

The connection of a headset with a smart phone can be done based on the following steps.

 We need to check the Bluetooth whether that is completely charged or not, switch ON & connect
with the phone you wish to connect.
 Switch ON the phone and search for the Bluetooth feature generally found beneath Settings.
 Turn ON Bluetooth
 Once the Bluetooth feature is turned on, the smartphone transmits a signal & begins scanning of other
Bluetooth allowed devices.
 Once the smartphone discovers the headset, then the headset will appear on the devices list. In some
situations, you will be requested to connect the devices by providing a PIN number that should
appear through your headset.
 Once both the devices are connected, then automatically all your phone calls will connect to your
headset until it is activated. So the pairing process cannot be repeated once again.

Tips for Troubleshooting

Troubleshooting tips for Bluetooth mainly include the following.

 Switch off everything and do again the pairing procedure.

 Verify the batteries within your headphone & check whether they are charged completely or not
 Verify that your headset & phone are well-matched.

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 A Bluetooth-enabled device produces low-power radio transmission signals that can transmit up to 10
meters approximately. However, the distance can change based on the headset. Make sure the range
once before you purchase.
• If you get any issues while connecting your device, check with the manufacturers.

Advantages

The advantages of Bluetooth include the following.

 It removes the problem of radio interference by using a technique called Speed Frequency
Hopping. This technique utilizes 79 channels of the particular frequency band, with each device
accessing the channel for only 625 microseconds, i.e. the device must toggle between transmitting
and receiving data from one-time slot to another.
 This implies the transmitters change frequencies 1,600 times every second, meaning that more
devices can make full use of a limited slice of the radio spectrum. This ensures that the interference
won’t take place as each transmitter will be on different frequencies.
 The power consumption of the chip (consisting of a transceiver) is low, at about 0.3mW, which
makes it possible for the least utilization of battery life.
 It guarantees security at the bit level. The authentication is controlled using a 128bit key.
 It is possible to use Bluetooth for both transferring data and verbal communication as Bluetooth can
support data channels of up to 3 similar voice channels.
 It overcomes the constraints of the line of sight and one-to-one communication as in another mode of
wireless communications like infrared.

Disadvantage

 Somewhat vulnerable to hacking

 Loses connection after a certain short range
 Throughput can be affected in certain conditions
 Prone to wireless interference since it shares a common channel
 Slow transfer rates for heavy data usage
 Eats up battery power prior to the implementation of Bluetooth LE

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Applications

The applications of Bluetooth include the following.

Bluetooth Technology

Cordless Desktop: All (or most) of the peripheral devices (e.g., mouse, keyboard, printer, speakers,
etc.) are connected to the PC cordlessly.
Ultimate headset: It can be used to allow one headset to be used with myriad devices, including
telephones, portable computers, stereos, etc.
Automatic Synchronization: This usage model makes use of the hidden computing paradigm, which
focuses on applications in which devices automatically carry out certain tasks on behalf of the user
without user intervention or awareness.
Multimedia Transfer:- Exchanging multimedia data like songs, videos, pictures can be transferred
among devices using Bluetooth.

Bluetooth Architecture
The protocol architecture of Bluetooth is given below:

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The radio layer is responsible for:

* Modulation/Demodulation of data for transmitting (OR) receiving over air.

The base band layer is responsible for:

* Controlling the physical links via radio

* Assembling the packets

* Controlling frequency hopping.

The link manager protocol controls and configures links to other devices.

The host controller interface(HCI) handles communication between the host and the module. For this
purpose, it uses several HCI command packets such as the even packets and data packets. The L2CAP
layer converts the data obtained from higher layers into packets of different sizes.

The RF COMM provides a serial interface with wireless application protocol (WAP) and object
exchange(OBEX).

WAP and OBEX provide interface to other communications protocols.

The TCS(Telephone control protocol specification) provide telephony service.

The SDP(Service discovery protocol) allows the devices to discover the services available on another
Bluetooth enabled device.

The applications present in the application layer can extract the services of the lower layers by using
one of the many profiles available.

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Zigbee:
In this present communication world, there are numerous high data rate communication standards that
are available, but none of these meet the sensors’ and control devices’ communication standards. These
high-data-rate communication standards require low-latency and low-energy consumption even at lower
bandwidths. The available proprietary wireless systems’ Zigbee technology is low-cost and low-power
consumption and its excellent and superb characteristics make this communication best suited for several
embedded applications, industrial control, and home automation, and so on. The Zigbee technology range
for transmission distances mainly ranges from 10 – 100 meters based on the output of power as well as
environmental characteristics.

What is Zigbee Technology?

Zigbee communication is specially built for control and sensor networks on IEEE 802.15.4 standard for
wireless personal area networks (WPANs), and it is the product from Zigbee alliance.
This communication standard defines physical and Media Access Control (MAC) layers to handle many
devices at low-data rates. These Zigbee’s WPANs operate at 868 MHz, 902-928MHz, and 2.4 GHz
frequencies. The data rate of 250 kbps is best suited for periodic as well as intermediate two-way
transmission of data between sensors and controllers.

Zigbee is a low-cost and low-powered mesh network widely deployed for controlling and monitoring
applications where it covers 10-100 meters within the range. This communication system is less
expensive and simpler than the other proprietary short-range wireless sensor networks as Bluetooth and
Wi-Fi.
Zigbee supports different network configurations for the master to master or master to slave
communications. And also, it can be operated in different modes as a result the battery power is
conserved. Zigbee networks are extendable with the use of routers and allow many nodes to interconnect
with each other for building a wider area network.

How does Zigbee Technology Work?

Zigbee technology works with digital radios by allowing different devices to converse through one
another. The devices used in this network are a router, coordinator as well as end devices. The main
function of these devices is to deliver the instructions and messages from the coordinator to the single
end devices such as a light bulb.

In this network, the coordinator is the most essential device which is placed at the origin of the system.
For each network, there is simply one coordinator, used to perform different tasks. They choose a
suitable channel to scan a channel as well as to find the most appropriate one through the minimum of
interference, allocate an exclusive ID as well as an address to every device within the network so that
messages otherwise instructions can be transferred in the network.

Routers are arranged among the coordinator as well as end devices which are accountable for messages
routing among the various nodes. Routers get messages from the coordinator and stored them until their

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end devices are in a situation to get them. These can also permit other end devices as well as routers to
connect the network;

In this network, the small information can be controlled by end devices by communicating with the
parent node like a router or the coordinator based on the Zigbee network type. End devices don’t
converse directly through each other. First, all traffic can be routed toward the parent node like the
router, which holds this data until the device’s receiving end is in a situation to get it through being
aware. End devices are used to request any messages that are waiting from the parent.

Zigbee Architecture

Zigbee system structure consists of three different types of devices as Zigbee Coordinator, Router, and
End device. Every Zigbee network must consist of at least one coordinator which acts as a root and
bridge of the network. The coordinator is responsible for handling and storing the information while
performing receiving and transmitting data operations.

Zigbee routers act as intermediary devices that permit data to pass to and fro through them to other
devices. End devices have limited functionality to communicate with the parent nodes such that the
battery power is saved as shown in the figure. The number of routers, coordinators, and end devices
depends on the type of networks such as star, tree, and mesh networks.

Zigbee protocol architecture consists of a stack of various layers where IEEE 802.15.4 is defined by
physical and MAC layers while this protocol is completed by accumulating Zigbee’s own network and
application layers.

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There are major four layers available in ZigBee stack which are physical layer, Media access layer,
Network layer and application layer.

Application layer defines various addressing objects including profiles, clusters, and endpoints. You
can see the ZigBee stack layers in the figure above.

Network layer: It adds routing capabilities that allows RF data packets to traverse multiple devices
(multiple "hops") to route data from source to destination (peer to peer).

MAC layer manages RF data transactions between neighboring devices (point to point). The MAC
includes services such as transmission retry and acknowledgment management and collision avoidance
techniques.

Physical layer: It defines how devices are connected to make a network; it defines the output power,
number of channels and transmission rate. Most ZigBee applications operate on the 2.4 GHz ISM band
at a 250kbps data rate.

Zigbee Devices

The IEEE 802.15.4 Specification defines two types of devices: FFD or Full-Function Devices and RFD
or Reduced-Function Devices. An FFD Device can literally do it all. It can perform all the tasks
described in the IEEE 802.15.4 Standard and can take up any role in the network.

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An RFD Device, as the name suggests, has limited capabilities. The number tasks performed by an RFD
Devices are limited.

An FFD Device can communicate with any device in the network and it must active and always
listening in the network. An RFD Device can only communicate only with an FFD Device and is
intended for simple applications like turning on or off a switch.

The FFD and RFD devices in an IEEE 802.15.4 Network can take three different roles: Coordinator,
PAN Coordinator and Device. Coordinator and PAN Coordinator are FFD Devices and the Device can
be either an FFD or an RFD Device.

A Coordinator is capable of relaying messages, a PAN Coordinator is the main controller in a Personal
Area Network (PAN) and if the device is not a coordinator, then it is simply called as Device.

Based on the concept of FFD and RFD devices and Coordinator, PAN Coordinator and Device in the
IEEE 802.15.4 Specification, the Zigbee Standard has created three Zigbee Protocol Devices. They are

 The Zigbee Coordinator

 The Zigbee Router and
 The Zigbee End Device

Zigbee Coordinator
A Zigbee Coordinator is a PAN Coordinator in the IEEE 802.15.4 Network (an FFD Device) and it is
responsible for forming the network. After establishing the network, it allocates network address for the
devices that are allowed to join the network. It also routes the messages between the end devices.

Zigbee Router
A Zigbee Router is an IEEE 802.15.4 Coordinator (an FFD Device) and is enables the range of the
Zigbee Network. With the help of a Zigbee Router, more devices can be added to the network. A Zigbee
Router can sometimes act as a Zigbee End Device.

Zigbee End Device

A Zigbee End Device is neither a Zigbee Coordinator nor a Zigbee Router. A Zigbee End Device
physically interfaces to a sensor or executes a control operation. It can be either An FFD or an RFD
depending on the application.

Zigbee Network Topologies

The Zigbee Network Layer in the Zigbee Stack is responsible for formation of the network. There are
three Zigbee Network Topologies: Star, Cluster Tree and Mesh. These three Zigbee Topologies come
under one of the two network topologies mentioned in the IEEE 802.15.4 i.e. Star and Peer-to-Peer.

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Applications of Zigbee Technology

The applications of ZigBee technology include the following.

Industrial Automation: In manufacturing and production industries, a communication link continually

monitors various parameters and critical equipment. Hence Zigbee considerably reduces this
communication cost as well as optimizes the control process for greater reliability.
Home Automation: Zigbee is perfectly suited for controlling home appliances remotely as a lighting
system control, appliance control, heating, and cooling system control, safety equipment operations and
control, surveillance, and so on.
Smart Metering: Zigbee remote operations in smart metering include energy consumption response,
pricing support, security over power theft, etc.
Smart Grid monitoring: Zigbee operations in this smart grid involve remote temperature monitoring,
fault locating, reactive power management, and so on.
ZigBee technology is used to build engineering projects like wireless fingerprint attendance system and
home automation.

This is all about a brief description of Zigbee technology’s architecture, operations modes,
configurations, and applications. We hope that we have given you enough content on this title, for you to
understand it better. Thus, this is all about an overview of Zigbee technology and it is based on IEEE
802.15.4 network. The designing of this technology can be done extremely strong so it operates in all
kinds of environments.

It provides flexibility as well as security for different environments. Zigbee technology has gained so
much popularity in the market because it provides consistent mesh networking by enabling a network to
control over an extensive region, and also it provides low-power communications. So this is a perfect
IoT technology.

Zigbee Technology Advantages and Disadvantages

The advantages of Zigbee include the following.

 This network has a flexible network structure

 Battery life is good.
 Power consumption is less
 Very simple to fix.
 It supports approximately 6500 nodes.
 Less cost.
 It is self-healing as well as more reliable.
 Network setting is very easy as well as simple.
 Loads are evenly distributed across the network because it doesn’t include a central controller
 Home appliances monitoring as well controlling is extremely simple using remote
 The network is scalable and it is easy to add/remote ZigBee end device to the network.

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The disadvantages of Zigbee include the following.

 It needs the system information to control Zigbee based devices for the owner.
 As compared with WiFi, it is not secure.
 The high replacement cost once any issue happens within Zigbee based home appliances
 The transmission rate of the Zigbee is less
 It does not include several end devices.
 It is so highly risky to be used for official private information.
 It is not used as an outdoor wireless communication system because it has less coverage limit.
 Similar to other types of wireless systems, this ZigBee communication system is prone to bother
from unauthorized people.

Difference between Bluetooth and Zigbee

S.NO Bluetooth Zigbee

The frequency range supported in

Bluetooth vary from 2.4 GHz to 2.483 While the frequency range supported in
1. GHz. Zigbee mostly 2.4 GHz worldwide.

There are seventy nine RF channels in

2. Bluetooth. There are sixteen RF channels in zigbee.

Whereas it also uses BPSK and QPSK

3. It uses GFSK modulation technique. modulation techniques like UWB.

There is maximum of 8 cell nodes in While there is more than sixty five
4. Bluetooth. thousand (65000) cell nodes in zigbee.

While zigbee also requires low

bandwidth but greater than Bluetooth’s
5. Bluetooth requires low bandwidth. bandwidth most of time.

The radio signal range of Bluetooth is While the radio signal range of zigbee is
6. ten meters. ten to hundred meters.

Bluetooth was developed under IEEE Whereas it was developed under IEEE
7. 802.15.1. 802.15.4.

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LTE-Advance systems:
LTE-Advanced is a 3GPP (Generation Partnership Project) standard that describes technological
advancements to the Long Term Evolution (LTE) a highly flexible radio interface that aims at bridging
the gap between 3rd generation and 4th generation (4G) standards described in IMT-Advanced
(International Mobile Telecommunications, LTE Advanced does meet most of the standards for 4G
deployment, though it is often described as 3.9G or pre-4G. However, LTE Advanced is capable of peak
download data rates of 1 Gbps, with a wide transmission bandwidth, low C-plane latency, backwards
compatibility, increased user throughput and spectrum flexibility.

While work on the LTE standard draws to an end, the direction switches to developing LTE advanced,
also referred as 3GPP (Generation Partnership Project) Release 10. LTE Advanced should be compatible
with first release LTE (3GPP Release 8) equipment, and should share frequency bands with first release
LTE, thus making it backwards compatible. In 4G, it is estimated that 100 MHz bandwidths will offer
data rates of 1 Gbps and while OFDM offers an easy way to increase bandwidth by adding additional
subcarriers, the scheduler would have to include a mix of terminals. The 3GPP working groups looking
at proposals for the standard have focused mainly on the physical layer; the topics analyzed included
relay nodes, scalable system bandwidth exceeding 20 MHz, local area optimization of air interface,
flexible spectrum usage, diversity MIMO, etc. Ultimately, standardization is expected to be included in
3GPP Release 10 timeframe. The importance and timeframe of LTE Advanced will mainly depend on
the success of LTE itself. LTE Advanced will be fully built on the existing LTE specification Release 10
and not be defined as a new specification series. Major enhancements to LTE were introduced in
Release 10 after a correction and improvement phase in Release 9. Since LTE Advanced fulfills most
ITU standards for 4G, the 3GPP work plan is similar to the schedule within ITU.

LTE Overview:
3GPP Long Term Evolution is the name given to the 3GPP standard required to deal with the increasing
data throughput requirements of the market. Working groups from 3GPP RAN started to work on
standardization for LTE in late 2004. By 2007, all LTE features related to its functionality were finished
and by 2008, most protocol and performance specifications were finished and included in Release 8

LTE Requirements

3GPP gathered all requirements for LTE ; some requirements are written in an absolute fashion –
defining concepts from scratch – while others are meant in relation to UTRA nomenclature. In this
context, the reference for UTRA baseline is the use of Release 6 HSDPA with 1x1 multi-antenna
scheme for the downlink and Release 6 HSUPA with a 1x2 multi-antenna scheme for the uplink. Here
are several LTE design parameters

1. systems should support peak data rates of 100 Mbps in downlink and 50 Mbps in uplink, within a
20 MHz bandwidth or spectral efficiency values of 5 bps/Hz and 2.5 bps/Hz respectively.
2. downlink and uplink user throughput per MHz at the 5% point of the CDF; 2-3 times Release 6
HSPA.

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3. downlink averaged use throughput per MHz at 3-4 times Release 6 HSDPA; uplink averaged
user throughput per MHz at 2-3 times Release 6 Enhanced Uplink.
4. spectrum efficiency 3-4 times Release 6 HSDPA in downlink and 2-3 times Release 6 HSUPA in
uplink, in a loaded network
5. mobility up to 350 km/h
6. spectrum flexibility, seamless coexistence with previous technologies and reduced complexity
and cost of the overall system

In order to achieve these goals, LTE made use of a new system architecture combined with enhanced
radio access technology. It divided network functions such as modulation, header compression and
handover to the radio access network, while others such as charging, mobility management to the core
network.

LTE Technological Components

In this section, several concepts related to radio access network are discussed in order to offer better
understanding of the technology behind LTE.

2. OFDM. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing is a frequency division multiplexing

scheme utilized as digital multi-carrier modulation method. In LTE OFDM, data is transmitted
on numerous parallel narrow-band subcarriers. The symbol time can be much longer than the
channel delay spread, which reduces inter-symbol interference. OFDM can also be implemented
fairly easily with FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) processing. Moreover, this allows for spectrum
flexibility, so that former technologies may progress easily to LTE. In the uplink, LTE uses SC-
FDMA (Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access) instead of OFDM. The difference
between OFDM and SC-FDMA is the following: in OFDM, Fast Fourier transform is applied on
the receiver side on each block of symbols and inverse FFT (IFFT) on the transmitter side. In
SC-FDMA, both FFT and IFFT are applied on the transmitter and receiver side. Due to the fact
that the uplink transmission power is much lower than the downlink transmission power, LTE
makes good use of SC-FDMA, as it has a smaller peak-to-average power-ratio than the regular
OFDM that implies less complex terminals.
3. Spectrum Flexibility. LTE can operate in various frequency bands and can be deployed with
different bandwidths so that a different spectrum may allow efficient migration from other radio
technologies to LTE. LTE has an overall system bandwidth that extends from 1.4 MHz to 20
MHz (required for highest data rates). LTE can operate in both paired and unpaired spectrum by
supporting both FDD (Frequency Division Duplex) and TDD (Time Division Duplex).

3. MIMO. Multiple-input and multiple-output is a form of smart antenna radio technology that
entails the use of multiple antennas at both the transmitter and the receiver to improve
performance. MIMO technology is very important for LTE to reach the data rates it targeted. All
terminals support at least two receive antennas, which implies that networks can assume the
presence of downlink receive diversity. LTE supports several advanced multi-antenna schemes
such as transmit diversity, spatial multiplexing, and beam-forming.

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4. Link Adaptation. Adaptive coding and modulation refers to the matching of the modulation,
coding and other signal and protocol parameters to the conditions on the radio link. In LTE, this
is implemented by QPSK, 16 QAM and 64 QAM; coding rate varies from 0.07 to 0.93.

5. Turbo Codes. Turbo codes represent class of forward error detection codes, originally developed
to push channel capacity to the maximum theoretical level. The LTE downlink shared channel
uses a turbo encoder with rate 1/3; it is followed by rate matching to set the coding to intended
levels.

LTE-Advanced

This section presents an LTE-Advanced overview starting with a brief history of LTE evolution, a
discussion of the most important requirements set by the 3GPP and techical information related to the
physical layer, including DL and UL channels, OFDMA/SC-FDMA scheme, and radio interface.

LTE-Advanced Overview

ITU issued an invitation for radio-access technologies beyond IMT-2000 also referred to as IMT-
Advanced. Nevertheless, 3GPP was expecting this event to unfold and had already started a study on
LTE-Advanced with the purpose of finding the requirements and technology components so that the
evolution of LTE would meet the requirements of IMT-Advanced. The first step was to consider
backwards compatibility with the existent version of LTE; this implies that an LTE node would see the
LTE-Advanced network as an LTE network. Spectrum compatibility was required for a straightforward,
low-cost progression to LTE-Advanced networks, similar to the evolution of WCDMA to HSPA. In
addition to these parameters, LTE-Advanced was intended to match or exceed the standards set by the
ITU for IMT-Advanced with regards to capacity, data rates and low-cost deployment.

The features that ITU had chosen for IMT-Advanced were: a high degree of commonality of
functionality worldwide while retaining the flexibility to support a wide range of services and
applications in a cost efficient manner; compatibility of services within IMT and with fixed networks;
capability of interworking with other radio access systems; high quality mobile services; user equipment
suitable for worldwide use; user-friendly applications, services and equipment; worldwide roaming
capability; and enhanced peak data rates to support advanced services and applications (100 Mbit/s for
high and 1 Gbit/s for low mobility were established as targets for research).

After receiving the Circular Letter 3GPP held a workshop with regard to LTE-Advanced matching IMT-
Advanced requirements and took several decisions.

1. LTE-Advanced would be an evolution of LTE. Therefore, LTE-Advanced must be backward

compatible with LTE Release 8.
2. LTE-Advanced requirements would meet or even exceed IMT-Advanced requirements following
ITU-R agenda.
3. LTE-Advanced should support significantly increased instantaneous peak data rates in order to
reach ITU requirements. Primary focus would be on low mobility users and improvement on cell
edge data rates would be required.

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LTE-Advanced Requirements

1. Peak data rate of 1 Gbps for downlink (DL) and 500 Mbps for uplink (UL).
2. Regarding latency, in the C-plane the transition time from Idle to Connected should be lower
than 50ms. In the active state, a dormant user should take less than 10ms to get synchronized and
the scheduler should reduce the U-plane latency at maximum.
3. The system should support downlink peak spectral efficiency up to 30 bps/Hz and uplink peak
spectral efficiency of 15 bps/Hz with an antenna configuration of 8 × 8 or less in DL and 4 ×
4 or less in UL.
4. The 3GPP defined a base coverage urban scenario with inter-site distance of 500m and
pedestrian users. Assuming this scenario, average user spectral efficiency in DL must be 2.4
bps/Hz/cell with MIMO 2 × 2, 2.6 bps/Hz/cell with MIMO 4 × 2 and 3.7 bps/Hz/cell with
MIMO 4 × 4, whereas in UL the target average spectral efficiency is 1.2 bps/Hz/cell and 2.0
bps/Hz/cell with SIMO 1×2 and MIMO2×4, respectively.
5. In the same scenario with 10 users, cell edge user spectral efficiency will be 0.07
bps/Hz/cell/user in DL 2 × 2, 0.09 in DL 4 × 2 and 0.12 in DL 4 × 4. In the UL, this cell
edge user spectral efficiency must be 0.04 bps/Hz/cell/user with SIMO 1 × 2 and 0.07 with
MIMO 2 × 4.
6. The mobility and coverage requirements are identical to LTE Release 8. There are only
differences with indoor deployments that need additional care in LTE-Advanced.
7. In terms of spectrum flexibility, the LTE-Advanced system will support scalable bandwidth and
spectrum aggregation with transmission bandwidths up to 100MHz in DL and UL.
8. LTE-Advanced must guarantee backward compatibility and interworking with LTE and with
other 3GPP legacy systems.

LTE-Advanced Physical Layer

The physical layer implements OFDMA scheme on the downlink for high spectral efficiency, robustness
against frequency-selectivity and multi-path interference. It supports flexible bandwidth deployment,
facilitates frequency-domain scheduling and is well suited for MIMO techniques. In the uplink, LTE-
Advanced uses SC-FDMA OFDMA with DFT pre-coding. This implies a common structure of
transmission resources compared to the downlink. The addition of the cyclic prefix supports frequency-
domain equalization on the transmission. The transmission resource structure basic unit is the physical
resource block (PRB). There are 12 subcarriers allocated for 0.5 milliseconds, in pairs, in time domain.
The radio interface contains two frame structures to support both FDD and TDD.

The following points present some of the design features of the downlink and uplink implementation.

1. Cell acquisition signaling synchronizes signals in sub-frames 0 and 5 of each 10 ms radio frame.
The physical broadcast channel (PBCH) in sub-frame 0 of each radio frame carries the master
information block (MIB), includes indication of system bandwidth and has robust design for cell-
wide coverage. Also, the CRC indicates the number of transmitting antennas.
2. Downlink control signaling has a flexible design to avoid unnecessary overhead. The control
region size is dynamically variable; length is indicated by the physical control format indicator

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channel in the first OFDM symbol of each sub-frame; it is designed to be robust, with 16 QPSK
symbols transmitted with full frequency diversity. In the control region, the physical downlink
control channel carries downlink control information messages (downlink resource assignments,
uplink resource grants, and uplink power control commands).
3. Downlink data transmission takes place through the physical downlink shared channel, which
carries user data, broadcast system information and paging messages. The transmission resources
are assigned dynamically by the physical downlink shared channel. They are either localized, in
which case suitable for frequency domain scheduling or distributed, suitable for maximizing
frequency diversity.
4. In the uplink channel structure, data is transmitted on the physical uplink shared channel, placed
in the center of the uplink bandwidth to minimize out-of-band emissions from wide-bandwidth
data transmissions. It has the same channel coding and rate matching as the physical downlink
shared channel. Also, 3 types of modulation are available: QPSK, 16QAM, and 64 QAM. When
the channel is transmitted, any control signaling is multiplexed with data to maintain single
carrier structure.
5. The physical uplink control channel carries control signaling in the absence of the physical
uplink shared channel. It is usually present at the edges of the system bandwidth. The control
channel hops from one side of the carrier to the other to maximize frequency diversity.
6. Uplink control signaling includes acknowledgements (ACK/NACK) for downlink shared
channel transmissions, scheduling request and channel quality information

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4G & 5G Mobile techniques and Emerging technologies

4G Technologies:

INTRODUCTION

The Fourth Generation of mobile networks will truly turn the current mobile phone networks in to end
IP based networks. Every device in the world will have a unique IP address that allows full IP based
communications from a mobile device right to the core of the internet and back out again. 4G is set to
deliver 100Mbps to a roaming mobile device globally and up to 1 Gbps to a stationary device. It won’t
be just the phone networks that need to evolve, increased traffic load on the Internet as a whole will need
to expand, with faster backbones and a link requiring major upgrade.4G Bandwidth will always be the
main factor in the development of application and devices. 3G networks are clear, it’s just not fast
enough, and offering 384kbps doesn’t meet the requirement of the most users. The evolution from 3G to
4G will be driven by services that offer better quality of video & sound. Greater bandwidth, more
sophistication in the association of a large quantity of information. 4G will encompass all systems from
various networks public and private operator-driven broadband networks to personal area and ad hoc
networks. Some possible standards for the 4G system are 802.20, WiMAX, HSDPA, UMTS and other
proprietary network from Flarion technologies and Navini Networks. India China and Japan are striving
to implement 4G in full scale.

EVOLUTION OF WIRELESS DATA SERVICES

At the end of the 1940’s the first radio telephone service was designed for users in the car to the
public landline based telephone network.
Zero generation technology (0G): 0G refers to pre-cell phone mobile technology. Being the
predecessors of the first generation of cellular telephones. The system is called 0g. Technologies used
in 0G system included PTT (push to talk), MTS (mobile telephone system), IMTS (improve mobile
telephone services), and AMTS (advanced mobile telephone system).
First generation technology (1G): 1G refers to the first generation of wireless telecommunication
technology, more popularly known as cell phones. Through 1G, a voice call gets modulated to a
higher frequency of about 150 MHz and up as it is transmitted between radio towers using a
technique called FDMA.

Evolution graph
Second generation technology (2G): 2G first appeared around late 1980’s; 2G system digitized the

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voice signal, as well as the control link. It provides the facility of short message service (SMS) unlike
1G that had its prime focus on verbal communication. Depend the type of multiplexing used 2G
technologies can be divided into TDMA and CDMA. A typical 2G GSM network service uses
800/900 or 1800/1900 frequency spectrum. Data rate of GSM is 9.6kbps. The bandwidth of 2G is 30-
200 KHz.
2.5 G- GPRS (General Packet Radio Service): which are standing for second and a half generations
are a cellular wireless technology developed in between2g and 3g. Data rate of GPRS are ~115kbps.
It can be used for services such as wireless application protocol access, multimedia messaging
services and for accessing internet.
2.75- EDGE (Enhanced Data Rate for GSM Evolution): EDGE (EGPRS) is an abbreviation for
enhanced Data Rate for GSM evolution is a digital mobile phone technology invented by AT &T.
The modulation bit rate is 810 kbps. It offers a data rate of 384 kbps, theoretically up to 473.6kbps.
Third Generation Technology (3G): 3G refers to a networking standard in cell phone technology
that is capable of providing high –speed data service for mobile device. 3g wireless networks become
more widespread you could finally connect to and use the Internet at particular speeds (with 3G
enable Smartphone).
Fourth Generation Technology (4G): 4G mobile data protocol. But a growing band of 4G users
will tell you, it’s all about speed. LTE stands for Long term evolution. 4G Smart-phone on version’s
4G LTE networks means you can download files from the Internet up to 10 times faster than 3G.
With 4G LTE using the web from your phones becomes as pleasurable as using it from your home
computer.
4G TECHNOLOGIES
There are different technologies are used in 4G wireless technology. Smart Antennas for Multiple-
input Multiple Output (MIMO), IPV6, VoIP, OFDM, Software Defined Radio (SDR) System.

Technologies of Mobile Networks

A) Smart Antennas: Smart Antennas Transmitting and Receiving antennas. It resolves the
problem of diminishing spectrum availability and doesn’t require increase power or additional
frequency.
B) IPV6: IPV6 support is essential in preferring to support many wireless –enabled devices. By
increasing the many IP addresses IPV6 removes the need for network address Translation.IPV6 also
enables many applications with better multicast.
C) VoIP: VoIP Stands Voice over Internet Protocol. It allows only packets (IP) to be transferred
eliminating complexity of two protocols over the same circuit. The All voice data will be wrapped

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up in a packet. Samples Voice between 8,000 &64, 000 times per seconds and create streams of bits
which is then compressed and put into a packet. Increase battery life attributable to greater data
compression.
D) OFDM: OFDM allows for the transfer of more data than a form of multiplexing (Time,
frequency, code etc.). It allows for almost the entire frequency band. Currently use in WiMax
(802.16) and WI-Fi (802.11a/g). The frequencies are spaced so that the signals do not interfere with
each other (no Cross talk). It allows for the sending of multiple signals simultaneously from the
same antenna to one device (parallel data transmission).
E) SDR: Software-defined Radio (SDR) technology is one form of open wireless architecture. 4g
technology is a collection of wireless standards; the final form of 4G device will constitute various
standards. SDR technology which is categorized to the area of the radio convergence.

FEATURES OF 4G
An infrastructure to handle pre-existing 3G system along with other wireless technologies, some of
which arecurrently under development.

Support interactive multimedia

User friendly
Terminal heterogeneous
Network heterogeneous
An all IP, packet switched network.
Multi-standard wireless system
Lower cost than previous generations
A spectral efficient system
High network capacity i.e. more simultaneous users per cell
A nominal data rate of 100 Mbps while the client physically moves at high speed relative to the
station, 1Gbpswhile the client and station are in relatively fixed positions as defined by ITU
Global mobile access (terminal and personal mobility)
High quality of service

APPLICATIONS OF 4G:

1) Virtual presence: 4G system gives mobile users a virtual presence. Example video
conferencing.
2) Virtual navigation: remote database contains the graphical representation of streets,
buildings and physicalcharacteristics of a large metropolis.
3) Better use of multimedia applications
4) Tele Geo-processing: Queries dependent on location information of several users in
addition to temporal aspectshave many application e.g. GIS, GPS
ADVANTAGES OF 4G:
1) Pure Data Networks: 4G network is an all-IP based data network. A completely data based
network will allow for more bandwidth which means more data can be passed through the
network.
2) More devices and Application: 4G network devices can take advantages of the higher
bandwidth and speed todeliver more robust and data application.
3) Speed: Theoretical speed of 4G has been suggested that data rates up to 100 Mbps for high

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mobility and 1Gbpsfor low mobility should be the target value.

4) Hand off: The improved 4G network standards will allow for smooth hand off from one
coverage area to anotherwithout interruption to any ongoing data transfer.
5) Faster response time: One benefits of 4G technology are faster response time or lower latency.

DISADVANTAGES OF 4G

1) Capable of being attacked (jamming frequencies).

2) Theft of Service (ToS) and Denial of Service (DoS) attacks are a large possibility.
3) Spam over Internet Telephony (SPIT); essentially being spammed through VoIP.

4G TECHNOLOGY SECURITY ISSUES

In 4G technology there are so many security issues: Interference, Scrambling Attacks, signal Jamming,
Location Tracking, Key management, Bandwidth, Denial of Service attacks, open Nature.

1. Interference: inserting man made interference onto a medium a communication system can
stop functioning due to a high signal to noise ratio. Interference attacks can be easily carried out
as the equipment and knowledge to carry out such attacks are widely available. It is easy to
detect using radio spectrum monitoring equipments.
2. Scrambling Attacks: Scrambling is a form of interference which is activated for short
intervals of time. Scrambling is targeted against a specific frame or part of frames. The attacker
may target management of control information of a particular user to disrupt service. The
attacker has to be sophisticated and knowledgeable since specific frame and time slots must be
identified for the attack to be successful.
3. Signal Jamming: high-speed wireless data networks are vulnerable to a simple jamming
technique that could block service across much of a city. Radio frequency can be jammed or
blocked, if a transmitter sends a signal at the same frequency. The LTE signal is very complex
made up of one subsystem, and in each case if you take out one subsystem, you take out the
entire base station. All that is required is a laptop and an inexpensive software defined radio unit
and battery power.
4. Location Tracking: tracking in a particular cell or across multiple cells. Location tracking is
made possible by tracking a combination of the cell radio network temporary identifier(C-
RNTI) with handover signals or with packet sequence numbers. C-RNTI is transmitted in clear
text an attacker can determine whether the UE using the C-RNTI is still in the same cell or not.
An attacker can link the new C-RNTI from the handover command message and the old C-
RNTI.
5. Key Management: key management for WiMAX at the MS has been designed to safeguard.
This is possible since the old traffic encryption key and new TEK are included in the key replay
message. It can trigger frequent exchange of keying materials. This will cause confusion at the
Ms and exhaust resource at the BS.
6. Bandwidth Stealing: buffer status reports are used as input information for packet

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scheduling, load balancing, and admission control. Due to the nature of the packet scheduling
algorithm by sending a false buffer report.
7. Denial of service attacks: Denial of service attacks are a concern for WiMAX networks.
DOS attacks can be initiated via simple flooding attacking authenticated management frames.
The BS has to sign and replay with it is the public key, processing of public key encryption and
signature is CPU intensive.
8. Open Nature: Open Nature of the network architecture and protocols (IP-based). Open
protocol standards, 4G wireless networks are now susceptible to computer attack techniques
present on the internet. Networks will be increasingly vulnerable to a range of security attacks
including for Malware Trojans and viruses.

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FIFTH GENERATION SYSTEMS (5G)

5G Wireless Communication System is not deployed yet. The big challenge for the
design and deployment of 5G wireless system can be faced easily as proposed features
and architecture (mentioned below) that will increase system capacity and quality within
the limited available frequency spectrum, whose frequency band and Data Bandwidth
will be ‗3-300GHz‘ and ‗1Gbps & higher (as demand)‘ successively. The remarkable
issue, there don‘t have any limitation in 5G as respect to user demands in the next 200
years. The 5G also implies the whole wireless world interconnection (WISDOM—
Wireless Innovative System for Dynamic Operating Mega communications concept),
together with very high data rates of the Quality of Service (QoS) applications.

Evolution of Mobile Technologies

Why is there a need for 5G?

This is mainly focuses on how a 5G network can provide more facilities approach to a
common man to utilize his available possessions in an enormous way to make him to feel
the real progress. As a user point of view, the major difference between current
generations and expected 5G techniques must be something else than increased maximum
throughput; other requirements include :

It could make better revenue for current global operators as well as

interoperability will become morefeasible.
Improved and innovative data coding and modulation techniques,
which includes filter bank multi carrierway in schemes.
For wireless access and back haul use of millimeter wave frequencies is very useful.
With the support of different conduction points with related coverage
and surrounding the option of a supple usage of resources for up link
and down link transmission in each cell is achieved by superior

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intrusion and mobility management.
To make 5G practical for all sorts of radio access technologies there
should be a common platform unique for all the technologies.
Lower battery consumption.
Lower outage probability.
Better coverage and high data rates available at cell edge.
Multiple concurrent data transfer paths.
Possible to1Gbps and higher data rate in mobility.
More secure; better cognitive radio/SDR Security.
Higher system level spectral efficiency.
World Wide Wireless Web (WWWW), wireless-based web
applications that include full multimediacapability beyond 4G speeds.
More applications combined with Artificial Intelligent (AI) as human
life will be surrounded by artificial sensors which could be
communicating with mobile phones.
Not harmful to human health.
Cheaper traffic fees due to low infrastructure deployment costs.
Smart beam antenna systems.

5G is to be a new technology that will provide all the possible applications, by using only
one universal device, and interconnecting most of the already existing communication
infrastructures. The 5G terminals will be an upgradable multimode and cognitive radio-
enabled. It will have software defined radio modulation schemes. All the required
upgradable software should be downloaded from the Internet on the run. The 5G mobile
networks will focus on the development of the user terminals where the terminals will
have access to different wireless technologies at the same time and will consolidate
various flows from various technologies. Besides, the terminal will make the ultimate
choice among different wireless/mobile access network providers for a given service.
Advantages of 5G network of the MasterCore technology
The MasterCore technology has been designed for boundless wireless service; so that
computer, entertainment devices and mobile phone may all share the same wireless
network and can be connected with internet anytime, anywhere. It‘s designed for 5G
communication system to fulfill the limitless target up to the next two centuries, the
common features as following;
Files can be downloaded (even movies) within seconds.
Pages will upload almost instantly.
Can play easily online games.
5G devices are comparatively less expensive than 3G and 4G devices.
Using 5G the battery runs out very fast.
Finest Quality of Service (QoS).
All Networks can be gathered on a platform.
Easily support previous generations.
New deployments of 5G can be connected directly with The
Mastercore by 5G -IU (5G Interfacing Unit)without All IP concept.
No limitation as user demands.
Ability to support the new services.
World combination services are available.

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The MasterCore‘s hardware and software are upgradeable.
Able to fill user‘s demand up to next century.
Subscribers can store data in central storage.
Remote PCs can be controlled by handsets.
Subscriber can use application software without installation in own
devices that provided by theMasterCore.
Security is distributed several layers.
The MasterCore can manage all securities of PSTNs, MSC, and BTS etc.
The high quality services of 5G technology based on Policy to avoid error.

Quality of Service (QoS)

Next Generation Networks (NGN) consists of support functionalities for data transport,
and control transport, as well as functionalities for support of services and applications.
The measurement of traffic is a basic control activity in order to provide Quality of
Service, [5]. In addition 5G communication system is designed by the finest Quality of
Service (QoS).
Quality of Service (QoS) refers to a network‘s ability to achieve maximum bandwidth
and deal with other network performance elements like latency, error rate and uptime.
Quality of service also involves controlling and managing network resources by setting
priorities for specific types of data (video, audio, files) on the network. QoS is
exclusively applied to network traffic generated for video on demand, IPTV, VoIP,
streaming media, videoconferencing and online gaming. The primary goal of quality of
service is to provide priority to networks, including dedicated bandwidth, controlled
jitter, low latency and improved loss characteristics. Its technologies supply the elemental
building blocks that will be used for future business applications in campus, wide area
networks and service provider networks. There are three fundamental components for
basic QoS implementation [17]:
Identification and marking techniques for coordinating QoS from end to end between
network elements.
QoS within a single network element.
QoS policy, management, and accounting functions to control and
administer end-to-end traffic across a network.

Exceptional applications
The 5G MasterCore has some exceptional applications with common features as;
One can know weather, temperature, and location etc. of each other when
conversation is going on.
Students can attend any class of any institute of the world without going there (by
WCSM).
A doctor can treat patients of other countries from a place.
Possible to monitor any place of the world from anywhere.
Batteries can be charged by using network without charger.
It could be possible to visualize lively all the planets and the Universe.
One can complete his/her works without going to the office.
One can be able to locate his/her child when she/he is unfortunately missed.
One can be able to predict tsunami/earthquake before it occurs.

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Difference Between 1G And 2G In Tabular Form

BASIS OF
1G 2G
COMPARISON

1 G uses analog signals for 2G uses the digital signal for

Type Of Signal
communication. communication.

For accessing, TDMA (Time

For accessing, FDMA (Frequency
Division Multiple Access) and
Channelization Division Multiple Access) is the
CDMA (Code Division Multiple
Protocol main channelization protocol in
Access) are the main channelization
1G.
protocol in 2G.

1G was built upon the standards 2G was built upon the standards of
Standards
of MTS, AMTS and IMTS. GSM.

Type Of switching Switching type used in 1G is Switching type used in 1G is circuit

Used circuit switching. switching.

1G is unable to provide internet 2G provide narrow band internet

Internet Service
service. service.

2G provide voice and data

1G provides voice
Voice And Data communication service, but it does
communication service but no
Communication not allow complex data
data communication.
communication like video.

The disadvantages of 1G are

The disadvantage of 2G is the slow
limited channel capacity, the large
Drawbacks rate of data transmission and low
size of the phones, low quality of
network ranges.
voice and low battery life.

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Difference Between 2G And 3G Technology In Tabular Form

BASIS OF
2G 3G
COMPARISON

The main function of 2G technology is The main function of 3G technology is

Main Function the transmission of information via voice data transfer via video conferencing,
signals. MMS etc.
Features like mobile TV, video
Features like mobile TV, video transfers transfers and GPS systems are the
Additional
and GPS system are not available with 1G additional features of 3G technology
Features
and 2G technologies. that are not available with 1G and 2G
technologies.
Downloading And The downloading and uploading speeds The downloading and uploading speeds
Uploading Speeds available in 2G technologies are up to are up to 21 Mbps and 5.7 Mbps
236kbps. respectively.
2G technology offers a low level of 3G technology offers a high level of
security as compared to 3G technology security as compared to 2G technology
Security because 3G networks permit validation because 3G networks permit validation
measures when communicating with other measures when communicating with
devices. other devices.
There is no turbo codes which are used There is turbo codes which are used for
Turbo Codes
for error correction in 2G technology. error correction in 3G technology.

The switching type used in 2G is circuit 3G uses packet switching for data
Switching Type
switching and packet switching. transmission.

The downloading and uploading speeds The downloading and uploading speeds
Downloading &
available in 2G technologies are up to are up to 21 Mbps and 5.7 Mbps
Uploading Speeds
236kbps. respectively.

Transmission The Speed Of Transmission is very low The speed of transmission is very fast
Speed when compared to 3G. when compared to 2G.

The disadvantage of 2G is the slow rate of

The drawback of 3G is that it is simply
Drawback data transmission and low network
not available in certain regions.
ranges.

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Difference Between 3G And 4G Technologies In Tabular Form

BASIS OF
3G 4G
COMPARISON

The maximum uploading speeds The maximum upload rate of 4G technology

Uploading Speed
are up to 5.7 Mbps. is 500 Mbps.

For accessing, OFDMA (Orthogonal

Channelization Frequency Division Multiple Access) and
Protocol FDE (Frequency-Domain Equalization are
the main channelization protocol in 4G.

The downloading speeds of 3G are The maximum download rate of 4G

Download Rate
up to 21 Mbps. technology is 1Gbps.

There is turbo codes which are

4G technology uses concatenated codes for
Error Correction used for error correction in 3G
error correction.
technology.

The frequency range of 3G

The frequency range of 4G technology is
Frequency Range technology is from 1.8GHz to 2.5
from 2GHz to 8GHz.
GHz.

Handoff Handoff management is done Handoff management is done both vertically

Management vertically in 3G. and horizontally.

When it comes to data transmission, 4G uses

Data 3G uses packet switching for data
packet switching technique as well as
Transmission transmission.
message switching technique.

3G offers 500Mbps maximum data When it comes to data bandwidth 4G offers

Data Bandwidth
bandwidth. 1Gbps maximum data bandwidth.

Speed Of The speed of transmission is very The speed of transmission is very fast when
Transmission low when compared to 4G. compared to 3G.

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Difference Between 4G And 5G Technology In Tabular Form

BASIS OF
4G 5G
COMPARISON

5G is expected to support many more connected

Supports less devices
Connection devices than 4G. The standard states that 5G
per unit area when
Density network map should be able to support 1 million
compared to 5G.
connected devices per square kilometer.

Has low speed when Greater speed, enough to download a full-length

Speed
compared to 5G. HD movie in few seconds.

5G technology is anticipated to be utilized widely

Application Is still
for applications such as smart logistics, driverless
Application limited to internet
cars and other such smart applications which
access.
demand high-speed internet.

4G has a limited 5G is expected to have a better coverage area and

Coverage
coverage area. high data rate at the edge of the cell.

Multiple Data No multiple data

Availability of multiple data transfer rate.
Transfer Rate transfer rate.

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 Wireless Communication (BTEC-601-18)

Difference Between 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G And 5G Technology

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