Mysore University School of Engineering

8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006

BIO-MEMS
(21BR741)

MODULE 02 NOTES

Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006

Module 02: Course Content

2.0 Introduction to Microactuation

2.1 Principal means of Microactuation
2.2 MEMS with Microactuators
2.3 Microaccelrometer
2.4 Microfluidic Engineering Science for Microsystem Design and Fabrication:
2.5 Ions and Ionization
2.6 The Diffusion Process
2.7 Plasma Physics
2.8 Electrochemistry
2.9 Quantum Physics.

Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006
2.0 Introduction to Microactuation
A Microscopic servomechanism used to supply & transmit a measured amount of energy for the system or
another mechanism operation is known as a Microactuator. Microactuation refers to the technology and
systems designed to create motion or mechanical force on the microscopic scale. Microactuators are crucial
components in MEMS (Microelectromechanical Systems) devices, where they are used for applications like
sensors, robotics, and precision machinery. They typically operate on principles such as thermal, piezoelectric,
electrostatic, or magnetic actuation, allowing for very fine control in small-scale environments.
The working principle of a Microactuator is to
generate mechanical motion of fluids or solids where
this motion is generated via changing one form of
energy to another energy like from thermal,
electromagnetic, or electrical into kinetic energy (K.E)
of movable components.
For most of the actuators, different force generation
principles are used like the piezo effect, bimetal effect,
electrostatic forces & shape memory effect. Like a general actuator, a microactuator has to meet these
standards like fast switching, large travel, high precision, less power consumption, etc.
The mechanical actuator includes a power supply, transduction unit, actuating element, and output action.
• The power supply is Electrical current/voltage.
• The transduction unit converts the right form of the power supply into the preferred form of actions of
the actuating element.
• Actuating element is a component or material that moves through the power supply.
• Output action is generally in a prescribed motion.

2.1 Principal Means of Microactuation

Microactuators can function in various ways, depending on the energy conversion mechanism involved link
Electrostatic Actuators, Piezoelectric Actuators, Thermal Actuators, Magnetic Actuators etc
A. Electrostatic Actuators: Utilize electric
fields to cause mechanical displacement. An
Electrostatic Microactuator is a type of
actuator that operates based on electrostatic
forces to produce motion at the micro or
nanoscale. These actuators are widely used
in Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems
(MEMS) because they can achieve high precision and low power consumption in a compact form.

Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006
Construction of Electrostatic Microactuator
The construction of an electrostatic microactuator typically involves the following components:
i. Electrostatic Plates (Electrodes):
The actuator has at least two electrodes or plates—one fixed and one movable. These plates are usually made
of conductive materials such as polysilicon or metal. The movable electrode is typically a thin membrane or
beam that can deform under the influence of electrostatic forces.
ii. Dielectric Layer (Insulator):
A dielectric material (e.g., silicon dioxide or silicon nitride) is often used to electrically isolate the movable
and fixed electrodes. In some designs, the dielectric layer could also serve to enhance the actuator’s
performance by controlling the distribution of the electric field.
iii. Suspension System:
The movable part of the actuator is often suspended using beams or flexures. These elements allow the actuator
to move when a voltage is applied, while also providing mechanical support to keep the structure stable.
iv. Electrostatic Actuation Gap:
The gap between the fixed and movable electrodes is a crucial parameter. It determines the strength of the
electrostatic attraction between the plates and, hence, the actuator's efficiency.
v. Anchor/Support Structures:
These are used to support the fixed electrode and provide mechanical stability to the actuator system.

Working Principle of Electrostatic Microactuator

The basic principle can be explained as follows:
i. Electric Field Generation:
When a voltage is applied between the fixed and movable electrodes, an electric field is created in the gap
between them. The electric field exerts a force on the movable electrode due to the attraction or repulsion
between the charges on the electrodes.
ii. Attraction Force:
If the fixed electrode is positively charged
and the movable electrode is negatively
charged (or vice versa), there will be an
attractive force between the two electrodes.
The force is given by Coulomb’s Law:
iii. Deflection/Displacement:
The electrostatic force causes the movable electrode to deflect or move toward the fixed electrode. The
movement typically occurs in the direction normal to the plane of the electrodes, causing a bending or
translation of the actuator depending on the design.

Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006
iv. Restoring Force:
The suspended movable electrode is typically attached to a mechanical structure that provides a restoring force
to bring the actuator back to its original position once the voltage is removed. This is often achieved by a
spring-like suspension (e.g., flexures) or a compliant layer.
v. Switching or Actuation:
By adjusting the applied voltage, the position of the movable electrode can be controlled with high precision.
This can be used for micro-switching, positioning devices, or other functions in MEMS devices. The
displacement can range from a few nanometers to several micrometers, depending on the voltage and the gap
between electrodes.

B. Piezoelectric Actuators: Employ the piezoelectric effect to create motion in response to an applied
electric field. A piezoelectric actuator is a type of actuator that uses the piezoelectric effect to produce
motion or force. The piezoelectric effect is the ability of certain materials to generate an electric charge
in response to mechanical stress. These actuators are widely used in applications requiring precise, rapid,
and small displacements, such as in MEMS devices, medical equipment, optical systems, and robotics.

No Charge Induced Charge Induced in One way Charge Induced in Other Way

Construction of Piezoelectric Actuators

The construction of a piezoelectric actuator typically includes the following components:
i. Piezoelectric Material: The core element of the actuator
is the piezoelectric material, which generates mechanical
displacement or force when subjected to an electrical
field. Common piezoelectric materials include:
o Ceramics (e.g., lead zirconate titanate (PZT), barium titanate)
o Polymers (e.g., polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF))
o Single crystals (e.g., lithium niobate)
These materials exhibit the piezoelectric effect, meaning they produce an electrical charge in response to
mechanical stress (direct piezoelectric effect) and deform when an electric field is applied (inverse
piezoelectric effect).
ii. Electrodes: are placed on the surface of the piezoelectric material. These electrodes are used to apply
a voltage across the material and to collect the generated charge. The electrodes are typically made of
conductive materials such as silver, gold, or other metals.

Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006
iii. Mechanical Structure: The piezoelectric material is often integrated into a mechanical structure that
allows for controlled motion. This can include:
a. Flexible beams for bending or deflection.
b. Stacks or multilayer actuators for larger displacements or force generation.
c. Laminated or bonded arrangements for optimizing the mechanical response.
d. Housings and supports to keep the material in place and transmit the generated force or displacement.
iv. Mounting and Support: Piezoelectric actuators often require a support structure to prevent undesired
movement and to ensure that the generated displacement is directed along the desired axis.

Working Principle of Piezoelectric Actuators

The working principle of piezoelectric actuators is based
on the inverse piezoelectric effect, where the
application of an electric field causes a material to
deform or change shape.
i. Application of Electric Field: When an external
voltage is applied to the electrodes of the
piezoelectric material, an electric field is
generated across the material. Due to the
piezoelectric properties of the material, the application of this electric field causes a deformation in
the material’s crystal lattice. This deformation results in either, Expansion or contraction depending
on the polarity of the applied voltage.
ii. Direction of Deformation: The direction of deformation in a piezoelectric material depends on the
orientation of the material’s crystal structure and the polarity of the applied voltage. The displacement
or motion generated by this deformation can be linear or rotational, depending on the specific actuator.
iii. Generation of Force or Motion: The deformation of the piezoelectric material creates a mechanical
force or displacement.
o Bending actuators: These actuators are typically thin, flexible beams. When a voltage is
applied, the beam bends due to the expansion or contraction of the material along its length.
o Stack actuators: A stack of piezoelectric layers is often used to produce larger displacements.
The layers move slightly in response to the applied voltage, and the combined displacement
from the stack results in a larger output motion.
o Shear actuators: Some piezoelectric actuators use shear forces, where the material undergoes
deformation in response to an applied voltage perpendicular to the material’s surface.
iv. Restoring Force: The piezoelectric material tends to return to its original state when the voltage is
removed, leading to a restoring force. The motion or displacement is reversible and can be repeated
cyclically, allowing precise control over positioning.
Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006
C. Thermal Actuators: Based on thermal expansion, where heating a material causes it to expand and move.
Thermal actuators in MEMS (Microelectromechanical Systems) are miniature devices that use temperature-
induced expansion to generate mechanical
motion. These actuators are integral to
MEMS applications, including sensors,
microvalves, micromirrors, and many other
small-scale devices.
Construction of Thermal MEMS Actuators:
1. Material Selection:
o Thermally Expandable Materials: MEMS thermal actuators rely on materials with a high
coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE). Common materials include: Polysilicon, Silicon
Nitride (Si₃N₄), Gold, Copper, and Nickel, Silicon dioxide (SiO₂)
2. Microstructure:
o Thermal Bimorph or Cantilever: The most common design is a bimorph structure, where
two materials with different coefficients of thermal expansion are bonded together. When
heated, the two materials expand differently, causing the structure to bend. This bending motion
is transferred to the actuator.
o Straight/Coil Designs: In some cases, thermal actuators use straight beams or coils (like a
cantilever structure), which will expand or contract due to temperature variations. When
heated, these materials can elongate, causing the actuator to move.
o Microfabrication: The actuator is fabricated using standard MEMS techniques, including
photolithography, etching, deposition, and bonding, which allow the actuator to be integrated
into a silicon-based platform.
3. Heating Element:
o Resistive Heating: A thin resistive element is often integrated into the actuator structure. This
element heats up when current flows through it, causing the temperature change that drives the
expansion. The heating element can be made of materials like polysilicon or metal alloys.
o Localized Heating: In MEMS actuators, the heating element is typically very small and placed
precisely at the point where thermal expansion is desired. This ensures localized thermal
gradients that cause the actuator to bend or elongate in a controlled manner.
4. Sensing and Control:
o Temperature Sensors: Some thermal actuators in MEMS systems include temperature
sensors (like thermistors or thermocouples) to monitor and control the temperature. This
feedback helps to precisely control the thermal expansion and, in turn, the actuator's movement.
o Electrodes: MEMS actuators are usually controlled via electrodes that apply an electric current
to the heating element. These electrodes are often patterned onto the device during fabrication.
Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006
Working Principle of Thermal MEMS Actuators:
1. Application of Heat:
o When an electric current is applied to the heating element, the resistance of the material causes
it to heat up. The temperature of the heating element rises, creating a thermal gradient.
o In many MEMS thermal actuators, this heat causes differential expansion between two
materials in a bimorph structure. One material expands more than the other, generating
mechanical strain.
2. Thermal Expansion and Mechanical Deformation:
o As the materials in the bimorph structure expand at different rates, this results in bending or
deflection of the actuator.
o In cantilever-style actuators, the beam or structure bends upward or downward, depending
on the thermal gradient.
o In straight or coil actuators, the expansion might cause elongation or contraction, leading to
a straightening or coiling motion.
3. Actuation Movement:
o The thermal expansion produces linear or angular movement that can be used to perform
specific functions, such as:
▪ Deflecting a micro mirror in optical MEMS devices (e.g., in displays or imaging
systems).
▪ Opening or closing microvalves in fluidic MEMS devices.
▪ Shifting components in sensors or switches.
4. Return to Original Position:
o Once the current is switched off, the heating element cools down, causing the materials to
contract and return to their original position. The actuator moves back to its initial state, often
due to the restoring forces of the materials used.

D. Magnetic Actuators: Use magnetic fields to induce motion in ferromagnetic materials or current-
carrying conductors. Magnetic actuators in MEMS (Microelectromechanical Systems) are devices that
use magnetic forces to generate motion at a microscopic scale. These actuators are widely used in various
MEMS applications, such as sensors, micromotors, microvalves,
and optical devices. The principle of magnetic actuation is based
on the Lorentz Force Equation. When a current-carrying
conductor is placed in a static magnetic field, the field produced
around the conductor interacts with the static field to produce a
force. This force can be used to cause the displacement of a
mechanical structure.
Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006
Construction of Magnetic MEMS Actuators:
1. Magnetic Materials:
o Permanent Magnets: These magnets, typically made from
materials like neodymium-iron-boron (NdFeB) or ferrites,
provide a strong and stable magnetic field. In some cases, soft
magnetic materials (like iron or nickel alloys) are used to
create movable parts within the actuator.
o Electromagnets: MEMS magnetic actuators may use
electromagnets, which consist of a coil of wire wound around
a ferromagnetic core. When a current passes through the coil,
it generates a magnetic field. Electromagnets are typically used in applications where the
magnetic field needs to be controlled and turned on/off dynamically.
2. Coil/Winding: Electromagnetic coils are often used to generate magnetic fields in MEMS actuators.
These coils are typically made from copper or gold and are placed in close proximity to the actuator’s
movable parts. In MEMS, these coils are often very small (microscale), and the number of turns of the
wire determines the strength of the magnetic field.
3. Movable Components:
o Magnetic Disks or Springs: The moving components of the actuator are often magnetic disks,
membranes, or springs that interact with the magnetic fields generated by either permanent
magnets or electromagnets. These components are typically made of ferromagnetic materials,
which respond to magnetic fields by moving or deforming.
o Suspension Systems: Magnetic actuators in MEMS often use suspension systems (such as
springs or beams) to hold the moving components in place, allowing for controlled deflection
or displacement under the influence of magnetic forces.
4. Control and Feedback Mechanisms:
o Electrical Connections: MEMS magnetic actuators often require electrical connections to
provide power for electromagnets or to measure the displacement of the actuator. These
connections are typically made using wire bonding or microelectrode arrays.
o Sensing Systems: To accurately control the actuator's motion, a sensing system (like an optical
sensor or a capacitive sensor) may be integrated to monitor position changes or force applied
by the magnetic actuator.
5. Substrate and Packaging:
o Silicon Substrate: The base structure of many MEMS devices, including magnetic actuators,
is made from silicon, which is etched and processed to create the desired actuator components.
MEMS processing techniques, such as deep reactive ion etching (DRIE), are used to create
the precise microstructures.
Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006
o Encapsulation: For protection, the actuator may be encapsulated in a thin layer of silicon
dioxide (SiO₂), silicon nitride (Si₃N₄), or another material to shield it from environmental
factors, such as moisture or contamination.
Working Principle of Magnetic MEMS Actuators:
Magnetic actuators in MEMS work on the principle of magnetic force interaction. Depending on whether
the actuator uses permanent magnets, electromagnets, or a combination of both, the mechanism for generating
movement may differ. Below are the typical working principles for such actuators:
1. Electromagnetic Actuators (Using Coils and Magnetic Fields):
o When a current flows through the electromagnet coil, it creates a magnetic field around the
coil according to Ampère's Law. The strength and direction of the magnetic field depend on
the current passing through the coil and the number of turns in the coil.
o This magnetic field interacts with the ferromagnetic materials in the movable component
(e.g., a magnetic disk or spring). As the magnetic field applies a force on the ferromagnetic
component, it moves in a direction determined by the magnetic field and the properties of the
material (such as its magnetic permeability).
o By controlling the current supplied to the coil, the strength of the magnetic field can be varied,
which allows for precise control of the actuator's motion.
2. Permanent Magnet Actuators:
o In some MEMS applications, permanent magnets are used in conjunction with other magnetic
components. When a magnetic field from an external source interacts with the permanent
magnet, it causes the magnet or another ferromagnetic material to move or rotate.
o The magnetic field gradient or an external magnetic source can induce linear or rotational
motion of the actuator components.
3. Magnetic Levitation and Suspension: In some advanced MEMS actuators, magnetic levitation
techniques are used. Here, magnets are arranged in such a way that they can levitate or suspend a
moving part. These actuators exploit the principles of magnetic repulsion or attraction to provide
contactless motion, which can reduce friction and wear in the system.

2.2 MEMS with Microactuators

MEMS Microactuator is one kind of Micro Electro Mechanical System and its main function of this is to
change the energy into motion. These actuators combine electrical & mechanical components with
micrometer dimensions. So, the typical motions attained by these actuators are micrometers. MEMS
microactuators are mainly used in different applications like ultrasonic emitters, optical beam deflection
micromirrors & camera focus systems. So, these types of microactuators are mainly used to produce a
controlled deflection.

Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006

MEMS = Micro Sensing Element + Microactuators

Example Working of MEMS Microactuator Mechanism:

• The electrostatic actuator typically
consists of two or more electrodes that
are placed close together. These
electrodes are often made of materials
like silicon or metal.
• When a voltage is applied to the electrodes, an electrostatic force pulls the movable electrode toward
the fixed electrode.
• This movement can cause mechanical parts of the gripper to close or open, thus allowing the device to
grab or release objects

2.3 Microaccelrometer
A Microaccelrometer is a small-scale sensor that measures acceleration or changes in velocity. These devices
use microactuators and sensors to detect tiny forces or motions in applications ranging from automotive
airbags to mobile phones and robotics. MEMS accelerometers often utilize electrostatic or capacitive sensing
mechanisms to detect motion with high sensitivity, and they play a crucial role in navigation systems, vibration
monitoring, and human activity recognition.
Example Working of Capacitive Sensing Microaccelrometer:
• Structure: A Microaccelrometer typically contains a mass (also called the
proof mass) suspended by springs or flexible beams inside the device.
Surrounding the mass are fixed electrodes that create a capacitive sensor.
• Operation: When the accelerometer experiences acceleration, the proof
mass moves relative to the fixed electrodes. This change in position alters the distance between the
movable and fixed electrodes, causing a change in capacitance.
• Measurement: The change in capacitance is
directly proportional to the amount of
acceleration. By measuring the change in
capacitance, the accelerometer can determine the
magnitude of the acceleration and convert it into
an electrical signal

Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006

2.4 Microfluidic Engineering Science for Microsystem Design and Fabrication

Microfluidics refers to the manipulation and
control of fluids at the micrometer scale.
Microfluidic engineering is vital for
designing microsystems, particularly in lab-
on-a-chip devices that enable chemical
analysis, biological testing, or medical
diagnostics on small volumes of fluid.
These devices often include microvalves,
pumps, and mixers, which are powered by
microactuators. The design of these systems requires an understanding of fluid dynamics, material properties,
and microfabrication techniques to create efficient, precise systems for laboratory and medical applications.
Microfluidics is the field that studies the behavior of fluid confined in a small volume, such as
microchannels, droplets, etc., and exploits it for various research and industrial purposes. A small volume
implies one with at least one dimension smaller than 1 mm. Most fluids’ behavior is unpredictable at this scale
as the capillary and viscous forces that are primarily negligible in large scales become predominant in the
small scale

Advantages of microfluidic devices

Microfluidics has several significant advantages that make it a unique science in research and industry:
• Microfluidics can transfer entire laboratory operations into a single chip, providing several advantages,
such as smaller reagent volumes, shorter reaction times, and parallel operation.
• The flow in microchannels is laminar, which allows mathematical calculations of flow patterns and,
thus, makes quantitative predictions of the biological environment of cells and reagents. This
deterministic behavior in microchannels is a unique property not found in the macroscopic world.
• Microfluidic channels can be fabricated on a cellular scale and used for probing, seeding, and sorting
cells, which enables them to imitate physiological processes and parameters.
• Microvalves and micropumps can be integrated into a microfluidic device for a relatively low cost,
enabling flow control and automation.
• Microfluidic devices have a much smaller footprint than their macrofluidic counterparts, occupying
less space and being portable to resource-poor places.
• Microfluidics has a lower cost per unit regarding (batch) fabrication and operation, bringing great
economic benefits. Thus, it is expected to allow high-throughput experiments.

Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006
Components of a microfluidic device
A microfluidic device may consist of channels, valves, pumps, mixers, filters, and heat exchangers. These
parts allow dilution, particle separation, metering, flow switching, sample dispensing, or injection.
Valves and pumps are essential for microfluidic devices as they control fluid movement by regulating the flow
rate. They can be integrated into a hybrid microfabricated device for different purposes. Using various
materials in a chip can be beneficial because of the added values of each component, such as valves and pumps
that can control the flow of multiple solutions in a microfluidic device.

Fluid dynamics at micro scale

The behavior of the fluid’s surface is different at the macro and micro scales. On
the microscale, surface tension becomes dominant with respect to gravity (the
dominant force at the macroscale) and can drive the fluid instead of a pump.
Capillary forces also begin to dominate gravitational forces as the dimensions of
the system are reduced. A capillary force is defined as a force applied to a fluid
that drives it through the porous media or narrow capillary.
The flow is classified into laminar, transitional, or turbulent depending on the fluid density and viscosity,
characteristic velocity, geometry of the channel, and whether or not the flow is past the object.

Microfluidic design and fabrication in mold fabrication are crucial steps in the development of microfluidic
systems and other microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). Mold fabrication is central to creating structures
at the microscale, which are used to make the physical molds for devices like microchips, sensors, and fluidic
systems. The mold typically defines the channel, cavity, or component geometry of the microsystem. These
steps often involve the use of high-precision techniques to achieve the small-scale features required in modern
applications.
Steps in Microfluidic design and fabrication:

1. Design and Layout of the Mold

• CAD Modeling: The first step is the design phase, where the mold layout is created using Computer-
Aided Design (CAD) tools with design considerations like: Channel dimensions, Feature resolution
(precision required for the final device) Material compatibility
2. Mask Design (Photomask Creation)
• Photomask Preparation: A photomask (often made of glass or quartz) is created, which contains the
layout of the microstructure to be transferred onto the substrate during lithography.
• Mask Design Software: Tools such as AutoCAD or L-Edit are used to design the photomask, where
the patterns of the mold will be created based on the CAD model.
• Optical Features: The photomask includes all features to be etched or patterned onto the mold, with
high precision.

Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006
3. Substrate Preparation
• Cleaning: The substrate material (often silicon, glass, or metal) must be thoroughly cleaned to remove
dust, organic contaminants, or oxide layers before proceeding with patterning.
• Surface Treatment: The substrate may be treated with a primer or coating to improve the adhesion of
the photoresist material, which will be used to transfer the design onto the mold.
4. Photoresist Coating
• Spin Coating: A photoresist is applied to the surface of the substrate using a technique called spin
coating.
• Curing: After spin coating, the photoresist is typically soft-baked (heated) to remove solvent and
ensure proper adhesion.
5. Photolithography (Pattern Transfer)
• Exposure: The coated substrate is then exposed to UV light through the photomask in a process called
photolithography. The light passes through the transparent parts of the mask, exposing the photoresist
beneath it. This process creates the pattern for the mold's features on the photoresist layer.
• Development: After exposure, the substrate is treated with a developer solution to selectively remove
the exposed or unexposed areas of the photoresist This step reveals the underlying substrate where the
features will be etched.
6. Etching
• Etching Process: The exposed areas of the substrate are etched to create the desired features for the
mold.
• Depth Control: Etching needs to be carefully controlled to achieve the desired feature depth and
precision, especially when creating fine microchannels or cavities.
7. Stripping and Cleaning
• Resist Removal: After etching, the remaining photoresist layer is removed through a process called
resist stripping. This can be done using chemicals such as acetone or other specialized solvents.
• Cleaning: The substrate is thoroughly cleaned to remove any residue left from the etching or resist
removal processes.
8. Mold Casting (For Soft Lithography)
• PDMS Casting: In the case of soft lithography, a PDMS (polydimethylsiloxane) mold is often cast
from the master mold. The process involves mixing PDMS with a curing agent and pouring it over the
mold structure.
• Curing: The PDMS mixture is then cured at elevated temperatures, to harden it into the shape of the
master mold. After curing, the PDMS can be peeled off to reveal the microfluidic or MEMS features.
• Reusability: The PDMS mold can often be used multiple times for creating microfluidic chips or other
microsystems.
9. Assembly and Integration
o Bonding: Once the mold is fabricated (often the PDMS or silicon substrate), it can be bonded
to another substrate, such as glass or silicon, depending on the intended application. Bonding
techniques include: Plasma bonding, Thermal bonding, Adhesive bonding etc.
• Integration with Other Components: For microfluidic devices or MEMS, additional components
like electrodes, sensors, or reservoirs may be integrated into the system after the mold is fabricated.

Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006
2.5 Ions and Ionization
Ionization is a fundamental concept in chemistry and physics that describes the transformation of electrically
neutral atoms or molecules into electrically charged ones. Ionization occurs when an atom or molecule gains
or loses one or more electrons, resulting in a positive or negative charge. The charged atom or molecule is
called an ion.

Ion: An ion is an atom or molecule that has gained or lost one or more electrons, resulting in a net electric
charge. Ions can be either positively or negatively charged:
• Cation: A positively charged ion, formed when an atom or molecule loses one or more electrons. For
example, Na⁺ is a cation formed when sodium (Na) loses an electron.
• Anion: A negatively charged ion, formed when an atom or molecule gains one or more electrons. For
example, Cl⁻ is an anion formed when chlorine (Cl) gains an electron.
Ions are crucial in various chemical, physical, and electrical processes, including in electrochemical reactions,
electrical conduction, and the functioning of devices like MEMS.

Ionization: Ionization is the process in which an atom or molecule acquires a charge by either losing or
gaining electrons. This can occur through several means, such as:
• Electron loss: When an atom or molecule loses one or more electrons, it becomes positively charged
(a cation).
• Electron gain: When an atom or molecule gains one or more electrons, it becomes negatively charged
(an anion).
Ionization can happen naturally, such as through exposure to high-energy radiation (e.g., UV light or cosmic
rays), or it can be induced artificially, like in a plasma or in certain chemical reactions.
In many contexts, including in MEMS (Microelectromechanical Systems), ionization is important because it
can influence material properties, electrical behavior, and system performance.
In Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS), ions and ionization play crucial roles, particularly in
applications that involve electrostatic actuation, surface interactions, and material properties.

Disadvantages of Ions in MEMS

Ions are charged particles that can be either positively charged (cations) or negatively charged (anions). In
MEMS, ions can affect the behavior of devices in various ways:
• Electrostatic Actuation: Many MEMS devices use electrostatic forces to actuate or control their
movement. These forces are generated when a voltage is applied between two conductive materials,
Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006
causing attraction or repulsion due to the electrostatic interaction. The presence of ions in the
environment (such as in the air or in a fluid) can influence the electric field and the force acting on the
device, affecting its operation.
• Surface Charge Accumulation: MEMS devices often operate in a vacuum or a specific environment
where ions might accumulate on the surfaces of materials. The accumulation of ions on MEMS
structures can lead to surface charging, which affects the performance of the device, such as altering
the threshold voltage for actuation.
• Corrosion and Material Interaction: In some environments, particularly in liquids or corrosive
atmospheres, ions can lead to electrochemical reactions that cause the degradation of MEMS materials.
These reactions can affect the lifetime and reliability of MEMS devices.
• Ion Implantation in Fabrication: In MEMS fabrication, ion implantation is sometimes used to
modify the electrical properties of materials, such as semiconductors. By implanting ions into a
substrate, MEMS engineers can change the doping concentration, which alters the material's
conductivity and other properties important for MEMS functionality.

Ionization Process in MEMS

Ionization refers to the process by which neutral atoms or molecules become charged by gaining or losing
electrons, creating positive or negative ions. Ionization can be particularly relevant in MEMS for the following
reasons:
• Plasma Processing: MEMS devices often undergo processes such as reactive ion etching (RIE) or
plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) during fabrication. These processes use ionized
gases (plasmas) to etch or deposit thin films on MEMS structures. The ionization of gases creates
energetic ions that can interact with materials to modify surfaces, etch patterns, or deposit coatings.
Plasma-based processes are widely used for microfabrication due to their precision and versatility.
• Electrostatic Discharge (ESD): Ionization can occur when the electric fields in MEMS devices
become sufficiently strong, causing the ionization of air or other surrounding gases. This ionization
can lead to electrostatic discharge (ESD), which can damage sensitive MEMS components. To
protect devices from ESD, MEMS manufacturers often include shielding or grounding strategies to
dissipate charge safely.
• Microplasma Actuators: Some MEMS devices make use of microplasmas, which are small-scale
ionized gases created within the device. These plasmas can be used for actuating MEMS components,
like micromirrors or valves, by exploiting the forces exerted by the ions and electrons in the plasma.
• Dielectric Charging: In MEMS devices with insulating materials (dielectrics), ionization of the
dielectric material may occur when exposed to high voltage or strong electric fields. This can cause
unwanted charge accumulation on the surface, leading to dielectric charging, which can affect device
performance, reliability, and lead to failure if not managed properly.
Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006
Effects of Ions and Ionization on MEMS
The behavior of ions and ionization can significantly affect the design, performance, and longevity of MEMS
devices. Some effects include:
• Stiction: In MEMS, "stiction" refers to the sticking or adhesion of components due to electrostatic or
adhesive forces, often exacerbated by the presence of ions or ionized particles on the surfaces.
• Electrostatic Forces and Capacitance: The presence of ions, especially in the environment or the
materials themselves, can alter the local electric fields and affect the electrostatic forces in MEMS.
• Wear and Tear: Ionized environments can accelerate wear processes in MEMS components. For
example, when MEMS are exposed to ions in a corrosive environment, they may degrade faster than
in cleaner conditions, leading to shorter lifespans and potentially catastrophic failures in high-precision
systems.

2.6 The Diffusion Process

The diffusion process in MEMS (Microelectromechanical Systems) refers to the movement of atoms, ions,
or molecules from regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration, driven by thermal energy
or concentration gradients. This process plays a significant role in the fabrication, operation, and performance
of MEMS devices.
Types of Diffusion Process in MEMS:
1. Atomic Diffusion:
o Involves the movement of atoms through
solids, typically in semiconductor materials or
metals.
o It is fundamental to doping processes in semiconductor fabrication, where controlled diffusion of dopants
(like boron or phosphorus) modifies the electrical properties of materials.
o Atomic diffusion is governed by factors such as temperature, time, and the type of material involved.
Higher temperatures generally lead to faster diffusion rates.
2. Ion Diffusion:
o Involves the movement of ions within solid materials or across interfaces, like the movement of dopant
ions during ion implantation or the migration of ions in a dielectric material.
o Ion diffusion can occur in both solid-state and liquid environments and is crucial for the fabrication of
thin films and for creating desired electrical properties in MEMS components.
3. Molecular Diffusion (Gas Diffusion):
o Involves the movement of gas molecules or atoms, such as during chemical vapor deposition (CVD) or
etching processes in MEMS fabrication.
o Gas diffusion is important for the uniformity of films and coatings deposited on MEMS structures. It also
plays a role in reactions at surfaces during plasma etching.
Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006
The Role of Diffusion in MEMS:
1. Doping and Material Modification: Doping is a critical step in the fabrication of semiconductor-based
MEMS devices. In processes like thermal diffusion, dopant atoms (e.g., boron or phosphorus) are introduced
into a silicon wafer, where they diffuse into the crystal lattice to create p-type or n-type regions.
2. Thin Film Deposition: In processes like chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and atomic layer deposition
(ALD), diffusion plays a role in ensuring uniform coverage of materials on the MEMS structure.
3. Etching and Patterning: In reactive ion etching (RIE) or plasma etching, diffusion of reactive species
in the plasma (like ions or radicals) toward the surface of the MEMS device is crucial for the etching process.
The rate of diffusion affects the etching profile, uniformity, and precision.
4. Stiction and Surface Forces: Diffusion can also impact stiction (the phenomenon where MEMS
components stick together due to surface forces).
5. Thermal and Electrical Conductivity: Thermal diffusion involves the transfer of heat through a material
due to differences in temperature. In MEMS devices, managing heat diffusion is important because excessive
heating can affect performance or damage microstructures.

Factors Influencing Diffusion in MEMS:

1. Temperature 4. Time:
2. Material Properties 5. Vacuum or Gas Pressure:
3. Concentration Gradient

Diffusion Equation:
The diffusion equation (Fick’s Law) is commonly used to model diffusion in materials. It can be expressed
as:

This equation helps predict how substances will spread within MEMS materials and structures during
processes like doping, etching, and deposition.
The diffusion process is integral to MEMS device fabrication and operation, influencing key aspects
like material properties, film deposition, and etching. Whether it’s for introducing dopants into
semiconductors, depositing thin films, or controlling thermal properties, diffusion plays a pivotal role in
ensuring the performance, precision, and reliability of MEMS devices. By carefully controlling diffusion rates,
engineers can fine-tune MEMS devices for various applications in sensors, actuators, and microstructures.

Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006
2.7 Plasma Physics
Plasma physics deals with the study of ionized gases, which contain free electrons and ions. This field is
critical in the operation of microactuators that use plasma for actuation or processing, such as in plasma-based
etching or deposition in semiconductor manufacturing. Plasma can also be used for ion propulsion in space
exploration or for advanced sensing mechanisms. Plasma physics explores the behavior of these ionized gases
under different electromagnetic fields and its application to various microsystems.

Plasma physics in MEMS (Microelectromechanical Systems) refers to the study and application of ionized
gases (plasmas) in the fabrication, operation, and modification of MEMS devices. Plasmas are a state of matter
consisting of positively charged ions, free electrons, and neutral particles, and they play a critical role in
processes like etching, deposition, and surface modification, which are fundamental to MEMS fabrication.
Plasma physics is foundational to MEMS fabrication, enabling precise patterning, etching, and deposition of
materials at the micro- and nano-scale. Plasma-based techniques like RIE, PECVD, and ICP are crucial for
creating functional MEMS components, but they require careful control to prevent damage and ensure high
performance. Plasma treatments also offer unique opportunities for surface modification and functionalization,
enhancing the capabilities of MEMS devices in various applications.

Plasma Physics Concepts in MEMS:

1. Plasma Generation: Plasma is created by applying a high voltage to a gas, causing
the gas molecules to ionize. This process creates a mixture of ions, electrons, and
neutral particles. The electrical properties of the plasma can be controlled by
adjusting parameters like pressure, power, and gas composition. In MEMS
fabrication, common gases used to generate plasma include argon, oxygen, chlorine,
and fluorine, each of which reacts differently depending on the desired material
modification.
2. Plasma Processing: Plasma is widely used in etching and deposition processes to shape, modify, and
build MEMS structures:
3. Surface Interactions:
o Sputtering: In certain plasma processes, ions can physically strike a surface, knocking off atoms in a
process known as sputtering. This can be both beneficial for material deposition or detrimental.
o Plasma Cleaning: Plasmas can be used to clean surfaces by removing organic contaminants or residues
from the device surfaces, improving adhesion and performance.

Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006
4. Plasma Effects on MEMS Materials:
o Etching and Patterning: Plasma etching allows for precise patterning of MEMS components, including
microchannels, sensors, and actuators, by selectively removing layers from the surface.
o Surface Modification: Plasma can modify the surface properties of MEMS materials, such as making
them more hydrophobic or hydrophilic, or enhancing their adhesion properties.
o Damage and Contamination: High-energy plasma species can also cause damage to sensitive MEMS
devices, leading to issues like surface roughening, stress, or contamination, which need to be carefully
controlled.

Plasma Applications in MEMS:

1. Microfabrication: Plasma etching and deposition are used extensively in the fabrication of MEMS
devices, such as sensors, actuators, and microstructures. These processes enable the creation of
intricate and precise patterns at the micro and nano scales, which are essential for MEMS device
functionality.
2. Thin Film Deposition: Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) is commonly used
for depositing thin films of insulating materials (like SiO₂, Si₃N₄, and other dielectric films) onto
MEMS structures. These films are crucial for insulation, passivation, or mechanical support in MEMS
devices.
3. Surface Modification and Functionalization: Plasma treatments can alter the surface chemistry of
MEMS components, enabling specific functions such as improved bonding, reduced friction, or
enhanced sensor performance. For example, plasma polymerization can create thin functional layers
that modify the device's interaction with its environment.
4. Plasma Actuators: Some MEMS devices, such as microplasma actuators, utilize plasmas directly
for actuation. The electric fields and forces generated by plasma can be used to drive movement or
create localized heat, making these actuators ideal for applications in microfluidics and propulsion.

2.8 Electrochemistry
Electrochemistry involves the study of chemical reactions that occur at the interface of an electrode and an
electrolyte, where electrical energy is converted into chemical energy or vice versa. In microsystems,
electrochemical processes are fundamental to the operation of sensors, actuators, and energy storage devices
like batteries and capacitors.
Electrochemistry plays a crucial role in Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS), which are miniaturized
devices that integrate mechanical and electrical components at the microscale. The intersection of
electrochemistry and MEMS has led to the development of several important technologies, particularly in
areas such as sensors, actuators, energy storage, and microfabrication. Below are some of the key applications
of electrochemistry in MEMS:
Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006
Applications of Electrochemistry
a) Electrochemical sensors are widely used in MEMS devices for detecting various chemical substances.
These sensors operate based on the interaction of an analyte with an electrode surface, which generates a
measurable electrical signal. Examples include: Gas sensors, Biosensors, pH sensors

b) MEMS Actuators
Electrochemistry is often used to drive MEMS actuators, which convert electrical energy into mechanical
motion. Electrochemical actuators typically involve the interaction of ions with electrode materials, resulting
in mechanical deformation or displacement. Key applications include: Micro pumps, EC-micromotors

c) Energy Harvesting and Storage

Electrochemical processes are essential for energy storage devices, such as batteries and supercapacitors,
which are often integrated into MEMS systems. Energy harvesting technologies that capture ambient energy,
like vibrations or heat, and convert it into electrical energy, also rely on electrochemical principles. Examples
include: Microbatteries, Micro-supercapacitors, Energy harvesting systems

d) Microfabrication Techniques
Electrochemical techniques are often used in MEMS fabrication, particularly in processes like:
• Electroplating
• Electrochemical etching
• Electrochemical deposition of thin films

e) Corrosion and Material Stability

In MEMS working conditions, electrochemistry is critical in understanding and mitigating corrosion and
degradation of materials.

f) Microfluidics and Electrochemistry

In microfluidic MEMS systems, electrochemistry is used to control fluid movement, detect chemical reactions,
or modify fluid properties.

Disadvantages in Electrochemistry:
There are challenges in integrating electrochemical components with the mechanical and electrical parts of
MEMS. Some of the challenges include:
• Miniaturization: Controlling electrochemical reactions at the microscale can become more difficult.
• Material stability: Electrochemical reactions can sometimes degrade materials or cause unwanted side
reactions.
• Integration with existing electronics: MEMS devices often require precise control of electrical
signals, which can be challenging when integrating electrochemical processes.
Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006
2.9 Quantum Physics
Quantum physics studies the behavior of matter and energy at the smallest scales, where classical mechanics
no longer applies. This field becomes relevant in microactuation and MEMS technologies when quantum
effects like tunneling, superposition, or entanglement play a role in device operation.
Quantum physics is the branch of science that deals with the behavior of very tiny particles, like atoms and
subatomic particles (such as electrons and photons). It’s different from the physics we experience in our
everyday life because, at such small scales, things don’t behave the way we expect based on common sense.
Key Concepts of Quantum Physics:
1. Particles Can Be Waves
In classical physics (the physics of big things we see every day), objects are either particles (like balls) or
waves (like ripples on a pond). But in quantum physics, tiny particles (like electrons) can behave both like
particles and like waves, depending on how we look at them. This is called "wave-particle duality."
2. Uncertainty Principle
Imagine trying to measure exactly where a tiny particle is and how fast it's moving at the same time. In the
quantum world, the more precisely you know one of these things, the less precisely you can know the other.
This is called the "uncertainty principle."
3. Superposition: Being in Two States at Once
Quantum particles can exist in a "superposition," meaning they can be in multiple states at the same time.
For example, an electron can be in two different places at once, or it can spin in two opposite directions
simultaneously. It's only when we measure the particle that it "chooses" one state, but until then, it is in a
superposition of both.
4. Entanglement: Spooky Action at a Distance
When two particles become "entangled," their states are linked, no matter how far apart they are. If you
change the state of one particle, the other will instantly change as well, even if they are light-years apart.
This phenomenon is known as "quantum entanglement," and Einstein famously called it "spooky action at a
distance."
5. Quantum Tunneling
In the quantum world, particles can "tunnel" through barriers that they wouldn't be able to cross in the
classical world. Imagine a ball rolling up a hill: if it doesn’t have enough speed, it will just roll back down.
But in quantum physics, particles can sometimes pass through the hill, even if they don’t have enough
energy to get over it. This is called "quantum tunneling."
6. Energy is Quantized
In quantum physics, energy comes in small, discrete chunks called "quanta" (like steps on a staircase). For
example, an electron in an atom can only exist in specific energy levels and must absorb or release energy in
these specific amounts to jump between levels. It can't just exist at any energy level.

Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006

The application of Quantum Physics to Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS)

MEMS devices are typically small-scale systems as MEMS scale down to the micro and nanoscale,
quantum effects become more significant, opening up possibilities for next-generation technologies. Below
are some ways quantum physics can be applied to MEMS:
1. Quantum Sensing
Quantum sensors leverage quantum properties, such as superposition and entanglement, to achieve higher
sensitivity and precision than classical sensors.

2. MEMS for Quantum Computing

MEMS devices can play a role in quantum computing by functioning as qubits (quantum bits), the basic units
of quantum information.

3. Quantum Interferometry and MEMS

Quantum interferometers use quantum superposition and interference to measure extremely small changes
in physical quantities like position or time. MEMS can integrate quantum interferometric techniques for
precise measurements.

4. Optomechanics and Quantum MEMS

Optomechanics studies the interaction between light (photons) and mechanical systems at the quantum level.
MEMS devices are ideal platforms for exploring optomechanics because they often involve tiny resonators
that can interact with light. Example: Mechanical Resonators, Quantum Transducers etc.

5. Quantum Tunneling in MEMS Devices

Quantum tunneling is a phenomenon where particles pass through barriers they typically wouldn’t be able
to cross in classical physics. At the nanoscale, MEMS devices can experience quantum tunneling, which can
affect the behavior of components like switches or sensors.

6. Quantum-Enhanced Metrology with MEMS

Metrology is the science of measurement, and quantum-enhanced MEMS devices are becoming increasingly
useful in this field. Using quantum properties, MEMS sensors can make measurements that are more accurate
than anything achievable with classical techniques.

7. MEMS in Quantum Communication

Quantum communication systems use quantum principles to send information securely. MEMS can be used
in devices that help in encoding, transmitting, and receiving quantum information.

Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006
 Mysore University School of Engineering
8J99+QC7, Manasa Gangothiri, Mysuru, Karnataka 570006

Model Questions
4 Marks Questions
1) Define microactuation and explain its significance in MEMS technology.
2) Briefly explain principal means of microactuation used in MEMS devices.
3) Show the integration of MEMS with Microactuators with Example
4) Explain how Microaccelrometer are designed and how they work
5) List the Components of Microfluidics and Explain the features of Microfluidic Engineering Science
6) Define Ions and Ionization and explain Ionization Process in MEMS
7) Explain the diffusion process in MEMS and list the diffusion process in MEMS
8) Explain how plasma physics contributes in MEMS
9) Explain how Electro Chemistry contributes in MEMS
10) Explain how Quantum Physics contributes in MEMS

8 Marks Questions
1) Explain the Working principle of Electrostatic Actuators
2) Explain the Working principle of Piezoelectric Actuators
3) Explain the Working principle of Thermal Actuators
4) Explain the Working principle of Magnetic Actuators
5) Explain the Steps in Microfluidic design and fabrication
6) Describe the Key Concepts of Quantum Physics

Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J S, Assistant Professor, Bio-Medical & Robotics Engineering, UoM, SoE, Mysore 57006