AIR FORCE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(AFIT), KADUNA
LECTURE NOTE

March 27, 2025

COURSE DETAILS
• Name of Faculty: Faculty of Science

• Name of Department: Mathematics

• Course Code: MTH 102

• Course Title: Elementary Mathematics II (Differential and Integral Calculus)

• Credit Units: 2

• Course Status: Core

• Lecture Venue:

• Lecture Time:

• Lecture Duration: 2 hours

• Lecturer(s): Mrs. Ashagwu Blessing Samuel, Mrs. Tayyaba Muazu and Mr.
Kabiru Muhammed Koko

COURSE GUIDE
Introduction:
This course provides a foundational understanding of calculus, focusing on functions of
a real variable, limits, continuity, differentiation and integration. These concepts are es-
sential for analysing mathematical change and are widely used in science and engineering.

The course begins with a study of functions, their properties and operations. It then
introduces the concept of limits and continuity, which form the basis for differentiation.
Differentiation is explored as the mathematical tool for measuring rates of change, along
with various differentiation techniques and their applications, such as finding tangents,
optimizing functions and solving real-world problems.

1
 The latter part of the course introduces integration as the inverse of differentiation,
covering various integration techniques, definite integrals and their applications in calcu-
lating areas and volumes. By the end of the course, students will have a solid foundation
in both differential and integral calculus, preparing them for more advanced mathematical
concepts and applications.

Course Description:
This course covers the basics of function of real variable, limit and idea of continuity.
The derivative as limit of rate of change. Techniques of differentiation and its applica-
tion. Integration as inverse of differentiation. Methods of integration, definite integrals.
Application to areas and volumes.

Course Objectives:
By the end of this course, students should be able to:
1. Understand the concept of functions, limits, and continuity in real analysis.
2. Define and compute derivatives using the limit definition and differentiation rules.
3. Apply differentiation techniques to solve problems in physics, engineering, and eco-
nomics.
4. Understand the concept of integration as the inverse of differentiation.
5. Apply different methods of integration to evaluate definite and indefinite integrals.
6. Use definite integrals to compute areas and volumes of geometric shapes.
7. Develop problem-solving skills and mathematical reasoning related to calculus.

Learning Outcome:
At the end of this course, students will be able to:
1. Define and describe the properties of functions, limits, and continuity.
2. Calculate derivatives using first principles and standard differentiation techniques.
3. Evaluate integrals using substitution, integration by parts, and other methods.
4. Apply the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to compute definite integrals.
5. Solve real-life problems involving areas, volumes, and physical applications of cal-
culus.
6. Demonstrate logical thinking and analytical problem-solving in calculus-related
tasks.

Assessment Structure:
• Continuous Assessment: 30%
• Final Examination: 70%

2
COURSE NOTES
Week 1: Functions
Contents:
1.0 Introduction

A function is a fundamental concept in mathematics that describes a relationship

between inputs and outputs. This week, we will explore the definition, properties, types,
and operations of functions, including inverse and composite functions.

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Definition of a Function

A function f : X → Y is a rule that assigns to each element x in the domain X exactly

one element y in the codomain Y .

Solved Examples:

1. Example: Let f (x) = 2x + 3.

• Step 1: For every input x, apply the rule 2x + 3.

• Step 2: If x = 1, then f (1) = 2(1) + 3 = 5.
• Step 3: If x = −2, then f (−2) = 2(−2) + 3 = −1.
• Conclusion: Each input x gives exactly one output 2x + 3.

2. Example: Let g(x) = x2 .

• Step 1: For every input x, apply the rule x2 .

• Step 2: If x = 3, then g(3) = 32 = 9.
• Step 3: If x = −1, then g(−1) = (−1)2 = 1.
• Conclusion: Each input x gives exactly one output x2 .
√
3. Example: Let h(x) = x.
√
• Step 1: For every input x ≥ 0, apply the rule x.
√
• Step 2: If x = 4, then h(4) = 4 = 2.
√
• Step 3: If x = 9, then h(9) = 9 = 3.
√
• Conclusion: Each input x ≥ 0 gives exactly one output x.

4. Example: Let k(x) = x1 .

• Step 1: For every input x 6= 0, apply the rule x1 .

• Step 2: If x = 2, then k(2) = 12 .
1
• Step 3: If x = −1, then k(−1) = −1
= −1.

3
 • Conclusion: Each input x 6= 0 gives exactly one output x1 .
5. Example: Let m(x) = |x|.
• Step 1: For every input x, apply the rule |x|.
• Step 2: If x = 5, then m(5) = |5| = 5.
• Step 3: If x = −3, then m(−3) = | − 3| = 3.
• Conclusion: Each input x gives exactly one output |x|.

2.2 Properties of Functions

• Injectivity (One-to-One): A function is injective if each element of the codomain
is mapped by at most one element of the domain.
• Surjectivity (Onto): A function is surjective if every element of the codomain is
mapped by at least one element of the domain.
• Bijectivity: A function is bijective if it is both injective and surjective.

Solved Examples:
1. Example: f (x) = 2x is injective.
• Step 1: Assume f (a) = f (b).
• Step 2: Then 2a = 2b, which implies a = b.
• Conclusion: f is injective.
2. Example: f (x) = x3 is surjective.
• Step 1: For any y ∈ R, find x such that x3 = y.
√
• Step 2: Let x = 3 y.
• Conclusion: f is surjective.
3. Example: f (x) = x is bijective.
• Step 1: f is injective because f (a) = f (b) implies a = b.
• Step 2: f is surjective because for any y, f (y) = y.
• Conclusion: f is bijective.
4. Example: f (x) = x2 is neither injective nor surjective.
• Step 1: f (1) = 1 and f (−1) = 1, so f is not injective.
• Step 2: There is no x such that f (x) = −1, so f is not surjective.
• Conclusion: f is neither injective nor surjective.
5. Example: f (x) = ex is injective but not surjective.
• Step 1: f is injective because ea = eb implies a = b.
• Step 2: f is not surjective because ex > 0 for all x, so negative numbers are
not in the range.
• Conclusion: f is injective but not surjective.

4
2.3 Types of Functions

• Linear Function: f (x) = mx + c.

• Quadratic Function: f (x) = ax2 + bx + c.

• Polynomial Function: f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a0 .

• Exponential Function: f (x) = ax .

• Trigonometric Function: f (x) = sin(x), f (x) = cos(x), etc.

Solved Examples:

1. Example: f (x) = 3x + 2 is a linear function.

• Step 1: The function is of the form f (x) = mx + c, where m = 3 and c = 2.

• Conclusion: f is a linear function.

2. Example: f (x) = x2 − 4x + 4 is a quadratic function.

• Step 1: The function is of the form f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a = 1, b = −4,

and c = 4.
• Conclusion: f is a quadratic function.

3. Example: f (x) = 2x3 − x + 1 is a polynomial function.

• Step 1: The function is of the form f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a0 , where

n = 3.
• Conclusion: f is a polynomial function.

4. Example: f (x) = 2x is an exponential function.

• Step 1: The function is of the form f (x) = ax , where a = 2.

• Conclusion: f is an exponential function.

5. Example: f (x) = sin(x) is a trigonometric function.

• Step 1: The function involves the trigonometric sine function.

• Conclusion: f is a trigonometric function.

2.4 Operations on Functions

• Addition: (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x).

• Subtraction: (f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x).

• Multiplication: (f · g)(x) = f (x) · g(x).

 
• Division: fg (x) = fg(x)
(x)
, provided g(x) 6= 0.

• Composition: (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)).

5
 Solved Examples:

1. Example: If f (x) = 2x and g(x) = x2 , find (f + g)(x).

• Step 1: (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) = 2x + x2 .

• Conclusion: (f + g)(x) = 2x + x2 .

2. Example: If f (x) = x + 1 and g(x) = x − 1, find (f − g)(x).

• Step 1: (f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x) = (x + 1) − (x − 1) = 2.

• Conclusion: (f − g)(x) = 2.

3. Example: If f (x) = 3x and g(x) = x2 , find (f · g)(x).

• Step 1: (f · g)(x) = f (x) · g(x) = 3x · x2 = 3x3 .

• Conclusion: (f · g)(x) = 3x3 .
 
f
4. Example: If f (x) = x2 and g(x) = x, find g
(x).
  2
• Step 1: (x) = fg(x)
f
g
(x)
= xx = x.
 
• Conclusion: fg (x) = x.

5. Example: If f (x) = 2x and g(x) = x + 1, find (f ◦ g)(x).

• Step 1: (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f (x + 1) = 2(x + 1) = 2x + 2.

• Conclusion: (f ◦ g)(x) = 2x + 2.

1 Inverse Functions
The inverse of a function f , denoted f −1 , is a function that reverses the effect of f . For
f −1 to exist, f must be bijective.

1.1 Solved Examples

Example 1: If f (x) = 2x + 3, find f −1 (x).
Step 1: Let y = 2x + 3.
Step 2: Solve for x:
y−3
y − 3 = 2x ⇒ x = .
2
Step 3: Replace y with x:
x−3
f −1 (x) = .
2
Conclusion: f −1 (x) = x−3
2
.

Example 2: If f (x) = x3 , find f −1 (x).

Step 1: Let y = x3 .
Step 2: Solve for x:
√
x = 3 y.

6
 Step 3: Replace y with x: √
f −1 (x) = 3
x.
√
Conclusion: f −1 (x) = 3
x.
Example 3: If f (x) = ex , find f −1 (x).
Step 1: Let y = ex .
Step 2: Solve for x:
x = ln(y).
Step 3: Replace y with x:
f −1 (x) = ln(x).
Conclusion: f −1 (x) = ln(x).
Example 4: If f (x) = x1 , find f −1 (x).
Step 1: Let y = x1 .
Step 2: Solve for x:
1
x= .
y
Step 3: Replace y with x:
1
f −1 (x) = .
x
Conclusion: f −1 (x) = x1 .
Example 5: If f (x) = x, find f −1 (x).
Step 1: Let y = x.
Step 2: Solve for x:
x = y.
Step 3: Replace y with x:
f −1 (x) = x.
Conclusion: f −1 (x) = x.

2 Self-Assessment Exercises
1. Define a function and give an example.
2. What is the difference between injective and surjective functions?
3. Identify the type of function: f (x) = 3x2 + 2x − 1.
4. If f (x) = x + 2 and g(x) = x2 , find (f + g)(x).
5. Find (f ◦ g)(x) if f (x) = 2x and g(x) = x − 1.
6. Determine if f (x) = x3 is bijective.
7. Solve for x if f (x) = 0 and f (x) = x2 − 4.
8. What is the inverse of f (x) = 3x + 2?
9. If f (x) = sin(x), what is f (π/2)?
1
10. Find the domain of f (x) = x−2
.

7
3 Conclusion
This week, we explored the concept of functions, their properties, types, and operations,
including inverse and composite functions. Functions are essential in mathematics and
are used to model real-world phenomena.

4 References/Further Readings
1. Adegun, T., Tuttuh, M. R., et al. (2008). Further Mathematics Project 1. NPS
Educational.

2. Adegun, T., Tuttuh, M. R., et al. (2008). Further Mathematics Project 2. NPS
Educational.

3. Adegun, T., Tuttuh, M. R., et al. (2011). Further Mathematics Project 3. NPS
Educational.

4. Stroud, K. A. (2013). Engineering Mathematics. Palgrave Macmillan.

8
Week 2: Limits
Contents
1.0 Introduction
The concept of a limit is fundamental in calculus. It describes the behavior of a function
as the input approaches a certain value. Limits are used to define continuity, derivatives,
and integrals.

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Definition of a Limit

The limit of a function f (x) as x approaches a is L, written as:

lim f (x) = L
x→a

if f (x) gets arbitrarily close to L as x gets arbitrarily close to a.

Solved Examples:
1. Example: Find limx→2 (3x + 1).
• Step 1: Substitute x = 2 into the function: 3(2) + 1 = 7.
• Conclusion: limx→2 (3x + 1) = 7.
2. Example: Find limx→3 (x2 − 4).
• Step 1: Substitute x = 3 into the function: 32 − 4 = 9 − 4 = 5.
• Conclusion: limx→3 (x2 − 4) = 5.
sin(x)
3. Example: Find limx→0 x
.
sin(x)
• Step 1: Use the standard limit limx→0 x
= 1.
• Conclusion: limx→0 sin(x)
x
= 1.
x2 −1
4. Example: Find limx→1 x−1
.
(x−1)(x+1)
• Step 1: Factor the numerator: x−1
.
• Step 2: Simplify: x + 1.
• Step 3: Substitute x = 1: 1 + 1 = 2.
x2 −1
• Conclusion: limx→1 x−1
= 2.
2x+1
5. Example: Find limx→∞ x+3
.
2+ x1
• Step 1: Divide numerator and denominator by x: 1+ x3
.
1 3
• Step 2: As x → ∞, x
→ 0 and x
→ 0.
2+0
• Step 3: Simplify: 1+0
= 2.
2x+1
• Conclusion: limx→∞ x+3
= 2.

9
2.2 Properties of Limits
1. Sum Rule: limx→a [f (x) + g(x)] = limx→a f (x) + limx→a g(x).

2. Product Rule: limx→a [f (x) · g(x)] = limx→a f (x) · limx→a g(x).

f (x) limx→a f (x)
3. Quotient Rule: limx→a g(x)
= limx→a g(x)
, provided limx→a g(x) 6= 0.

4. Constant Multiple Rule: limx→a [c · f (x)] = c · limx→a f (x).

5. Power Rule: limx→a [f (x)]n = [limx→a f (x)]n .

Solved Examples:
1. Example: Find limx→2 [3x + x2 ].

• Step 1: Apply the sum rule: limx→2 3x + limx→2 x2 .

• Step 2: Calculate each limit: 3(2) + 22 = 6 + 4 = 10.
• Conclusion: limx→2 [3x + x2 ] = 10.

2. Example: Find limx→1 [x2 · (x + 2)].

• Step 1: Apply the product rule: limx→1 x2 · limx→1 (x + 2).

• Step 2: Calculate each limit: 12 · (1 + 2) = 1 · 3 = 3.
• Conclusion: limx→1 [x2 · (x + 2)] = 3.
x2 −9
3. Example: Find limx→3 x−3
.
(x−3)(x+3)
• Step 1: Factor the numerator: x−3
.
• Step 2: Simplify: x + 3.
• Step 3: Substitute x = 3: 3 + 3 = 6.
x2 −9
• Conclusion: limx→3 x−3
= 6.
√
4. Example: Find limx→4 [5 · x].
√
• Step 1: Apply the constant multiple rule: 5 · limx→4 x.
√
• Step 2: Calculate the limit: 5 · 4 = 5 · 2 = 10.
√
• Conclusion: limx→4 [5 · x] = 10.

5. Example: Find limx→2 [x3 ]2 .

2
• Step 1: Apply the power rule: [limx→2 x3 ] .
• Step 2: Calculate the limit: (23 )2 = 82 = 64.
• Conclusion: limx→2 [x3 ]2 = 64.

2.3 One-Sided Limits

A one-sided limit is the limit of a function as x approaches a from either the left
(x → a− ) or the right (x → a+ ).

10
Solved Examples:
1. Example: Find limx→2+ (x + 1).

• Step 1: As x approaches 2 from the right, x + 1 approaches 2 + 1 = 3.

• Conclusion: limx→2+ (x + 1) = 3.

2. Example: Find limx→0− x1 .

1
• Step 1: As x approaches 0 from the left, x
approaches −∞.
1
• Conclusion: limx→0− = −∞. x
√
3. Example: Find limx→1+ x − 1.
√ √
• Step 1: As x approaches 1 from the right, x − 1 approaches 0 = 0.
√
• Conclusion: limx→1+ x − 1 = 0.

4. Example: Find limx→3− |x − 3|.

• Step 1: As x approaches 3 from the left, |x − 3| = 3 − x, which approaches 0.

• Conclusion: limx→3− |x − 3| = 0.
1
5. Example: Find limx→0+ x2
.
1
• Step 1: As x approaches 0 from the right, x2
approaches +∞.
1
• Conclusion: limx→0+ x2
= +∞.

3.0 Self-Assessment Exercise(s)

1. Define the limit of a function.

2. Find limx→4 (2x − 5).

x2 −4
3. Find limx→2 x−2
.
3x2 +2x+1
4. Find limx→∞ x2 +4
.
1
5. Find limx→1+ x−1
.
sin(2x)
6. Find limx→0 x
.

7. Find limx→3 [x2 + 2x − 1].

1
8. Find limx→2− x−2
.
ex −1
9. Find limx→0 x
.
5x+3
10. Find limx→∞ 2x−1
.

4.0 Conclusion
This week, we explored the concept of limits, their properties, and one-sided limits. Limits
are essential for understanding continuity, derivatives, and integrals in calculus.

11
5.0 References/Further Readings
1. Adegun, T., Tuttuh, M. R., et al. (2008). Further Mathematics Project 1. NPS
Educational.

2. Adegun, T., Tuttuh, M. R., et al. (2008). Further Mathematics Project 2. NPS
Educational.

3. Adegun, T., Tuttuh, M. R., et al. (2011). Further Mathematics Project 3. NPS
Educational.

4. Stroud, K. A. (2013). Engineering Mathematics. Palgrave Macmillan.

12
Week 3: Continuity
Contents
1.0 Introduction
Continuity is a fundamental concept in calculus that describes whether a function is
”smooth” or has no ”breaks” or ”jumps” at a given point. A function is continuous at a
point if its limit exists at that point, and the function’s value equals the limit.

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Definition of Continuity A function f (x) is continuous at a point x = a if the
following three conditions are met:
1. f (a) is defined.
2. limx→a f (x) exists.
3. limx→a f (x) = f (a).

Solved Examples:

1. Example: Check if f (x) = 2x + 3 is continuous at x = 1.

• Step 1: Check if f (1) is defined: f (1) = 2(1) + 3 = 5.

• Step 2: Find limx→1 f (x): limx→1 (2x + 3) = 5.
• Step 3: Compare the limit and the function value: limx→1 f (x) = f (1) = 5.
• Conclusion: f (x) is continuous at x = 1.
x2 −1
2. Example: Check if f (x) = x−1
is continuous at x = 1.

• Step 1: Check if f (1) is defined: f (1) is undefined (division by zero).

• Conclusion: f (x) is not continuous at x = 1.
(
x2 if x ≤ 2
3. Example: Check if f (x) = is continuous at x = 2.
4 if x > 2

• Step 1: Check if f (2) is defined: f (2) = 22 = 4.

• Step 2: Find limx→2− f (x): limx→2− x2 = 4.
• Step 3: Find limx→2+ f (x): limx→2+ 4 = 4.
• Step 4: Compare the limits and the function value: limx→2 f (x) = f (2) = 4.
• Conclusion: f (x) is continuous at x = 2.

4. Example: Check if f (x) = sin(x) is continuous at x = π.

• Step 1: Check if f (π) is defined: f (π) = sin(π) = 0.

• Step 2: Find limx→π f (x): limx→π sin(x) = 0.
• Step 3: Compare the limit and the function value: limx→π f (x) = f (π) = 0.
• Conclusion: f (x) is continuous at x = π.

13
 1
5. Example: Check if f (x) = x
is continuous at x = 0.
• Step 1: Check if f (0) is defined: f (0) is undefined (division by zero).
• Conclusion: f (x) is not continuous at x = 0.

2.2 Properties of Continuous Functions

• Sum Rule: If f (x) and g(x) are continuous at x = a, then f (x)+g(x) is continuous
at x = a.
• Product Rule: If f (x) and g(x) are continuous at x = a, then f (x) · g(x) is
continuous at x = a.
f (x)
• Quotient Rule: If f (x) and g(x) are continuous at x = a and g(a) 6= 0, then g(x)
is continuous at x = a.
• Composition Rule: If f (x) is continuous at x = a and g(x) is continuous at f (a),
then g(f (x)) is continuous at x = a.

Solved Examples:
1. Example: Show that f (x) = x2 + 3x is continuous at x = 2.
• Step 1: f (x) = x2 + 3x is a polynomial, and all polynomials are continuous
everywhere.
• Conclusion: f (x) is continuous at x = 2.
x2 −4
2. Example: Show that f (x) = x−2
is continuous at x = 3.
• Step 1: Simplify f (x): f (x) = x + 2 for x 6= 2.
• Step 2: At x = 3, f (3) = 3 + 2 = 5.
• Step 3: limx→3 f (x) = 5.
• Conclusion: f (x) is continuous at x = 3.
√
3. Example: Show that f (x) = x is continuous at x = 4.
√
• Step 1: f (4) = 4 = 2.
√
• Step 2: limx→4 x = 2.
• Conclusion: f (x) is continuous at x = 4.
1
4. Example: Show that f (x) = x
is continuous at x = 1.
• Step 1: f (1) = 1.
1
• Step 2: limx→1 x
= 1.
• Conclusion: f (x) is continuous at x = 1.
5. Example: Show that f (x) = sin(x) is continuous at x = 0.
• Step 1: f (0) = sin(0) = 0.
• Step 2: limx→0 sin(x) = 0.
• Conclusion: f (x) is continuous at x = 0.

14
2.3 Types of Discontinuity

1. **Removable Discontinuity:** A discontinuity that can be ”removed” by redefining

the function at that point.

2. **Jump Discontinuity:** A discontinuity where the function ”jumps” from one

value to another.

3. **Infinite Discontinuity:** A discontinuity where the function approaches ±∞ at

a point.

Solved Examples:
x2 −1
1. Example: Identify the type of discontinuity in f (x) = x−1
at x = 1.

• Step 1: Simplify f (x): f (x) = x + 1 for x 6= 1.

• Step 2: The function is undefined at x = 1, but the limit exists: limx→1 f (x) =
2.
• Conclusion: The discontinuity is removable.
(
x if x < 2
2. Example: Identify the type of discontinuity in f (x) = at x = 2.
x + 1 if x ≥ 2

• Step 1: limx→2− f (x) = 2.

• Step 2: limx→2+ f (x) = 3.
• Conclusion: The discontinuity is a jump discontinuity.
1
3. Example: Identify the type of discontinuity in f (x) = x
at x = 0.

• Step 1: limx→0+ f (x) = +∞.

• Step 2: limx→0− f (x) = −∞.
• Conclusion: The discontinuity is an infinite discontinuity.
x2 −4
4. Example: Identify the type of discontinuity in f (x) = x−2
at x = 2.

• Step 1: Simplify f (x): f (x) = x + 2 for x 6= 2.

• Step 2: The function is undefined at x = 2, but the limit exists: limx→2 f (x) =
4.
• Conclusion: The discontinuity is removable.

5. Example: Identify the type of discontinuity in f (x) = tan(x) at x = π2 .

• Step 1: limx→ π + tan(x) = −∞.

2

• Step 2: limx→ π − tan(x) = +∞.

2

• Conclusion: The discontinuity is an infinite discontinuity.

15
3.0 Self-Assessment Exercise(s)
1. Define continuity at a point.

2. Check if f (x) = x3 − 2x + 1 is continuous at x = 0.

x2 −9
3. Check if f (x) = x−3
is continuous at x = 3.
1
4. Identify the type of discontinuity in f (x) = x−1 at x = 1.
(
x2 if x < 1
5. Check if f (x) = is continuous at x = 1.
2x if x ≥ 1
(
x2 + k if x ≤ 2
6. Find the value of k that makes f (x) = continuous at x = 2.
3x − 1 if x > 2
sin(x)
7. Check if f (x) = x
is continuous at x = 0.
x2 −4
8. Identify the type of discontinuity in f (x) = x−2
at x = 2.
√
9. Check if f (x) = x is continuous at x = 0.
1
10. Identify the type of discontinuity in f (x) = x2
at x = 0.

4.0 Conclusion
This week, we explored the concept of continuity, its properties, and types of discon-
tinuities. Continuity is essential for understanding the behavior of functions and their
applications in calculus.

5.0 References/Further Readings

1. Adegun, T., Tuttuh, M. R., et al. (2008). Further Mathematics Project 1. NPS
Educational.

2. Adegun, T., Tuttuh, M. R., et al. (2008). Further Mathematics Project 2. NPS
Educational.

3. Adegun, T., Tuttuh, M. R., et al. (2011). Further Mathematics Project 3. NPS
Educational.

4. Stroud, K. A. (2013). Engineering Mathematics. Palgrave Macmillan.

16
Week 4: Differentiation
Contents
1.0 Introduction
In this lesson, we shall learn derivative from first principle. Solution strategies of solving
such expression will be discussed. Furthermore, another special form of differentiation
which can be used to deduce the general form of differentiation will be studied. We also
study the rules of differentiation

2.0 Main content

2.1: Derivative from the first principle

If y = f (x), then

y + δy = f (x + δx)
δy = f (x + δx) − y
= f (x + δx) − f (f x)
δy f (x + δx − f (x)
lim ⇒ = lim
δx→0 δx δx→0 δx
dy f (x + δx − f (x)
= lim
dx δx→0 δx
This is referred to as differentiation from the ”first principle”.

Example Differentiate the following using first principle;

(a.) f (x) = 2x (b.) f (x) = 3x2 (c.) f (x) = x1 (d.) y = sin x (e.) y = x2 + 3x

2.2: Rules of differentiation

Generally, if y = xn , then
dy
= nxn−1 .
dx
Also, if y = axn , then
dy
= anxn−1 .
dx

2.2.1: Sum and difference rules of differentiation

If f (x) and g(x) are differentiable, then

y = f (x) ± g(x)
dy d
= (f (x) ± g(x)) .
dx dx

Example Differentiate the following

(a.) y = 3x2 + 2x − 5 (b.) y = x6 − 7x3 − 6x + 4 (c.) y = cos x − sin x

17
2.2.2: Product rule of differentiation

If y = f (x) · g(x), then

dy dg(x) df (x)
= f (x) + g(x)
dx dx dx.
dy
Example Find dx if
(a.) y = x6 cos x (b.) y = sin2 x (c.) y = 6x2 sin x cos x.

2.2.3: Quotient rule of differentiation

f (x)
If y = g(x)
or say y = uv , then

dy v du − u dv
= dx 2 dx .
dx v

Example Find the derivative of

x
(a.) y = x+1 (b.) y = x2sin x
+cos x
(c.)y = 1
x2 +4
.

2.2.4: Chain rule of differentiation (Function of a function)

If y = f (v), then
dy dy du
= × .
dx du dx

example Find the derivative of

(a.) y = (2x − 3)20 (b.) y = (1 − 5x)8 (c.) y = (2x3 + 7x + 3)3 (d.) y = (1 + x3 )5 .

3.0:Self assessment exercise

1. Show that from the first principle;
dy dy
(a.) If y = √1x , then dx = − 11 (b.) If y = xn , then dx
= nxn−1 .
2x 2

2. Find the derivative of cos x and tan x.

3. Find the derivative of the following with respect to x.

(a.) y = 6x4 − 4x3 + x2 (b.) y = 7x4 − cos x + 5 (c.) y = cos x(1 + sin x)
(d.) y = (x2 + x + 3)(3x2 + 2x + 4) (e.) y = (x2 + 7)2 (f.) y = 3x(x2 + 1) sin x cos x
4
(g.) y = xx

4.0: Conclusion
We have solved differentiation function first principle,the general form of differentiation
and also the rules of differentiation which include sum and product rule, quotient rule
and chain rule.

18
5.0: References/Further readings
1. Oroge C.O (2005). Further Mathematics

2. John Bird (1991). Higher Engineering Mathematics

3. Kreyszig .E. (1993). Advanced Engineering Mathematics. Seventh Edition, John

Willey and Sons, Inc., New York.

4. Grewal, B. S. (2007). Higher Engineering Mathematics. Fourteenth Edition. Khanna

Publishers, New Dehli.

19
Week 5: Techniques of differentiation
Contents
1.0: Introduction
Here,We shall learn the techniques of differentiation which include Parametric differen-
tiation, implicit differentiation alongside differentiation of exponential and logarithmic
function

2.0: Main content

2.1: Parametric differentiation

If y and x are functions of a variable say (t) i.e y = y(t), x = x(t), then

dy dy dx
=
dx dx dt

. That is known as parametric differentiation.

Example
dy
(a) If y = 3t2 − 1, x = t4 , find dx
.

dy
(b) Find dx
if x = cos at, y = sin2 (at).

2.2: Implicit differentiation

If x2 + y 2 = 1, then
d 2 d d
(x ) + (y 2 ) = (1)
dx dx dx
dy
2x + 2y =0
dx
dy −2x −x
∴ = =
dx −2y y
This is known as implicit differentiation.

dy
Example Find dx
of the function

(a) 3xy + 4x − cos 3y = 7

(b) y 2 − xy = 3

(c) 3x2 y 2 + 4 sin y + x3 − cos 3x = 0

20
2.3: Differentiation of exponential and Logarithmic functions

It is good to note that

• ex > 0

• eu+v = eu · ev

eu
• eu−v = ev

• ln(ex ) = x

• ln(1) = 0

• ln(uv) = lnu + lnv

u


• ln v
= lnu − lnv

• ln(xr ) = rlnx

d
• dx
(ex ) = ex

d
• dx
(ln(x)) = x1 .

Example
dy
(a) Find dx
if y = (3x2 + 1)e2x

dy sin 3x


(b) Find dx
if y = ln cos 6x

dy e3x
(c) Find dx
if y = sin 2x

3.0: Self assessment exercise

dy
Find the dx of the following functions
3x 3x2 2 2 9 4 2 7
(a.) y = e cos 5x (b.)
q  y = ln(e − cos(x + 3)) (c.) y = (3x − 1) + (6x − x )
2 )2
(d.) y = ln 3x2 +1
sin 4x
(e.) y = x(1−x
√
1+x2

21
4.0: Conclusion
The techniques of differentiation were thoroughly explored with examples and self-study
exercise given

5.0: Reference/Further readings

1. Oroge C.O (2005). Further Mathematics

2. John Bird (1991). Higher Engineering Mathematics

3. Kreyszig .E. (1993). Advanced Engineering Mathematics. Seventh Edition, John

Willey and Sons, Inc., New York.

4. Grewal, B. S. (2007). Higher Engineering Mathematics. Fourteenth Edition. Khanna

Publishers, New Dehli.

Week 6: Continuous assessment week

22
Week 7: Derivative of inverse trigonometric functions
and higher order derivatives
Contents
1.0: Introduction
In this lesson, we shall learn the derivative of inverse trigonometric function which include;
sine inverse, cosine inverse and tangent inverse. Futhermore, higher order differentiation
will also be studied which are called second-order,third-order, fourth-order differentiation
and so on.

2.0: Main content

2.1: Derivative of inverse trigonometric functions

Example

Derivative of sin−1 x, cos−1 x and tan−1 x.

dy
Example Find dx if
−1
(a.) y = sin (2x − 3) (b.) y = cos−1 (x2 ) (c.) y = tan−1 (3x2 )

2.2: Higher order derivatives

If y = f (x), then

dy
• First derivative is y 0 , f 0 (x), dx ∆x y

d y 2 2
• Second derivative is y 00 , f 00 (x), dx 2 ∆x y

3
d y 3
• third derivative is y 000 , f 000 (x), dx3 ∆x y
..
.
n
d y n
• nth derivative is y (n) , f (n) (x), dx n ∆x y

Example
d2 y d4 y
(a.) If y = sin x, show that dx2
= −y, dx4
= y.

sin θ
(b.) Find the second derivative at y = f (x) = 1+cos θ
.

d2 y
(c.) If y = tan θ, show that dθ2
= 2y(1 + y 2 ).

23
3.0: Self assessment/Exercise
2
d y
1. Find dx 2 if
cos x
(a.) cos2 x = y (b.) y = 1−sin x
.

d2 y
2. If y = sec θ, show rhat dθ2
= y(2y 2 − 1)

3. If y = θn where n is a positive, show that

2
(a.) θ dy
dθ
= ny (b.) θ2 ddθy2 = n(n − 1)y.

dy
4. Find dx
, if y = sin−1 (6x − 13)

4.0: Conclusion
This week, we explored the concept of differentiation in inverse trigonometric function
and also solving differentiation of higher order.

5.0: References/Further readings

1. Oroge C.O (2005). Further Mathematics

2. John Bird (1991). Higher Engineering Mathematics

3. Kreyszig .E. (1993). Advanced Engineering Mathematics. Seventh Edition, John

Willey and Sons, Inc., New York.

4. Grewal, B. S. (2007). Higher Engineering Mathematics. Fourteenth Edition. Khanna

Publishers, New Dehli.

24
Week 8: Application of Differentiation
Contents:
1.0: Introduction
With the knowledge of the derivative of a function to a variety of problems, this section is
dedicated to its application. Most of the applications are based on one of two interpreta-
tions of the derivative, viz: measuring the rate of the change of the function with respect
to the variable, or measuring the gradient of the tangent to the graph of the function at
a particular point.

2.0: Main content

2.1: Some applications to kinematics

If a body moving on straight line, has travelled a distance s after time t, then the rate
of change of s with respect to time will be the speed v of the body
ds
∴v= .
dt
In the same way, the rate of change of the speed with respect to time will be the accel-
eration a of the body
d2 s
 
dv d ds
a= = = 2.
dt dt dt dt
An alternative expression for a maybe obtained as follows:
Considering v as a function of s, which is a function of t. By using function of a function
rule for differentiation
dv dv ds
a= = ·
dt ds dt
dv
a=v·
ds

Examples

1. At what rate is the area of a circle changing with respect to its radius when the
radius is 1cm?

2. The radius of a circle is increasing at the rate of 0.1cm/sec. At what rate is the
area increasing at the instant when r = 5cm.

3. A body moves in a straight line so that the distance moved is 5f t after time t sec
is given by s = t3 − 2t2 + t. Find an expression for the speed of the body at time
t, and find the times at which the body is at rest. What is the acceleration of the
body at these times?

25
2.2: The maximum and minimum points of a function

Rules for determining the stationary point (or turning points) of a function and dis-
tinguishing between maxima and minima are as follows:

1. At a turning point f 0 (x) = 0.

2. At a local minimum, f (x) changes from negative to positive as x increases.

3. At a local maximum, f (x) changes from positive to negative as x increases.

A second procedure for distinguishing between maximum and minimum points maybe
obtained as follows:

1. In a region of maximum, f (x) changes sign from positive to negative as x increases.

Thus f 0 (x) is decreasing function of x in the region so that f 00 (x) is negative.

2. Near a local minimum, f 0 (x) is an increasing function so that f 00 (x) is positive,

hence at the turning points, giving maximum value f 00 (x) < 0 and minimum value
when f 00 (x) > 0.

3. If f 00 (x) = 0, no conclusion can be drawn.

Examples

1. Find the nature of the turning points of the function

y = x3 − 2x2 + x + 4.

2. Find the maximum and minimum points of

y = x3 − 6x2 + 9.

3.0: Self assessment exercise

1. The radius of a sphere is increasing at the rate of 0.1cm/sec when r = 5cm. Find
the rate at which the surface area and the volume are increasing.

2. Gas escaping from a spherical balloon at the rate of 30m3 /min. How fast is the
radius decreasing when the radius is 3m?

3. Find the maximum and minimum points of

(a.) y = x(x − 1)2 (b.) y = x2x+1 .

4. If y = (x − 1)(x + 2)2 , find the maximum and minimum points of y.

4.0: Conclusion

THis week, we explored the concept of the application of differentiation, which include
the rate of change, minimum and maximum value of a function.

26
5.0: Reference/Further readings

1. Oroge C.O (2005). Further Mathematics

2. John Bird (1991). Higher Engineering Mathematics

3. Kreyszig .E. (1993). Advanced Engineering Mathematics. Seventh Edition, John

Willey and Sons, Inc., New York.

4. Grewal, B. S. (2007). Higher Engineering Mathematics. Fourteenth Edition. Khanna

Publishers, New Dehli.

27
Week 9: Integration and its properties
Contents:
1.0: Introduction
In this week, we would be looking at introduction of integration, terminologies used in
integration, properties of integration, some standard integral results and how they are
applied in finding integrals functions especially integrals of trigonometric and exponential
functions and its like.

2.0: Main content

2.1: Integration

Integration is away of adding slices to find a whole. It is the combination or bringing

together separate things to form a unified whole. Mathematically, it is the inverse oper-
ation of differentiation. It is the continuous analog of a sum which is used in calculating
areas, volumes and their generalizations.
dy
Recall that, if y = xn , then we have dx = nxn−1 .
Suppose that
1
y= x(n+1)
n+1
dy 1
= · (n + 1)x(n+1)−1
dx (n + 1)
= xn .
dy xn+1
Therefore, when dx = xn , then y = n+1
, this implies that the integral of xn with respect
n+1
to x is xn+1 , where n 6= 1.

4.1 Notation and terms for integration

The function to be integrated is called ’INTEGRAND’, the operation carried out on
the function (integrand) is called ’INTEGRATION’, the result
R obtained is called the
’INTEGRAL’ and the symbol for integration is given by ’ ’. For example, given that
dy
dx
= f (x), we have Z
f (x)dx = y + c

read as integral of f (x) is y, where f (x) is the integrand and y is the integral. The term
0 0
c is an arbitrary constant term which is added so as to obtain or recover the constant
term in a function before it is differentiated.

2.2: Properties of integration

1. Given that f, g, h are functions of x, we have
Z Z Z Z
(f + g + h + · · · )(x)dx = f (x)dx + g(x)dx + h(x)dx + · · ·

28
 R R
2. af (x)dx = a f (x)dx, where a is a constant.

3. If F (x) is some anti-derivative of a continuous function f (x), then

Z b
f (x)dx = F (b) − F (a) = F (x)|ba
a

holds.

4. For any point b such that a ≤ b ≤ c, we have

Z c Z b Z c
f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx
a a b

holds provided that the integrals exist.

Example Find the integralsR of

R 4 R
(a.) (3x2 + 4x − 2)dx (b.) 1 3x2 dx (c.) (s3 + 4s)ds

2.3: Standard integrals

n+1
• axn dx = axn+1 + c
R

n
• (ax + b)n dx = (ax+b)
a(n+1)
+c
R
• sin xdx = − cos x + c

• sin(ax + b)dx = − a1 cos(ax + b) + c

R

R
• cos xdx = sin x + c

• cos(ax + b)dx = a1 sin(ax + b) + c

R

R
• sec2 xdx = tan x + c

• sec2 (ax + b)dx = a1 tan(ax + b) + c

R

R
• cosec2 xdx = cot x + c

• cosec2 (ax + b)dx = a1 cot(ax + b) + c

R

R
• sinh xdx = cosh x + c
R
• cosh xdx = sinh x + c

• x1 dx = lnx + c
R

R
• ex dx = ex + c
f (x)
• ef (x) dx = fe 0 (x)
R

29
Example Find the integrals of;
(a.) (cos 3x − sin 4x)dx (b.) (3 cos x + 2x2 )dx (c.) cos2 xdx (d.) sin2 xdx
R R R R
R 3x −2x
(e.) tan2 3xdx (f.) e −e
R
4
hint : sin2 x = 12 (1 − cos 2x), cos2 x = 21 (1 + cos 2x) and tan2 x = sec2 x − 1.

3.0: Self assessment exercise

1. Integrate the following functions with respect
√ to the variables; √
1 1
(a.) x + 5 − x2 (b.) (x + 1)(x − 2) (c.) x + x (d.) (3 + t)2
2 √

(e.) sin x2 (f.) sec2 4x

2. Evaluate
R 3 2the following definite
R 4 √ integrals; R 4
(a.) 1 (t + 3t)dt (b.) 0 3 xdx (c.) 3 (x + 1)(2 − x)dx
R1 R1
(d.) 0 e2x dx (e.) 0 sin 4θdθ (hint : 1rad = 57.3◦ )

4.0: Conclusion
By the end of this lesson, we have successfully looked at the basics of integration, its
properties, terminologies, and we have learnt how to evaluate integrals of trigonometric
and exponential functions.

5.0: References/Further readings

1. Oroge C.O (2005). Further Mathematics

2. John Bird (1991). Higher Engineering Mathematics

3. Kreyszig .E. (1993). Advanced Engineering Mathematics. Seventh Edition, John

Willey and Sons, Inc., New York.

4. Grewal, B. S. (2007). Higher Engineering Mathematics. Fourteenth Edition. Khanna

Publishers, New Dehli.

30
Week 10: Methods of Integration I
contents
1.0: Introduction
This week, we shall be looking at how to evaluate integrals by using substitution method
which in one of the methods use in finding integrals of functions, and some special cases
where the 0functions to be integrated are of a particular form, for example integral of the
function ff (x)
(x)
. These functions whose integrals are determined by the use of substitution
method are functions whose integrals cannot be determined using the standard integral
results. Some modification needs to be carried out on the functions first before applying
the standard integral results to find the integral of the given functions.

2.0: Main content

2.1: Integration by substitution

This method is used when integration of the given function cannot be obtained directly
as the given integrand is not in standard form. In such case, the integrand can be reduced
to the standard form by substituting it with a new variable.

Examples

Find
R the integral of R √ 1
R R
(a.) (3x − 2)6 dx (b.) x x2 + 1dx (c.) (3−2x) 3 dx (d.) cos(4x − 1)xdx
R π sin3 θ cos θdθ
(e.) sin5 x cos xdx (f.) (6x + 9)(3x2 + 9x − 300)1000 dx (g.) 02
R R
R2
(h.) −1 (3x + 5)4 dx

Examples on special problems of integration by substitution

Find
R the integrals Rof
dx a √ dx √−dx
R R
(a.) 1+x2 dx (b.) a2 +x 2 dx (c.) 1−x2
(d.) 1−x2

f 0 (x)
2.2: Integrals of the form f (x)

This class of integrals has the property that if the integrand is a fraction where the
numerator (after a suitable adjustment of constants if necessary) is the derivative of the
denominator, then the integral is the loge or ln of the denominator, i.e.,
Z 0
f (x)
dx = ln(f (x)) + c.
f (x)

31
Example Find the integrals of;

(a.) x1 dx
R

(b.) 2x2x+3 dx
R

R x2
(c.) 1+x 3

(d.) x24x−8
R
−4x+5
R ex −e−x
(e.) ex +e−x dx

3.0: Self assessment exercise

1. By using suitable substitution, find
R ethe integrals;
R x R R
2 4
(a.) (x+1)(x +2x−1) dx (b.) 1+ex dx (c.) (2x+1) cos(x2 +x)dx (d.) cos2 xdx
(e.) sinx x dx (f.) sin2 xdx
R R

2. Evaluate the following integrals;

R 1 e2x R1 √ R1
x2 x
R

(a.) − 11 2+x 3 dx (b.) 0 (1+e 2x ) dx (c.) 0 (1 + t) t + 1dt (d.) 0 cos 2
+1
Rπ R1
(e.) 02 sin(3x + 1)dx (f.) 0 x tan−1 (x)dx

3. Find the following integrals;

R x 12 R e3x
(a.) x2x−1 dx (b.) sin ax
R R
3 dx (c.) e3x +8
dx (d.) 1+cos ax
dx
R e2x 2+x 2
x
R x+2
(e.) e2x +ex dx (f.) x+2x2 dx (g.) x2 +4x+1 dx

4.0: Conclusion
By the end of the lesson, we were able to explore how to solve integration of functions
by using substitution method.

5.0: Reference/Further readings

1. Oroge C.O (2005). Further Mathematics

2. John Bird (1991). Higher Engineering Mathematics

3. Kreyszig .E. (1993). Advanced Engineering Mathematics. Seventh Edition, John

Willey and Sons, Inc., New York.

4. Grewal, B. S. (2007). Higher Engineering Mathematics. Fourteenth Edition. Khanna

Publishers, New Dehli.

32
Week 11: Method of integration II
Contents
1.0: Introduction
This week lesson is the continuation of the previous lesson, in particular we would be
looking at how evaluate integrals of functions by using partial fractions and by parts.
most functions that their integrals are evluated using either by parts or partial fractions
are functions whose integrals can not be determined using previous methods, hence using
either by partial fraction or part as the case might be.

2.0: Main content

2.1:Integration by partial fraction

Many integrals involving fractional integrands may be integrated after expressing the
integrand as the sum or difference of two or more partial fractions.
The partial fractions must be integrated. There are four cases of partial fraction;

1. Denominator with unrepeated linear factors

px + q A B C
≡ + + .
(ax + b)(cx + d)(ex + f ) (ax + b) (cx + d) (ex + f )

5x2 −7x−7 A B C
Example (x−1)(x+2)(2x+1)
≡ (x−1)
+ (x+2)
+ (2x+1)

2. Denominator with repeated linear factors

px + q A B C
2
≡ + 2
+ .
(ax + b) (cx + d) (ax + b) (ax + b) (cx + d)

px + q A B C D
3
≡ + 2
+ 3
+
(ax + b) (cx + d) (ax + b) (ax + b) (ax + b) (cx + d)

2x A B C
Example (x−1)(x+1)2
≡ (x−1)
+ (x+1)
+ (x+1)2

3. Denominator with irreducible quadratic factors.

An irreducible quadratic factor is a factor which cannot be factorised into the real
numbers. Examples of irreducible quadratic factors are; (2x2 + 5x + 1), (x2 + x +
1), (x2 − 3x − 5), (3x2 + 1), (x2 − 3),etc.

Example

5x2 + x + 8 Ax + B C
= +
(x2 + 2)(x + 1) x2 + 2 x+1
Ax + B Cx + D E
= 2 + 2 2
+
(x + 2) (x + 2) x+1

33
 4. Improper factor:
A given algebraic function is known to be improper if the degree of the numerator
F (x) is equal or higher than the degree of the denominator G(x). If a given algebraic
function is improper, divide out to obtain a polynomial P (x) plus a proper fraction
Q(x)
M (x)
, i.e.,
F (x Q(x)
= P (x) + .
G(x) M (x)
Suppose we are given an improper fraction

F (x) x4 − 3
= 2 .
G(x) x + 2x + 1

Dividing the numerator by the denominator, we obtain

x4 − 3 4x − 6
2
= (x2 − 2x + 3) − 2 .
x + 2x + 1 x + 2x + 1
Similarly,
x3 − x − 1 1
= x + .
x2 + 2x + 1 (x − 1)(x + 1)
Finally,
1 + x2 B C
≡A+ + .
(x − 1)(x + 1) (x − 1) (x + 1)

Examples

1. Integrate
3 2x 2
(a.) (x−1)(x+2)(x−3) dx (b.) (x−1)(x+2)2
dx (c.) (x−1)(1+x2 )
dx
x2
R
2. Find the integral x2 −4
dx

2.2: Integration by parts

Recall that the integral of the sum of two or more functions is the sum of the respected
integrals. But what of the integral of product?
The correct technique for handling the integral of a product is a bit more subtle and
it is called integration by parts and it is based on product rule;

(u · v)0 = u0 · v + u · v 0 .

Integrating both sides of the above equation, we have

Z Z Z
0
(u · v) dx = u · vdx + u · v 0 dx
0

The fundamental theorem of calculus tells us the the left hand side is u · v,thus;
Z Z
u · v = u · vdx + u · v 0 dx,
0

34
this implies that Z Z
0
u · v dx = u · v − v · u0 dx.

It is traditional to abbreviate u0 (x)dx = du and v 0 (x)dx = dv. Thus the integration by

part formula becomes Z
intudv = uv − vdu

Examples Find the Rintegrals of theRfollowing R

R 2π
(a.) x cos xdx (b.) xex dx (d.) x2 ex dx π sin x cos xdx.
2

4.0: Conclusion
At the end of the lesson, we were able to determine the integrals of functions by resolving
the functions into partial fractions using a suitable method. We further learnt how to
find integrals of functions using integration by parts, in particular functions which are
products of two functions.

5.0: Reference/Further readings

1. Oroge C.O (2005). Further Mathematics

2. John Bird (1991). Higher Engineering Mathematics

3. Kreyszig .E. (1993). Advanced Engineering Mathematics. Seventh Edition, John

Willey and Sons, Inc., New York.

4. Grewal, B. S. (2007). Higher Engineering Mathematics. Fourteenth Edition. Khanna

Publishers, New Dehli.

35
Week 12: Application of integration
Contents
1.0: Introduction
Measure of an area: Area is a measure of the surface of two dimensional region. We are
familiar with calculating the area of regular shapes such as rectangles, squares, triangle,
trapezoids, etc. A simple formula could be applied in each case to arrive at the exact
areas of the region.
In calculating the area of region on a Cartesian plane, we may encounter regions that
do not have such basic geometrical shapes. To compute the area of such regions, we apply
methods involving the use of integral calculus to calculate the area.

2.0: Main content

2.1: The area bounded by a straight line and a curve

The area bounded by a straight line y = f (x), the x − axis and the line x = a is given
as Z a
Area = f (x)dx
0

Example Find the area bounded by the straight line y = 2x, the x − axis and the line
x = 4.

2.1.1: Area under a curve

The total area under a curve bounded by the x − axis and the lines x = x1 and x = x2
is given by
Z |
Area = x2 f (x)dx.
x1

Example

1. Find the area bounded by the curve y = x2 , the x − axis, and the line x = 1 and
x = 2.

2. Find the area bounded by the curve y = x2 − 1, the x − axis and the lines x = 0
and x = 2.

3. Find the area bounded by the curve y = 13 − x,the y − axis and the ordinate x = 3.

4. Find the area of the region bounded by the curve y = x2 + 1 and the line y = x + 3.

2.2: Volume of solid of revolution

Many solid objects have a circular cross-section and curve sides. In this section, we
will see how to find the volume of some objects using integration.

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2.2.1: The disk method

in the disk method, we use the formula for calculating the volume of cylinder i.e.,

V = πr2 h,

but r = y and h = dx, therefore we have

V = πy 2 dx.

Adding the volume of the disk (with infinitely small dx), we obtain the formula
Z b Z b
2
V =π y dx = {f (x)}2 dx (rotating about x − axis).
1 a

If we rotate about the y − axis, the volume will be

Z b
V =π {f (y)}2 dy.
a

Example Find the volume of the area bounded by the line y = 3x, x − axis and x = 1
is rotated around the x − axis.

2.2.2.: The volume by rotating the area enclosed between two curves

The volume by rotating the area enclosed between two curves is given by
Z b
V =π {(y2 )2 − (y1 )2 }dx.
a

Example A cup-like object is made by rotating the area between y = 2x2 and y = x+1
with x ≥ 0 around the x − axis. Find the volume of the material needed to make the
cup.(units are in cm).

3.0: Self assessment exercise

1. Find the area bounded by the curve y = x2 − 4 the x − axis and the lines x =
1, x = 2.

2. What is the area bounded by curve y = x3 , x = −2 and x = 1.

√
3. Find the area of the region bounded by the curve y = x − 1,the y − axis, and the
lines y = 1 and y = 5.

4. Find the volume of the area bounded by the curve y = x3 + 1, the x − axis and the
limit of x = 0 nad x = 3 is rotated around the x − axis

4.0: Conclusion
The techniques of application of integration were thoroughly explored with respect to
area under a straight line and a curve and volume under a curve.

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5.0: Reference/Further readings
1. Oroge C.O (2005). Further Mathematics

2. John Bird (1991). Higher Engineering Mathematics

3. Kreyszig .E. (1993). Advanced Engineering Mathematics. Seventh Edition, John

Willey and Sons, Inc., New York.

4. Grewal, B. S. (2007). Higher Engineering Mathematics. Fourteenth Edition. Khanna

Publishers, New Dehli.

Week 13: Revision

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