A Practical Guide To Database Design 2nd Edition

Hogan Rex download

https://ebookbell.com/product/a-practical-guide-to-database-
design-2nd-edition-hogan-rex-38229712

Explore and download more ebooks at ebookbell.com

Here are some recommended products that we believe you will be
interested in. You can click the link to download.

A Practical Guide To Database Design 2nd Edition Rex Hogan

https://ebookbell.com/product/a-practical-guide-to-database-
design-2nd-edition-rex-hogan-6998474

Postgresql Skills Development On Cloud A Practical Guide To Database

Management With Aws And Azure 1st Edition Venkateswara Vadlamani

https://ebookbell.com/product/postgresql-skills-development-on-cloud-
a-practical-guide-to-database-management-with-aws-and-azure-1st-
edition-venkateswara-vadlamani-172586836

Postgresql Up Running A Practical Guide To The Advanced Open Source

Database 3rd Edition Regina Obe

https://ebookbell.com/product/postgresql-up-running-a-practical-guide-
to-the-advanced-open-source-database-3rd-edition-regina-obe-55463642

Spatial Database For Gps Wildlife Tracking Data A Practical Guide To

Creating A Data Management System With Postgresqlpostgis And R 1st
Edition Ferdinando Urbano

https://ebookbell.com/product/spatial-database-for-gps-wildlife-
tracking-data-a-practical-guide-to-creating-a-data-management-system-
with-postgresqlpostgis-and-r-1st-edition-ferdinando-urbano-4662414
Pro Sql Server 2022 Wait Statistics A Practical Guide To Analyzing
Performance In Sql Server And Azure Sql Database 3rd Edition 3rd
Edition Thomas Larock

https://ebookbell.com/product/pro-sql-server-2022-wait-statistics-a-
practical-guide-to-analyzing-performance-in-sql-server-and-azure-sql-
database-3rd-edition-3rd-edition-thomas-larock-47559882

Pro Sql Server 2022 Wait Statistics A Practical Guide To Analyzing

Performance In Sql Server And Azure Sql Database 3rd Edition 3rd
Edition Thomas Larock

https://ebookbell.com/product/pro-sql-server-2022-wait-statistics-a-
practical-guide-to-analyzing-performance-in-sql-server-and-azure-sql-
database-3rd-edition-3rd-edition-thomas-larock-47559896

Postgresql Up And Running A Practical Guide To The Advanced Open

Source Database 3rd Edition Regina O Obe

https://ebookbell.com/product/postgresql-up-and-running-a-practical-
guide-to-the-advanced-open-source-database-3rd-edition-regina-o-
obe-6622704

Php Oracle Web Development Data Processing Security Caching Xml Web
Services And Ajax A Practical Guide To Combining The Power Performance
Scalability And Reliability Of Oracle Database With The Ease Of Use
Short Development Time And High Per Yuli Vasiliev
https://ebookbell.com/product/php-oracle-web-development-data-
processing-security-caching-xml-web-services-and-ajax-a-practical-
guide-to-combining-the-power-performance-scalability-and-reliability-
of-oracle-database-with-the-ease-of-use-short-development-time-and-
high-per-yuli-vasiliev-4105622

Jooq Masterclass A Practical Guide For Java Developers To Write Sql

Queries For Complex Database Interactions Anghel Leonard

https://ebookbell.com/product/jooq-masterclass-a-practical-guide-for-
java-developers-to-write-sql-queries-for-complex-database-
interactions-anghel-leonard-56223438
A Practical Guide to
Database Design
A Practical Guide to
Database Design
Second Edition

Rex Hogan
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-1385-7806-7 (Hardback)

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made
to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all
materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all
material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been
obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future
reprint.

Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized
in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying,
microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the
publishers.

For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://www.
copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-
8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that
have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged.

Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Hogan, Rex, 1944- author.

Title: A practical guide to database design / Rex Hogan.
Description: Second edition. | Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, CRC Press,
2017. | Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017050960 | ISBN 9781138578067 (hardback : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Database design.
Classification: LCC QA76.9.D26 H64 2017 | DDC 005.74/3--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017050960

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

http://www.taylorandfrancis.com

and the CRC Press Web site at

http://www.crcpress.com

Visit the eResources at

http://crcpress.com/9781138578067
To my wife Cindy, for always being there for me.
Contents

Introduction, xiii
Author, xv

Chapter 1 ◾ Overview of Databases 1

1.1 WHAT’S A “DATABASE”? 1
1.2 GUARANTEED ACCURACY AND AVAILABILITY OF DATA 2
1.2.1 Atomicity 2
1.2.2 Consistency 3
1.2.3 Isolation 3
1.2.4 Durability 3
1.3 DYNAMIC ALTERATION OF DESIGN 3
1.4 DYNAMIC QUERIES—ANY DATA, ANY TIME 5
1.5 REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY ENFORCEMENT 6
1.6 BACKUP/RECOVERY 8
1.7 FAILOVER 9
1.8 TYPICAL INSTALLATION 10
QUESTIONS 13
REFERENCES 14

Chapter 2 ◾ Data Normalization 15

2.1 INTRODUCTION 15
2.2 THE LANGUAGE OF NORMALIZATION 16
2.3 CREATING THE ENTITY/ATTRIBUTE LIST 17
2.3.1 The Order Entry Model 18
2.4 CLEANING UP THE ENTITY/ATTRIBUTE LIST 20
2.4.1 Problem Type 1—Synonyms 20
2.4.2 Problem Type 2—Homonyms 20

vii
viii ◾ Contents

2.4.3 Problem Type 3—Redundant Information 20

2.4.4 Problem Type 4—Mutually Exclusive Data 21
2.4.5 Problem Type 1—Synonyms 21
2.4.6 Problem Type 2—Homonyms 23
2.4.7 Problem Type 3—Redundant Information 23
2.4.8 Problem Type 4—Mutually Exclusive Data 23
2.5 NORMALIZATION 24
2.5.1 First Normal Form 25
2.5.1.1 Requirement 1—Keys to Create Uniqueness 25
2.5.1.2 Requirement 2—Attributes Can Have Only One Value 26
2.5.2 Second Normal Form 29
2.5.3 Third Normal Form 31
2.6 CREATING THE DATA MODEL 35
2.7 FOURTH NORMAL FORM 37
2.8 FIFTH NORMAL FORM 37
QUESTIONS 39
REFERENCES 40

Chapter 3 ◾ Database Implementation 41

3.1 LOGICAL TO PHYSICAL DESIGN 41
3.2 USAGE PATH ANALYSIS 42
3.3 TABLE KEY AND COLUMN DATA TYPES 44
3.4 INDEXES 45
3.5 TABLE CREATION 46
3.5.1 Using Microsoft Access 47
3.5.2 Using SQL Server 56
3.5.3 Using Oracle 72
QUESTIONS 73

Chapter 4 ◾ Normalization and Physical Design Exercise 75

4.1 INTRODUCTION 75
4.2 CREATING THE ENTITY/ATTRIBUTE LIST 75
4.3 MOVING TO THIRD NORMAL FORM 78
4.4 THE PHYSICAL DATA MODEL 88
QUESTIONS 91
 Contents ◾ ix

Chapter 5 ◾ The erwin Data Modeling Tool 93

5.1 WHAT IS A DATA MODELING TOOL? 93
5.2 WHY DO I NEED A DATA MODELING TOOL? 93
5.3 REVERSE ENGINEERING 93
5.4 CHANGE MANAGEMENT 94
5.5 DOWNLOAD AND INSTALL ERWIN TRIAL SOFTWARE 95
5.6 CREATE THE UNIVERSITY LOGICAL DATA MODEL 96
5.7 CREATE THE UNIVERSITY PHYSICAL DATA MODEL 109
5.8 CREATE AN SQL SERVER UNIVERSITY DATABASE 114
QUESTIONS 115
REFERENCE 116

Chapter 6 ◾ Using Microsoft Access 117

6.1 OVERVIEW 117
6.2 MODIFICATIONS TO THE DATABASE DESIGN 118
6.3 LOADING DATA INTO TABLES 118
6.4 CREATING QUERIES 119
6.4.1 Create a Customer-Credit_Card Query 119
6.4.2 Create a Query Using SQL Commands 125
6.4.3 Filtering Query Results 125
6.5 USING FORMS 129
6.5.1 Create a Form to Update Advertised_Items 129
6.5.2 Create a Form to Add a New Customer 141
6.5.3 Generating a Master Screen for Users 146
6.6 GENERATING REPORTS 146
6.6.1 Using Reports to View a Customer Order 146
6.7 DEPLOYING ACCESS FOR A TEAM OF USERS 153
6.7.1 Linking to an SQL Server or Oracle Database 155
6.8 THE ROLE OF PASS-THROUGH QUERIES 155
QUESTIONS 156

Chapter 7 ◾ Using SQL Server 157

7.1 OVERVIEW 157
7.1.1 Advantages 157
7.1.2 Change Management for SQL Server 157
x ◾ Contents

7.2 DATABASE CREATION/INSTALLATION 158

7.2.1 Installation Planning 158
7.2.2 Software Installation 160
7.3 CREATING DATABASES 170
7.3.1 Create an SQLSvrLogs Database 171
7.3.2 Create the University Database 174
7.3.2.1 Table Definitions 174
7.3.2.2 Creating Indexes 177
7.3.2.3 Index Maintenance 180
7.3.2.4 Referential Integrity Constraints 180
7.4 USER ROLES 184
7.5 AUTHORIZED USERS 186
7.6 BACKUP/RECOVERY 190
7.7 LOADING DATA INTO TABLES 195
7.8 CREATING VIEWS 202
7.9 MANUAL QUERIES AND EDITS 204
7.10 USING STORED PROCEDURES 207
7.11 USING SQL SERVER AGENT 208
QUESTIONS 210

Chapter 8 ◾ Using Perl to Extract and Load Data 213

8.1 WHY PERL? 213
8.2 PERL VERSUS PYTHON 219
8.3 WINDOWS VERSUS UNIX 219
8.4 REVIEW KEY MATCHING FEATURES 221
8.5 MONITOR SQL SERVER LOGS 222
8.6 MONITORING WINDOWS LOGS 225
8.7 OTHER APPLICATIONS AND USES 226
8.8 LOADING DATA INTO TABLES 227
8.9 SUMMARY 229
QUESTIONS 229
REFERENCE 230
 Contents ◾ xi

Chapter 9 ◾ Building User Interfaces 231

9.1 MICROSOFT ACCESS IN A TYPICAL OFFICE ENVIRONMENT 231
9.1.1 General Capabilities 231
9.1.2 Advantages 232
9.1.3 Disadvantages 232
9.2 USE MICROSOFT ACCESS AS GUI 232
9.2.1 General Capabilities 232
9.2.2 Advantages 232
9.2.3 Disadvantages 233
9.3 .NET FRAMEWORK 233
9.3.1 General Capabilities 233
9.3.2 Advantages 233
9.3.3 Disadvantages 234
9.4 PHP 234
9.4.1 General Capabilities 234
9.4.2 Advantages 234
9.4.3 Disadvantages 235
9.5 JAVA 235
9.5.1 General Capabilities 235
9.5.2 Advantages 235
9.5.3 Disadvantages 235
QUESTIONS 235

Chapter 10 ◾ Creating the University Database Application 237

10.1 CREATE TABLES FOR UNIVERSITY ENVIRONMENT 237
10.2 CREATE RELATIONSHIPS TO ENFORCE REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY 241
10.3 DESIGN A SCREEN TO ADD NEW STUDENTS 244
10.4 CREATE A SCREEN TO ENROLL STUDENTS IN A CLASS 260
10.5 CREATE A SCREEN TO ASSIGN GRADES 268
10.6 CREATE SCREENS TO ENTER MIDTERM AND FINAL GRADES 271
10.7 CREATE A “MAIN” MENU 271
10.8 DEVELOPING APPLICATIONS FOR UNIVERSITY
ADMINISTRATORS 272
QUESTIONS 273
xii ◾ Contents

Chapter 11 ◾ PHP Implementation and Use 275

11.1 WHY PHP? 275
11.2 SYSTEM COMPONENTS 276
11.3 DESIGN OF WEB-BASED INTERFACE 279
11.3.1 User Logon Options 280
11.3.2 User Authentication 281
11.3.3 Home Page User Options 283
11.3.4 Review/Check Warning Records 283
11.3.5 Review/Check Error Records 292
11.4 SCRIPT LOGIC 292
11.4.1 Warning Records Logic 292
11.4.2 Error Records Logic 294
QUESTIONS 295
REFERENCES 296

APPENDIX A: WARNING MESSAGES, 297

APPENDIX B: ERROR MESSAGES, 309

APPENDIX C: UNIVERSITY DDL, 321

APPENDIX D: SEARCH FOR TERMS, 405

APPENDIX E: SQL SERVER LOG CHECK, 407

INDEX, 409
Introduction

ABOUT THIS BOOK

This is a book intended for those who are involved in the design or development of a
database system or application. It begins by focusing on how to create a logical data model
where data are stored where it belongs. Next, data usage is reviewed to transform the logical
model into a physical data model that will satisfy user performance requirements. Finally,
it describes how to use various software tools to create user interfaces to review and update
data in a database.

ORGANIZATION OF THIS BOOK

• Chapter 1 describes the functionality of database management systems and how they
guarantee accuracy and availability of data.
• Chapters 2 through 4 describe how to define and normalize data requirements to
create a logical data model, and then map them into an initial solution for a physical
database.
• Chapter 5 describes how to use an industry-leading data modeling tool to define and
manage logical and physical data models.
• Chapters 6 and 7 describe how to implement a physical database using either Microsoft
Access or Structured Query Language (SQL) Server and how to use Microsoft Access
to create windows interfaces to query or update data in tables.
• Chapter 8 describes how to use the PERL programming language to identify and
extract records of interest from files and load these records into a database. As an
example, it includes a script that identifies and extracts warning and error messages
from an SQL Server log file and shows how to load these records into tables in a track-
ing database described in Chapter 7.
• Chapter 9 reviews various software tools that are commonly used to create user inter-
faces to databases to retrieve or update data.
• As with most skills, the ability to design and implement a database improves with
practice and experience. Chapter 10 reviews the design and implementation of a data-
base using a much more complex data environment for a University.

xiii
xiv ◾ Introduction

• Finally, Chapter 11 describes how to use PHP to build a web-based interface to review
and update data in a database.
The database used in this example is the tracking database created in Chapter 7 and
loaded with the PERL script in Chapter 8. Appendices A and B contain the PHP scripts
used by this interface to update the status flags in that database.
• Appendix C contains the Data Definition Language (DDL) text file generated by the
data modeling tool to create the University database.

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK

User Specialists and Design Teams
• Learn how to create a logical data model where data are stored where it belongs by
reviewing the material and exercises in Chapter 2.
• Learn how to analyze data-processing requirements to create a physical design model
that will satisfy user response times by reviewing the material in Chapters 3 and 4.

Database Administrators
• In addition to the above-mentioned uses, learn how to use an industry-leading data
modeling tool by reviewing the material and exercises in Chapter 5. It includes
instructions on how to create the DDL statements needed to create a physical data-
base. The DDL to create the University database is included as Appendix C.
• Learn how to implement a physical database using either Microsoft Access or SQL
Server by following the exercises in Chapters 6 and 7.

Developers
• Learn how to translate user requirements into a database solution by reviewing the
material and exercises in Chapters 2 through 4.
• Chapter 8 shows how to use the PERL language to identify records containing data of
interest from external files and load them into a table in a database.
• Learn how to use Microsoft Access to develop user interfaces by reviewing the exer-
cises in Chapters 6 and 10.
• Gain an understanding of software used to develop user interfaces by reading
Chapter 9.
• Learn how to use PHP to develop a web-based interface to a database by reviewing
the information and code contained in Chapter 11 and listed in Appendices A and B.
Author

Rex Hogan is the author of A Practical Guide to Database Design (first edition). In addi-
tion, he has written Diagnostic Techniques for IMS Data Bases and coauthored Managing
IMS DataBases with Steve Shapiro and Maxie Zinsmeister.
Rex has more than 40 years of experience as a database administrator and a software
engineer. This includes more than 17 years of experience with Southwestern Bell/AT&T
where he became their lead database specialist. During this period, he also taught various
undergraduate and graduate classes at Washington University’s Center for the Study of
Data Processing in St. Louis, Missouri. He then worked for TRW/Northrop Grumman in
Fair Lakus, VA for 16 years, primarily as a database administrator (DBA)/senior software
engineer in the Intelligence Community where he became a specialist in the rapid design
and development of database systems and applications. Finally, he worked for five years as
a computer scientist for the Air Force Office of Special Investigations, where he developed
computer systems to monitor usage of Air Force Internet traffic.

xv
 Chapter 1

Overview of Databases

1.1 WHAT’S A “DATABASE”?

Today, generally everyone uses a computer in one form or another.

• Home-based computers are frequently used for managing a personal business, update
spreadsheets, or complete school assignments. Others use them for email, social
interaction with friends and family members, monitoring the Internet for news, or
for entertainment.
• Owners of small businesses use spreadsheets and/or software products such as
QuickBooks to keep track of personal or business expenses.
• Office environments must gather and store and manage information for a wide range
of topics or subjects, such as customers or clients, appointments, or customer orders.
• Business environments must manage a much wider scope of data regarding the infor-
mation and data needed to run or manage the business.
• Users using computers in government offices need computers to manage their
jobs. For those working as analysts in the Department of Defense (DOD) or in the
Intelligence Community, the nature of the job is continually expanding, requir-
ing analysts to monitor or track new information or data as it becomes available.
Analytical teams continually face the responsibility of analyzing new and evolving
forms of information to identify and extract information of relevance using software
tools available to them. Often, that means having not much more than the desktop
Microsoft Office products ranging from Excel to Microsoft Access.

As the data needed by the user or customer community grow in size, complexity, and
importance, the care and feeding of that data requires the use of a database management
system (DBMS) to store, manage, and protect it.

1
2 ◾ A Practical Guide to Database Design

A DBMS1 is a special software package that is designed to define and manage data
within one or more databases. Individual databases, in turn, manage the definition of data
objects/tables in a given subject area and provide controlled user access to that data.
Examples of DBMSs include Structured Query Language (SQL) Server, Oracle, and
Microsoft Access. An SQL Server or Oracle instance would then serve as host to, for exam-
ple, a personnel database.

1.2 GUARANTEED ACCURACY AND AVAILABILITY OF DATA

A DBMS is, by its very nature, built to guarantee the accuracy and availability of data as
updates occur. Updates are bundled as application transactions2 that apply all data updates
within a logical unit of work3 associated with that application. These updates must be made
on an all or nothing basis; either all the updates are applied, or, if a logical or database error
occurs, none of the updates are applied, leaving all of the data in a clean consistent state
from the user and application perspective.
The application software updating the database issues commands to the database to start
a unit of work. If all updates complete successfully, a commit call is issued to make those
updates permanent. If in the process of making those updates some condition is found that
prevents the update from occurring, a rollback call is made to reverse any updates and put
the data back in a logical state representing the data at the beginning of the transaction.
For example, a user might log on to their banking system and start an update to move
funds from their savings to checking accounts.

• After logging in and starting the transfer, the software performing the updates first
issues a database update to debit the savings account for the specified amount.
• If that update is successful, it issues an update to credit the checking account by that
amount.
• Upon successful completion, a commit call is issued to commit the changes and
release database locks on the rows being updated. An appropriate message would be
sent to the user confirming that the funds transfer was completed.
• If, however, the update to the checking account failed (e.g., the user entered the wrong
savings account number), a rollback call would be made to reverse all updates made,
and an appropriate error message would be sent to the user. As a result, the database
and the underlying data are left in a clean, consistent state.

The ACID4 properties (atomicity, consistency, isolation, and durability) of database systems
and transactions guarantee the accuracy and availability of data.

1.2.1 Atomicity
The atomicity is the all or nothing requirement when making updates. Either all updates made
during the unit or work succeed or no updates are made. This protection includes updates in
a unit of work or transaction, device input/output errors, network errors, and power failures.
 Overview of Databases ◾ 3

1.2.2 Consistency
Consistency requires that transactions take the database from one valid state to another.
Any and all updates must conform and enforce any referential integrity5 constraints
defined. (Referential integrity constraints define and control any one-to-many relation-
ships between tables in a database.)

1.2.3 Isolation
Isolation of database updates involves mechanisms that enable multiple concurrent users
to simultaneously access and update the same data elements within a database.
As database updates occur, locks are transparently placed on updated rows that prevent
subsequent users to access or update those rows until the updating process commits those
updates and the locks are released. Any processes requesting access to rows being updated
are held/delayed until the updater’s commit point is made.

1.2.4 Durability
This feature/requirement ensures that any updates made by a transaction (i.e., a unit of
work completed and updates committed) will survive a subsequent system error or prob-
lem, for example, a system failure or a power or disk failure.
Database systems have mechanisms/features that support a full database backup. In
addition, database systems log updates to nonvolatile devices (a database log file) as updates
are made to the database. If/When necessary, a database can be rebuilt/recovered totally by
first using the database backup to recover all data to the point the backup was made, then
using the database log to reapply all updates made to the database after that point in time.
This subject is covered in more detail in Section 1.6.

1.3 DYNAMIC ALTERATION OF DESIGN

Relational database management system (RDBMS) represent the third generation of
DBMS products. As one of their key features, these products give the user the abil-
ity to dynamically add or drop columns to data or make other changes live while the
database is online and being updated by users. That provides a significant change
over the second-generation hierarchical systems that had to be taken down and modi-
fied off-line to apply changes. Third-generation systems include products such as SQL
Server, Oracle, and Microsoft Access.
Note that MySQL is touted as an RDBMS and it has many relational-like features.
However, it has significant limitations that, in my opinion, prevent it from being classified
as a true RDBMS.

For example, each table in MySQL is implemented as a flat file with indexes as
needed to support data retrieval. If/When any changes are required, for example,
a column is to be added, MySQL creates a new temporary table with the new col-
umn, copies all records from the original file to the new, and then deletes and
renames the old and new files accordingly.
4 ◾ A Practical Guide to Database Design

In a former role, I prototyped a MySQL implementation for a data collection appli-

cation running a UNIX (Solaris) server. As the prototype progressed, it was no
surprise to find that I needed to add new columns to the MySQL table to help track
information about what was being collected. I found that the time requirements to
make changes to a MySQL table with a million rows were anything but transparent.

As a work around, I then made what I hoped was a one-time modification to the
table adding spare columns (Spare1, Spare2, Spare3, etc.) with the plan of renaming
these columns if/when needed to reflect application-specific, meaningful names.
That helped, but even then I found that MySQL required/used too much overhead
for managing large tables.

The ability to dynamically change table definitions can, in most products, be made using
that product’s database administrator (DBA) graphical user interface, or by working at the
command line by issuing commands using the product’s data definition language (DDL).
The DBA user interface is much easier and quicker to use, but when supporting mission-
critical applications, change management procedures are used to control updates across
multiple environments and platforms, each with their own copy and version of the applica-
tion database.

• A Development platform is used to design, develop, and test individual software com-
ponents and tables within a database.
• Incremental changes are made by manually running DDL changes at the command
prompt.
• All incremental changes are accumulated as they are applied, creating a change pack-
age with all modifications needed for that release.
• When all changes have been made and tested for a software release, a Test platform
is used.
• With the test system database configured for the older software release, the change
package is applied and the software release is tested to ensure all updates have been
correctly applied and the software works as intended.
• If errors are found, the change package must be revised as necessary and the entire
update process repeated.
• After changes have been successfully applied and tested on the Test system, the
change package is ready to be applied to the Production platform.

The careful application and use of change packages on the Test platform allows the sched-
uling of downtime of the Production system with the expectation of no surprises when the
updates are applied.
 Overview of Databases ◾ 5

1.4 DYNAMIC QUERIES—ANY DATA, ANY TIME

Although RDBMS products made a huge improvement by allowing dynamic changes, an
even more significant enhancement was through the implementation of the SQL language.
This gives the user the ability to ask for any data, at any time. For example, any autho-
rized user can connect to the database and, using one of several query managers typically
available, issue a command to retrieve data using the command syntax, where {} indicates
optional parameters:

“SELECT <column name(s)> FROM <table name> {WHERE <column name> =

<value>};”

For example,

“SELECT First_Name, Last_Name FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE DEPT-NUMBER =

12;”

would retrieve the first and last names from the Employee table where that table’s DEPT-
NUMBER column has a value of 12.
SQL has, of course, many variations to extend the power and flexibility of the com-
mands issued. Some simpler examples are

“SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE;”

would retrieve/display all columns in the Employee table;

“SELECT COUNT(*) FROM EMPLOYEE;”

would display the number of Employees in the Employee table; and

“SELECT MAX(Annual_Salary) FROM EMPLOYEE;”

would display the highest annual salary found in the Employee table.
The power of SQL is multiplied by creating a “View”6 of two or more tables that create a
virtual object to query against. For example, a View can be created named “Department_
Employees” that combines the Department table with the Employee table matching the
DepartmentID column in Department with the DepartmentID in Employee.
Using this virtual table,

“SELECT * FROM DEPARTMENT_EMPLOYEES WHERE DepartmentID = 12;”

will list all information for employees that are assigned to Department 12.
Developers and users, however, must be aware that SQL implementations are not all
equal.7 RDBMS vendors have worked together over the years to define and implement
SQL within their products beginning in 1986. However, at the implementation level, SQL
6 ◾ A Practical Guide to Database Design

commands will vary depending on the RDBMS product being used. The major vendors
support the basic SQL standards (i.e., their product will provide some specific function-
ality), but the details of implementation will be different. For example, SQL provides for
a wildcard character to allow/support either single character matches or to match any
number of characters in a search string. If using SQL Server or Oracle:

“SELECT * FROM PRODUCTS WHERE Product_Name LIKE ‘DELL%’;”

will display all information from the products table for product names begin with “DELL.”
If using Microsoft Access, this command would be

“SELECT * FROM PRODUCTS WHERE Product_Name LIKE ‘DELL*’;”

to match the wild card character used in Access.

In addition, each vendor will include their own SQL enhancements (features going
beyond the standard) to support their products’ competitive advantage.
Fortunately, from the developer’s point of view, 90%–95% of their SQL skills will
transfer/apply when working with another RDBMS product.

1.5 REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY ENFORCEMENT

A database will contain multiple tables, each containing information about one type of
information to be stored in the database. For example, an employee database might have
a table for department, one for employee, and another for employee-deduction. Each table
contains detailed information about that particular item/object, each containing at a mini-
mum the following information:

Department
DepartmentID
DepartmentName
DepartmentManagerID

Employee
EmployeeID
EmployeeFirstName
EmployeeMiddleName
EmployeeLastName
EmployeeWorkPhoneNumber
EmployeeHomePhoneNumber
 Overview of Databases ◾ 7

EmployeeStreetAddress
EmployeeCity
EmployeeState
EmployeeZipCode
DepartmentID

Employee-Deduction
EmployeeID
DeductionCode
DeductionAmount

When the tables are loaded, information for each occurrence is loaded as a row in the
respective table and each data element/value is associated with its respective column in the
table. For example, a row in the department table might have the following content:

DepartmentID DepartmentName DepartmentManagerID

SalesArea1 Northern Virginia Marketing E1005

Looking at the employee table, the first row for an employee assigned to the above-
mentioned department might appear as follows:

EmployeeID EmployeeFirstName EmployeeMiddleName EmployeeLastName … DepartmentID

E2001 Albert Alan Smith SalesArea1

Note that the relationship between the Department row for the Northern Virginia
Marketing unit and the Employee row for Albert Smith is determined by the fact that the
DepartmentID, “SalesArea1,” is stored as the value for the DepartmentID column in the
Employee table. This illustrates the one-to-many relationship between Department and
Employee and is referred to as Referential Integrity.
Referential Integrity is fundamental to data integrity and is normally activated and
enforced by the RDBMS as data are inserted or deleted from individual tables. For example

• Any DepartmentID value assigned to a new employee must match a DepartmentID

value in the Department table.
• Any new Employee-Deduction rows must contain a valid/matching EmployeeID.
• More importantly, if/when an employee is terminated, all Employee-Deduction rows
will be automatically deleted without the programmer having to remember to per-
form that function.
8 ◾ A Practical Guide to Database Design

1.6 BACKUP/RECOVERY
All DBMSs have, inherently, built-in backup/recovery systems. If the database fails
(e.g., the underlying disk drive(s) fail), the database can be restored to the point of failure;
that is, restored to contain data up to the last unit of work completed before the failure
occurred. Depending on the DBMS product being used, backup/recovery services include
some combination of the following:

• A mechanism/service to create a complete cold backup (i.e., the data are offline and
not being updated).
• A mechanism/service to create a hot backup (i.e., the database is online and being
backed up while the backup is being made).
• Depending on the RDBMS, incremental or partial services may be available to record
all changes to the database since the last backup was made.
• A logging service to record all updates to the database as they are being made to a
log file. In a non-RAID (redundant array of inexpensive disks) environment, the log
file(s) should be stored on a different disk drive from that used to store the RDBMS
tables to avoid losing both the data and the log file if the disk drive fails.
• Depending on the RDBMS, dual log files may be maintained to mitigate problems/
issues if errors are encountered when using the primary copy.

Both SQL Server and Oracle support cold, hot, and incremental backups.
As hot backups are taken while the database is being updated, there are additional tech-
nical issues involved to deal with log records created while the backup is being taken.
Backup/Recovery operations consist of the following:

• Taking a full backup of the database: This operation takes a complete copy of the data-
base and provides the initial starting point for a future recovery operation. Depending
on the size of the database, cold backups could require a significant amount of time.
• Logging all changes as the database is updated: Logging operations are a funda-
mental component of all RDBMSs. To ensure logs are always available for recovery
operations, dual logging may be used to create two copies when logs are written to
non-RAID devices.
• Recovering the database: A recovery operation starts with the last full backup of the
database and applies all log updates made up to the point of failure.
• Note that the database must be offline to users during the recovery operation.
Depending on the size of the backup and the number of logs required, the time
required could be unacceptable to the user community.
• More frequent cold database backups shorten the time for database recovery but
normally require more downtime for the user community.
 Overview of Databases ◾ 9

• If incremental/partial backups were taken, the recovery would start with the last full
image of the database, apply the latest incremental/partial backup, and apply logs
made after the incremental/partial backup were taken. This approach is more com-
plex to manage but significantly reduces the time required to recover the database.
• Note that this operation requires having a full and usable copy of the database.
If database backups are taken to non-RAID devices, a second copy should be taken
for critical databases to ensure a usable backup file is available if/when needed.
• Recovery operations might also be required in case of extensive user operations/
issues. For example, a full backup of the database is advisable before applying a new
software release for the user. If the software upgrade causes major issues/problems,
the entire system must be restored to a point before the software update was made.
• Service agreements: Major database operations require a database recovery plan,
which details the use and frequency of full and partial database backups. The plan
is included as part of the service agreement drawn up for the user, specifying the
acceptable down time to the user community if database recovery is involved.

1.7 FAILOVER
As noted in Section 1.1, a single instance of an RDBMS may, in turn, serve as host to mul-
tiple databases. Backup and recovery mechanisms have always been used to guarantee the
availability of the data for a database hosted by the RDBMS. Failover mechanisms have
more recently been implemented to guarantee the availability of all databases running on
that RDBMS in the event of a host or RDBMS software failure.
In setting up a failover environment, a remote copy of the source database is created on
another host, either within the same computer complex, in another building, or even in
another city. When normal processing on the host resumes, all log updates are recorded on
the local log and transmitted to the remote log as well. In the event of a system failure, all
connections and processing active on the failed host are switched to the failover host and
RDBMS instance and processing resumes.
If the database is important enough to have failover protection, determination of the
failover site involves a number of issues.

• A failover environment requires a high speed, secure network connection between

the primary host and the failover host to handle the volume of database log activity
as processing occurs.
• A failover host in the same building as the primary host is fairly easy to set-up and
manage. However, this provides no protection if the building is lost due to storm
damage or through an act of terrorism.
• A failover host in a nearby building may be economically practical in the sense of
installing a sufficiently fast network but may still be at risk if a natural disaster or
storm occurs in the city.
10 ◾ A Practical Guide to Database Design

• A failover host at a remote location will of course provide more protection by the
physical separation of the buildings, but the cost of a secure high speed network may
be cost-prohibitive.

Now let us take a look at the detail involved in setting up and running an RDBMS and its
associated databases.

1.8 TYPICAL INSTALLATION

• The first step in creating a database is to install the system software for the RDBMS
itself.
• For light and small databases, Microsoft Access comes preinstalled as part of the
Professional or Enterprise versions of Microsoft Access.
• SQL Server runs in a Windows environment and comes with an installation disk
that is very straightforward to use. The installer must of course first choose a disk
drive for the system software and later indicate which system options are to be
installed.
As part of the installation sequence, the installer must specify what type of
accounts may be used to access the data. The default is for a system/Windows
account, but SQL Server accounts may also be used. These are accounts known
and managed only by SQL Server, which I personally prefer. As a senior DBA,
I want total control of establishing account names and controlling who can
access what and remove all responsibility for database account control from
system administrators.
As part of the installation process, an SQL Server system administrator account and
password are created.
Note that depending on the particular version of SQL Server being installed and
the version of Windows software being used, prerequisite software updates may be
necessary. If the host computer has an internet connection, any required software
will be automatically found and downloaded. If, however, the host computer does
not have an internet connection, the installer may have to use another computer to
download the update from the internet, sneaker-net/copy the update to the com-
puter being used and run the update, then try to continue with the SQL Server
installation.
• Oracle runs on both Windows and UNIX. My experience with Oracle has been
limited to building and managing high-performance, high-availability systems on
Solaris. Windows platforms cannot support the availability requirements of a data-
base that cannot be down for more than a couple of hours every year, and of course
Windows platforms are prone to security exposures/issues.
 Overview of Databases ◾ 11

Oracle provides a written procedure for UNIX installations that are very straight-
forward. There are two steps, however, that require a user with root privileges to
perform.
After the RDBMS software has been installed, a database can be created. As part of
that process, the DBA must make decisions on how many files (or Oracle Tablespaces)
will be used to store data, where the various data files will be placed (i.e., what disk
drive(s) to use), and where to store the log files needed for database recovery.

All of these decisions must be made with an eye toward performance. Let us take a minute
to review how data are managed.

• Rows in a table are stored in a page, the smallest amount of data managed by an
RDBMS in I/O operations.
Some RDBMS systems (e.g., Oracle) allow the DBA to specify the page size. A large
page size would be chosen if the data in the table are often processed sequentially;
therefore, with one I/O operation, many rows are retrieved and can be accessed with-
out requiring another I/O operation. A small page size would be chosen if the rows
are processed in a random sequence; the smaller page size would be transferred more
quickly than a large one.
SQL Server, on the other hand, has a fixed page size.
• When a new row is added to a table, the RDMBS will first identify a most desirable
block. Each table will normally have a unique key column (or set of columns), and
the page with the row having the next lowest key value would be the most desirable
location to store the new row.
• After storing the new row, one or more indexes must now be updated to record the
row just added. Each index, in itself, contains a layered set of values, represented in
a tree structure that must be traversed to do a lookup. As a result, for each index,
two or three I/Os may be required to make that update. This operation must then be
repeated for each index associated with that row.

In summary, the addition of just one row to a table requires multiple I/Os to add the row itself
and to update all of the associated indexes associated with that table. The time required to
perform these operations can be drastically reduced if the files being updated can be spread
across multiple devices so that multiple I/O operations can be performed simultaneously.
If the host computer is built which has multiple disk drives available, the following types
of data should be placed on different disk drives:

• The RDBMS software.

• Data files for the database tables.
12 ◾ A Practical Guide to Database Design

• Index files should be placed on a different drive(s) from the data files.
• If at all possible, the RDMBS log file must be on a different drive from data files to
ensure recoverability in case the data drive fails.

If the host computer has nothing but a single disk drive, you can, of course, implement the
RDBMS, its databases, and log file(s) on that host. Of course, additional disk drives would
support a higher performance level and have greater odds of being recoverable should a
failure occur.
RAID8 implementations work well and are used whenever possible to support an RDBMS
and its databases. In each case, a RAID configuration is used to support I/O operations as
it was one physical drive. The more significant RAID types used are

• RAID 0: RAID 0 stripes or spreads the I/O activity across all drives in the RAID unit.
Although having no protection for device failure, this implementation is used where
speed is the primary factor.
• RAID 1: RAID 1 implementations focus on disk failure by configuring drives such
that every drive used has a backup or copy. All I/Os are targeted to both, and if one
drive fails, the second drive will continue to support all I/O activity.
• RAID 5: RAID 5 stripes data to support fast performance but includes parity func-
tions that allow operations to continue if a single device fails. A minimal RAID 5
system with four disks would stripe data across three drives and use the fourth
for parity. This configuration supports a higher level of performance while pro-
viding protection for a single device failure. However, when a file (or table) is
updated, additional overhead is generated to make not only the file update but
update the parity map as well. If the RDBMS is update intensive, this overhead
could be significant.
• RAID 10: RAID 10 provides the best of both worlds. Data are striped to support fast
I/O, and each disk has a copy to protect against device failure. Expensive, yes, but it
supports the highest performance as well as protecting against device failure.

RAID drives are game changers when configuring an RDBMS and its databases. A single
RAID 5 system could be used to store and manage all data, indexes, and logs, provid-
ing performance enhancements through striping as well as recovery protection against
device failure. The best possible solution, of course, is to use RAID 10 for everything,
totally removing the DBA from concerns about separation of data and indexes and log
files.
Given an understanding about how to install an RDBMS and creating the associated
databases, the next step involves how to design a database that will meet the user’s needs.
That is covered in Chapter 2.
 Overview of Databases ◾ 13

QUESTIONS
1. Do you consider MYSQL to be a database? Why or why not?
2. In the context of a database transaction, what is a unit of work? Why is it important?
3. What are the ACID properties of a RDBMS? Why are they important?
4. In a database recovery operation, what files are used to restore the database? What
does each contain?
5. What’s the difference between a Table and a View?
6. Given the following table structure, write an SQL query to find the EmployeeID and
employee name from the Employee table for those assigned to Department 20.
Employee
EmployeeID
EmployeeFirstName
EmployeeMiddleName
EmployeeLastName
EmployeeWorkPhone Number
EmployeeHomePhone Number
EmployeeStreetAddress
EmployeeCity
EmployeeState
EmployeeZipCode
DepartmentID
7. Are SQL queries identical between products such as Microsoft Access, SQL Server,
and Oracle?
8. Write an SQL query to find the number of employees in Department 20.
9. In writing an SQL query, what’s the difference between = and like?
10. You are part of a team configuring a mission critical database for failover. What are
the issues in locating the failover instance in the same building, in adjacent building,
or in a nearby location?
11. What are the differences between RAID 0 and 1?
14 ◾ A Practical Guide to Database Design

12. You are asked to install a RDBMS on a desktop computer with two internal drives.
How would you configure the system across those drives to provide the best possible
backup/recovery protection?
13. Why are Referential Integrity constraints important?
14. A new database has a new table for Department and another for Employee as shown
in Section 1.5, and Referential Integrity constraints created. Files are available to load
each table. Does it matter in which order the tables are loaded? Why or why not?
15. In setting up backup/recovery operations for a database for use by your business,
what considerations are there in making/storing external backups for the database?

REFERENCES
1. Database management system, Techopedia, Retrieved from https://www.techopedia.com/
definition/24361/database-management-systems-dbms (accessed August 18, 2017).
2. Rouse, M., Transaction, Whatis.com, Retrieved from http://searchcio.techtarget.com/
definition/transaction (accessed August 18, 2017).
3. Database logical unit of work (LUW), SAP Documentation, Retrieved from https://help.
sap.com/saphelp_nwpi71/helpdata/en/41/7af4bca79e11d1950f0000e82de14a/content.htm
(accessed August 18, 2017).
4. Pinal, D., ACID, SQLAuthority.com, Retrieved from https://blog.sqlauthority.com/2007/12/
09/sql-server-acid-atomicity-consistency-isolation-durability/ (accessed August 18, 2017).
5. Referential integrity, Techopedia, Retrieved from https://www.techopedia.com/
definition/1233/referential-integrity-ri (accessed August 18, 2017).
6. Relational database view, essentialSQL, Retrieved from https://www.essentialsql.com/what-
is-a-relational-database-view/ (accessed August 18, 2017).
7. Arvin, T., Comparison of different SQL implementations, Retrieved from http://troels.arvin.
dk/db/rdbms/ (accessed August 18, 2017).
8. RAID, PRESSURE.COM, Retrieved from https://www.prepressure.com/library/technology/
raid (accessed August 18, 2017).
 Chapter 2

Data Normalization

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The first step in designing a database is to decide what needs to be done by identifying
the data requirements of the users. That sounds deceptively simple, and it can be, but it
usually is not. Why? It is because users, the people for whom the system is being built,
rarely can clearly describe what they need. That is bad enough, but the problems are
often compounded quite unintentionally by the data-processing (DP) staff. These good
folks, normally quite knowledgeable in the current system, know in detail what data exist,
and how the existing programs work. However, what is rarely matches what is needed in
the future system. Often, in-depth knowledge of how the system functions causes tunnel
vision in the DP staff as well as the users and inhibits creative thought in determining the
requirements for a new, enhanced system.
In short, the system design team, composed of user representatives, computer analysts,
and/or programmers, and the database/data administration team, cannot communicate
effectively.
A process called normalization can solve these problems. By using this technique,
users describe what their requirements are without the use of the buzz words and terms
so common in DP. The DP and data administration staff participate in these discussions,
recording data requirements while serving as advisors in the analysis and providing their
insight into what the new system might consist of. Afterward, when all data requirements
have been identified, the technical staff can then decide on the details for a satisfactory
physical database design.
This analysis technique will not be easy for end users to immediately understand and
use. However, only a few basic concepts and definitions are required to begin. With the
proper introduction and coaching, users can fully participate as members of the design
team. Their input is so important to this process that many companies have created

15
16 ◾ A Practical Guide to Database Design

full-time user positions as data/database analysts to translate requirements into entity/

attribute specifications for the technical development team.
Oh, and do not let the terms entity or attribute confuse or bother you. An entity is just
a collection of data elements that ultimately may be implemented within a table (when
using a relational database management system) or as a file (if implemented in a flat file
system). Similarly, attributes refer to what will become columns in a table (when using a
relational database management system), or fields within rows when implemented using
a flat file system. We are deliberately referring to data elements as entities and attributes
in the design phase in large part to avoid terms that might imply physical implementation
decisions. It is much too early to think about physical design and implementation. Using
this process, we will first analyze what data elements we need by creating a normalized
data model; next, we will analyze how the data are used; and finally, we will make physical
design decisions to product a result that will satisfy user data requirements within accept-
able time frames.
How is this technique different from others? The key is in communication. Users can,
for the first time, concentrate on something they know and understand—a description of
the information they use to perform their jobs—without using any technical terminology.
The DP staff also benefit by hearing a description of the user’s data requirements in the
common language of normalization. At a later point in the design, these data requirements
will be translated by the technical staff into a specific list of data elements required for each
process (or program).
This technique is often referred to as entity/relationship modeling.

2.2 THE LANGUAGE OF NORMALIZATION

To review data and data requirements with user representatives, the terms entity and
attribute must first be defined.

• An entity is something about which information is known. It describes or represents

something of interest to the user, such as a person, a place, or a thing. Typical exam-
ples of entities include employee, payroll record, and department.
• An attribute provides detailed information about an entity. It helps one to identify,
describe, or clarify the entity by providing a value for some quantifiable characteris-
tic or trait. For example, for the entity employee, appropriate attributes would be the
employee’s name, address, social security number, and home phone number. Each
attribute describes the employee by providing detailed information about that person.
For example, John Smith, SSN 111-22-3333, lives at 2505 Hillcrest Drive and has a
phone number of 757-345-1234.

Those of you with DP background have probably matched the terms entity and
attribute with the terms record and field, respectively. That is exactly what they are,
or how they may be implemented. The difference is that entities represent what you
 Data Normalization ◾ 17

might ultimately implement in terms of record structures and content; they by no

means represent a physical design decision. It is far too early for that. Physical design
decisions will be made after you have identified all of the data requirements and have
analyzed the overall impact of accessing that data to meet user requirements. The
entity/attribute terminology focuses on the information needed by the user, detailing
the meaning of the information being analyzed. At the same time, these terms help
one to suppress the urge of the technical staff to prematurely jump into physical design
decisions.
What, then, is normalization? For now, let us say it is a technique for reviewing the
entity/attribute lists to ensure that attributes are located where they belong. A more com-
prehensive definition will be given later. For example, an employee entity should contain
only attributes that provide information about the employee. If, by accident or oversight,
an attribute is incorrectly associated with employee, the normalization process will enable
you to identify and correct the error.
In many respects, normalization is simply applied common sense. The end result of the
analysis reflects the same type of logic analysts have used for years; this approach merely
provides a set of formal rules to avoid mistakes or oversights. We will review exactly what
these rules are later in the current chapter.

2.3 CREATING THE ENTITY/ATTRIBUTE LIST

Let us assume that you have formed a design team composed of representatives from the
end user, application programming, and database support staff. Your team has agreed to
use the normalization approach to data analysis and have defined and discussed the terms
entity and attribute. In getting started, what is done first?
As a starting point, search through existing reports or forms to identify data require-
ments. If part of the system is already automated, study the file layouts and/or database
design. If you have already automated some tasks, you will probably need that data in the
new or expanded system. Ask the users what else they need to track. What other informa-
tion will they be wanting in the future? You want to keep those future requirements in
mind, even though the proposed data may not exist for six months or more.
On the other hand, recognize that requirements do change. Most of us who have been
around the DP business for any amount of time can recall, for example, a report that has
been produced for the last five years and is no longer used. You need to be careful to ensure
that the data are still relevant to today’s (and tomorrow’s) business.
Try brainstorming to identify data elements. Less-experienced end users will find the
discussion particularly useful because the DP staff can suggest “if you have this type of
data, then you can perform these functions.” For example, bill of material data for a shop
assembly operation would include information on parts that are on order from suppliers.
The anticipated delivery date of parts, along with the cost of each item, could be used
to forecast account payable information for the finance department. As with any type
of brainstorming session, accept all ideas and suggestions without question. Revise and
refine later.
18 ◾ A Practical Guide to Database Design

You will soon find that a massive volume of notes will be generated, along with the need
to get this information organized in some way. The easiest thing to do is to enter these
initial entity/attribute lists in a data modeling tool, such as erwin (discussed in Chapter 5).

Data modeling tools are specialized applications that allow you to capture and
record definitions for entities, their associated attributes, and illustrate the asso-
ciation between entities (the data model). In addition, they support mapping of
logical to physical designs and can generate DDL (Data Definition Language)
statements to create tables in DBMS products such as Structured Query Language
Server and Oracle.

Once these reports are available, review them to verify that an attribute is precisely and
accurately defined. All team participants must agree on these definitions; disagree-
ment often identifies the need for additional attributes to be created. Fortunately, a data
modeling tool greatly reduces the administrative tasks required.

2.3.1 The Order Entry Model

Let us review the data environment that will serve as the sample problem used to illustrate
the database design process.
Assume that you are part of the design team for a company that will advertise and sell
merchandise on the Internet.

• Customers will connect to the company’s website, search Advertised_Items for sale,
and place orders for the items selected. The orders are then filled and shipped to the
customer by the stock room.
• Each item advertised has a reorder level. When the number of items in inventory
drops to or below that quantity, available suppliers are searched and additional items
will be ordered from one of those suppliers on the basis of their current selling price.

The data model to be created will include data requirements to create orders for customers,
to fill orders from the stock room, to monitor inventory quantities, and to reorder items
from suppliers as needed.
As part of the design team, consider the above-mentioned overview of this environment
and try to come up with five or six entities that seem appropriate (e.g. customer). Next,
try to identify at least four attributes for each (as in Customer Name, Address, and Phone
Number). Be sure to clearly define the meaning of each attribute that you identify.
When you have completed your list, compare your answer to that of Figure 2.1. This will
serve as a starting point for the next phase of analysis, as it contains several intentional
errors which will be resolved as part of the normalization process.
 Data Normalization ◾ 19

Attribute Description

Customer
CustomerTelephoneNumber The customer’s telephone number
CustomerName The customer’s name
CustomerStreetAddress The street name associated with the customer’s account
CustomerCity The city in which the customer lives
CustomerState The state in which the customer lives
CustomerZipCode The customer’s zip code
CustomerCreditRating The credit rating for this customer
OrderNumber An order number for this customer
Order
OrderNumber A unique identifier for each order
CustomerPhoneNumber The customer’s telephone number
CustomerName The unique name for this customer
OrderDate The date when the order was placed
NumberOfDays The number of days from when the order was placed until shipped
CustomerStreetAddress The street address for where the order is to be shipped
CustomerCity The city to which the order is to be shipped
CustomerState The state to which the order is to be shipped
CustomerZipCode The zip code associate with the shipping address
CustomerCreditCardNumber The credit card number used for this purchase
CustomerCreditCardName The customer’s name on the credit card used
StockNumber The stock number for the item purchased
ShippingDate The date the order was shipped
Advertised_Item
ItemNumber The unique identifier for each Advertised_Item
ItemDescription A description of the item advertised
ClothingFlag A code identifying clothing items
HealthFlag A code identifying items as Health and Beauty
ItemWeight The shipping weight for each item
ItemColor The color of the item
ItemPrice The selling price of the item sold
SupplierCode The unique identifier for the supplier of this item
OrderNumber The order number on which this item appears
Supplier
SupplierID A unique identifier for each supplier
CompanyName The unique name for this supplier
SupplierStreetAddress The street address for this supplier’s main office
SupplierCity The city in which the supplier’s main office is located
SupplierState The state in which the supplier’s main office is located
SupplierZipCode The zip code for the supplier’s main office
StockNumber The unique identifier for each advertised item
Purchased_Item
ItemNumber The unique identifier for each item on an order
ItemDescription The description of the item advertised
QuantityOrdered The number of items purchased
SellingPrice The price of the item purchased
ShippingDate The date the item purchased was shipped to the customer

FIGURE 2.1 The initial entity/attribute list.

20 ◾ A Practical Guide to Database Design

2.4 CLEANING UP THE ENTITY/ATTRIBUTE LIST

Before beginning the normalization process, the initial entity/attribute list must be checked
for errors or oversights.

2.4.1 Problem Type 1—Synonyms

A synonym is created when two different names are used for the same information
(attribute). If an attribute resides in more than one entity, insure that all entities use the
same attribute name.
For example, the attributes “SupplierCode” and “SupplierID” below are both intended to
represent the unique identifier (key field) for supplier. As they have been spelled differently,
this represents an error.

Advertised_Item Supplier
SupplierCode <== error SupplierID <== error

By using more than one name for the same attribute will cause many problems, including
a failure to recognize one-to-many (1:M) relationships when the data model is developed.

Advertised_Item Supplier
SupplierID <== correction SupplierID

2.4.2 Problem Type 2—Homonyms

A homonym is the reverse of a synonym. Just as you cannot use different names for the
same attribute, you cannot use the same name for different attributes.
For example, the attribute “CompanyName” under the Customer entity refers to a differ-
ent data element “CompanyName” under Supplier. This is another error in data definition.

Customer Supplier
CompanyName - The unique name CompanyName - The unique
for this customer <== error name for this supplier <== error

One or both names must be changed to reflect their differences.

Customer Supplier
CustomerName - The unique name SupplierName - The unique name
for this customer <== correction for this supplier <== correction

2.4.3 Problem Type 3—Redundant Information

This problem, in which the same information is stored in two different forms or ways, is
a bit harder to spot. One way to check for it is to consider if the value of any attribute is
known or is derivable through the other attributes defined.
For example, in an “Employee” entity, storing an employee’s age is redundant informa-
tion when the birth date is also stored as an attribute.
 Data Normalization ◾ 21

Employee
EmployeeAge <== error
EmployeeBirthDate <== error

In this example, removing EmployeeAge will eliminate the error condition. When needed,
the employee’s age can be derived using the EmployeeBirthDate and the current date.

2.4.4 Problem Type 4—Mutually Exclusive Data

Mutually exclusive data exist when attributes occur, all the values of which, perhaps
expressed as yes/no indicators, cannot be true for any single entity.
As an example, consider an Employee entity with attributes of “Married” and “Single.”

Employee
Married <== error
Single <== error

Errors of this type often represent values of a larger category. Whenever possible, resolve
the error by creating the larger categorical attribute.
In this case, these two elements can be resolved by creating an attribute of
“MaritalStatus,” which would have a value of either M (Married) or S (Single).

Employee
MaritalStatus—An indicator of
the Employee’s marital status

Study Figure 2.1 and see what suggestions you would make to correct any discrepancies as
defined earlier. When you are finished, compare your list with the comments below, and
the revised entity/attribute list shown in Figure 2.2.

2.4.5 Problem Type 1—Synonyms

Customer Order
CustomerTelephoneNumber <== error CustomerPhoneNumber <== error

Note that the CustomerTelephoneNumber in Customer and CustomerPhoneNumber in

Order refer to the same attribute but have different names. CustomerPhoneNumber will be
changed to CustomerTelephoneNumber.

Customer Order
CustomerTelephoneNumber CustomerTelephoneNumber <== correction

Advertised_Item Supplier
ItemNumber <== error StockNumber <== error
22 ◾ A Practical Guide to Database Design

Attribute Description
Customer
CustomerTelephoneNumber The customer’s telephone number
CustomerName The customer’s name
CustomerStreetAddress The street name associated with the customer’s account
CustomerCity The city in which the customer lives
CustomerState The state in which the customer lives
CustomerZipCode The customer’s zip code
CustomerCreditRating The credit rating for this customer
OrderNumber An order number for this customer
Order
OrderNumber A unique identifier for each order
CustomerTelephoneNumber The customer’s telephone number
CustomerName The unique name for this customer
OrderDate The date when the order was placed
ShippingStreetAddress The street address for where the order is to be shipped
ShippingCity The city to which the order is to be shipped
ShippingState The state to which the order is to be shipped
ShippingZipCode The zip code associate with the shipping address
CustomerCreditCardNumber The credit card number used for this purchase
CustomerCreditCardName The customer’s name on the credit card used
StockNumber The stock number for the item purchased
ShippingDate The date the order was shipped
Advertised_Item
ItemNumber The unique identifier for each Advertised_Item
ItemDescription A description of the item advertised
ItemDepartment A code classifying the item into one of the various product
categories of items for sale
ItemWeight The shipping weight for each item
ItemColor The color of the item
ItemPrice The selling price of the item sold
SupplierID The unique identifier for the supplier of this item
OrderNumber The order number on which this item appears
Supplier
SupplierID A unique identifier for each supplier
CompanyName The unique name for this supplier
SupplierStreetAddress The street address for this supplier’s main office
SupplierCity The city in which the supplier’s main office is located
SupplierState The state in which the supplier’s main office is located
SupplierZipCode The zip code for the supplier’s main office
ItemNumber The unique identifier for each advertised item
Item_Ordered
ItemNumber The unique identifier for each item on an order
ItemDescription The description of the item advertised
QuantityOrdered The number of items purchased
SellingPrice The price of the item purchased
ShippingDate The date the item purchased was shipped to the customer

FIGURE 2.2 The revised entity/attribute list.

 Data Normalization ◾ 23

The ItemNumber attribute represents the unique identifier for each advertised item, as
does StockNumber in Supplier. The same attribute name must be used in both entities as
they represent the same information.

Advertised_Item Supplier
ItemNumber ItemNumber <== correction

2.4.6 Problem Type 2—Homonyms

In Figure 2.1, the customer’s address appears in both the Customer and Order entities with
the same attribute names, but they refer to different data elements.

Customer Order
CustomerStreetAddress <== error CustomerStreetAddress <== error
CustomerCity <== error CustomerCity <== error
CustomerState <== error CustomerState <== error
CustomerZipCode<== error CustomerZipCode<== error

The Customer address attributes refer to the address associate with the customer’s account/
home location, but the Order’s address attributes refer to where the order is to be shipped.
The Order attributes must be changed.

Customer Order
CustomerStreetAddress ShippingStreetAddress <== correction
CustomerCity ShippingCity <== correction
CustomerState ShippingState <== correction
CustomerZipCode ShippingZipCode <== correction

2.4.7 Problem Type 3—Redundant Information

In Order, the NumberOfDays was defined/intended to track the length of time between
when the order was placed and when the order was shipped. The same result can be
obtained by finding the difference between the OrderDate and ShippingDate attributes.
Therefore, NumberOfDays can be eliminated.

2.4.8 Problem Type 4—Mutually Exclusive Data

In Advertised_Item, the ClothingFlag attribute classifies the item as a clothing item,
whereas HealthFlag classifies the item as a health/beauty product. They both cannot be
true for any single item.
This is fixed by removing both from Item and adding a new attribute ItemDepartment.

Item
ItemDepartment – A code classifying each item into one of the various product categories of items for sale

Figure 2.2 shows the corrections described earlier.

24 ◾ A Practical Guide to Database Design

2.5 NORMALIZATION
Now that a clean entity/attribute list exists in which an attribute has one and only one
name as well as a unique meaning, the normalization process can begin.
More formally stated, normalization is the process of analyzing the dependencies
between attributes within entities. Each attribute is checked against three or more sets of
rules, then making adjustments as necessary to put each in first, second, and third normal
form (3NF). (It is possible you may want to move further to fourth or fifth normal form
[5NF], but in most cases, 3NF is not only adequate, but preferred; more later.) These rules
will be reviewed in detail in the next section and provide a procedural way to make sure
attributes are placed where they belong.
Based on mathematical theory, normalization forms the basis for the implementa-
tion of tables within relational database systems. In practice, it is simply applied common
sense; for example, you should only put attributes in an employee entity (table) attributes
(or columns) that describe the employee. If you should find an attribute that describes
something else, put it wherever it belongs.

Employee
EmployeeID
DeductionAmount <== error

In this example, DeductionAmount should not be associated with Employee, because it

does not provide information about the employee as a person or individual. Instead, it pro-
vides additional detail about a payroll deduction for that employee. A Payroll Deduction
entity would be created, if necessary, and DeductionAmount moved to it.

Employee Payroll Deduction

EmployeeID <== unique employee identifier EmployeeID <== identifies the employee involved
PayrollDate
DeductionAmount

Practical issues, typically related to performance, may later require you to use tricks of one
kind or another when setting up physical structures. But you are not there yet! Place your
data in 3NF and do all subsequent analysis with that view of data. Later, when all require-
ments are known, and after considering usage requirements, decisions will be made regard-
ing physical structures. If at that time non–third normal structures are needed for reasons
of efficiency, fine. For now, however, it is far too early to make judgments or decisions
related to physical design.
The following steps put the data model into, successively, first, second, and 3NFs. Keep
in mind two points. First, although they may appear overly meticulous, they provide the
 Data Normalization ◾ 25

user with specific guidance on how to put the data model into 3NF. Second, after you have
developed several data models, the result will appear as common sense to you, and you will
tend to think third normal and create entity/attribute data models in 3NF automatically. So,
although the process appears to be tedious, it really is not.

2.5.1 First Normal Form

In his book, An Introduction to Database Systems, C. J. Date gives the definition of first
normal form (1NF) as “A relation R is in first normal form (1NF) if and only if all underly-
ing domains contain atomic values only.”1 It is important to note that, in Date’s discussion
of this topic, it is implied that a relation has a primary key associated with it.
I prefer to rephrase this definition by giving the following criteria. An entity is in 1NF if

1. All entities must have a key, composed of an attribute or combination of attributes

which uniquely identify one occurrence of the entity.
2. For any single occurrence of an entity, each attribute must have one and only one
value.

2.5.1.1 Requirement 1—Keys to Create Uniqueness

For a specific value for the key attribute(s), there can only be one occurrence of the
entity. For example, in the entity Advertised_Item, the ItemNumber is used to identify
one unique Advertised_Item. Of course, the key should be unambiguous; there must be
no question or confusion on what ItemNumber identifies. In addition, the key must be
constant/unchanging over time. If an entity does not have a unique key, one must be created
to provide a unique identifier for each occurrence of the entity.
There may, in fact, be more than one within an entity to obtain uniqueness. Analyze
each and pick (or create) an attribute that clearly communicates/identifies the associated
entity.
In the Customer entity, CustomerName appears to be good choice to identify custom-
ers. However, in practice, using names (particularly for businesses) creates many problems.
First, different businesses can exist having the same name. In addition, a business may
often be referred to by many names; I was once told that there are 27 different ways to spell
or refer to AT&T. Although we need a standard spelling for the name for each customer,
using CustomerName as a key introduces many problems.
Also in the Customer entity, CustomerTelephoneNumber would uniquely identify each
customer but would be a poor choice for a key. First, the number itself does not have much
inherent meaning. In addition, if the customer were to move their office to another loca-
tion, the CustomerTelephoneNumber would change, and data relationships based on the
old telephone number would no longer exist.
26 ◾ A Practical Guide to Database Design

For the Customer entity, I recommend creating a new attribute CustomerIdentifier,

based on an alpha-numeric combination of characters that are of course unique for each
customer.
If you do find two candidates for keys, perhaps one can be eliminated. In many cases,
however, both may be needed (as in the CustomerName and CustomerTelephoneNumber
above). They each are required to provide different information about any specific cus-
tomer instance. In this example, CustomerName can be considered a secondary key
(i.e., an entity that uniquely identifies uniqueness but is not practical to use as a primary
identifier).
Review the revised entity/attribute list in Figure 2.2 and identify keys for each entity.
When finished, refer to Figure 2.3 in which the key attributes are identified with an “**”
indicator.

2.5.1.2 Requirement 2—Attributes Can Have Only One Value

The second requirement for 1NF is often stated as “an entity must have no repeating
groups.”
To understand what a repeating group is, consider the OrderNumber attribute within
Customer. At any given moment, the attribute OrderNumber will have multiple val-
ues, each reflecting a different OrderNumber for that customer at that moment in time.
OrderNumber, therefore, is a repeating group.
As a second example, the ItemNumber attribute in Supplier is also a repeating group
because a supplier normally provides multiple times of items that will be advertised for
sale.

Customer Supplier (Revised in Figure 2.3)

OrderNumber <== error – repeating group ItemNumber <== error – repeating group

In contrast, consider CustomerName in the Customer entity. For a given customer, we

create one unique name for that customer. CustomerName, therefore, is not a repeating
group.
Whenever repeating groups occur, they must be removed and placed where it belongs,
moving it to (or creating it within) the entity to which it belongs. To see what that means in
practice, consider the following example.

Department Employee
DepartmentNumber EmployeeNumber
EmployeeNumber <== error – repeating group

Step 1: The repeating attribute must be removed from the entity in which it appears, after
assuring that the attribute exists in the data model in 1NF.
 Data Normalization ◾ 27

Attribute Description
Customer
**CustomerIdentifier The alpha-numeric string that uniquely identifies each customer
CustomerTelephoneNumber The customer’s telephone number
CustomerName The customer’s name
CustomerStreetAddress The street name associated with the customer’s account
CustomerCity The city in which the customer lives
CustomerState The state in which the customer lives
CustomerZipCode The customer’s zip code
CustomerCreditRating The credit rating for this customer
OrderNumber An order number for this customer
Order
**OrderNumber A unique identifier for each order
CustomerTelephoneNumber The customer’s telephone number
CustomerName The unique name for this customer
OrderDate The date when the order was placed
ShippingStreetAddress The street address for where the order is to be shipped
ShippingCity The city to which the order is to be shipped
ShippingState The state to which the order is to be shipped
ShippingZipCode The zip code associate with the shipping address
CustomerCreditCardNumber The credit card number used for this purchase
CustomerCreditCardName The customer’s name on the credit card used
StockNumber The stock number for the item purchased
ShippingDate The date the order was shipped
Advertised_Item
**ItemNumber The unique identifier for each Advertised_Item
ItemDescription A description of the item advertised
ItemDepartment A code classifying the item into one of the various product categories
of items for sale
ItemWeight The shipping weight for each item
ItemColor The color of the item
ItemPrice The selling price of the item sold
SupplierID The unique identifier for the supplier of this item
OrderNumber The order number on which this item appears
Supplier
**SupplierID A unique identifier for each supplier
CompanyName The unique name for this supplier
SupplierStreetAddress The street address for this supplier’s main office
SupplierCity The city in which the supplier’s main office is located
SupplierState The state in which the supplier’s main office is located
SupplierZipCode The zip code for the supplier’s main office
ItemNumber The unique identifier for each item
Item_Ordered
**ItemNumber The unique identifier for each item on an order
**OrderNumber A unique identifier for each order
ItemDescription The description of the item advertised
QuantityOrdered The number of items purchased
SellingPrice The price of the item purchased
ShippingDate The date the item purchased was shipped to the customer

FIGURE 2.3 The revised entity/attribute list with keys.

28 ◾ A Practical Guide to Database Design

You cannot just throw the attribute away. First ensure that the attribute exists where
it belongs. Analyze what the attribute describes and, if necessary, create a new entity
in 1NF. Once an entity exists (or is identified), move the attribute to that entity and
remove the repeating attribute in which it was originally found.
In the above-mentioned example, EmployeeNumber is a repeating group with
Department (departments have more than one employee). As EmployeeNumber
was also found (correctly) in Employee, the error is resolved by simply removing
EmployeeNumber from Department.
Step 2: Next, study the relationship between the entities from where the repeating
attribute came from and where it moved to. Determine if the from–to relationship
is one-to-many (1:M) or many-to-many (M:M).
In the above-mentioned Department–Employee example, the from entity is
Department, and the to entity is Employee. To determine if this is a 1:M or M:M, ask
“for one Department, are there one or many employees?”, then repeat the question
in reverse by asking “for one employee, are there one or many departments?”. In this
case, one Department has many employees, but one employee is associated with one
department. Therefore, the relationship is 1:M.
When the relationship is 1:M, this is an acceptable relationship and no further adjust-
ments are necessary. If, on the other hand, the answer is M:M, then one final check/
adjustment is necessary before you move to Step 3.
In reviewing the OrderNumber entity in the Customer entity, the OrderNumber
attribute already exists within Order. It can therefore be removed from the Customer
entity. Next, in checking the relationship between the Customer and Order entities,
we find that one customer can have many orders, but one order relates to a single
customer. Therefore, there is a 1:M relationship between Customer and Order, and no
further adjustments are necessary.
However, now consider the ItemNumber attribute with Supplier.
• Where does ItemNumber belong to? As it is the unique identifier for an
Advertised_Item, it belongs under Advertised_Item and already exists there. It
can therefore be removed from the Supplier entity.
• Is the relationship 1:M or M:M? One item can be purchased from many sup-
pliers, and a single supplier provides many items. Therefore, the relationship
is M:M.
• Now, we have a problem. The M:M relationship between Advertised_Item and
Supplier requires that we have an entity to hold information (attributes) about
one Advertised_Item when purchased from a unique supplier. For example,
how much does that supplier charge for that item, and what was the quality
 Data Normalization ◾ 29

of the merchandise received when that Advertised_Item was ordered from a

unique supplier?

Advertised_Item <<-------------------------------->> Supplier

**ItemNumber Reorder cost? **SupplierID
Quality of item last received?

If it does not already exist, a new entity must be created to store the attributes common
to the entities in the M:M relationship (in this case, Advertised_Item and Supplier);
see Step 3.
Step 3: Convert each M:M relationship into two 1:M relationships by creating
(if necessary) a new derived entity.
A M:M relationship poses a basic design problem because there is no place to store
attributes common to the two entities involved, that is, attributes that lie in the
intersection of the two entities.
Creating a new entity to store the intersection elements transforms the M:M relation-
ship into two 1:M relationships and provides a storage location for the data common
to the two entities involved.
In the above-mentioned example, create a new entity Reorder_Item, which repre-
sents information for items that can be ordered from suppliers. This modifies the data
model to include two new 1:M relationships:

Advertised_Item <------->> Reorder_Item <<--------> Supplier

**ItemNumber **ItemNumber **SupplierID
**SupplierID
Reorder_Cost
QualityOfItemReceived

Study the information contained in Figure 2.3 and make a list of any adjustments you
feel are necessary to put the entity/attribute list in 1NF. When you are ready, compare
your solution to that shown in Figure 2.4.

2.5.2 Second Normal Form

Mr. Date’s definition for second normal form (2NF) is: “A relation R is in second normal
form (2NF) if and only if it is in 1NF and every non-key attribute is fully dependent on the
primary key.”2
I prefer a slight modification by stating this additional requirement as follows:

For 2NF, each nonkey attribute must depend on the key and all parts of the key.

If the value of an attribute can be determined by knowing only part of the entity’s key,
there is a violation of 2NF.
30 ◾ A Practical Guide to Database Design

Attribute Description

Customer
**CustomerIdentifier The alpha-numeric string that uniquely identifies each customer
CustomerTelephoneNumber The customer’s telephone number
CustomerName The customer’s name
CustomerStreetAddress The street name associated with the customer’s account
CustomerCity The city in which the customer lives
CustomerState The state in which the customer lives
CustomerZipCode The customer’s zip code
CustomerCreditRating The credit rating for this customer
Order
**OrderNumber A unique identifier for each order
CustomerTelephoneNumber The customer’s telephone number
CustomerName The unique name for this customer
OrderDate The date when the order was placed
ShippingStreetAddress The street address for where the order is to be shipped
ShippingCity The city to which the order is to be shipped
ShippingState The state to which the order is to be shipped
ShippingZipCode The zip code associate with the shipping address
CustomerCreditCardNumber The credit card number used for this purchase
CustomerCreditCardName The customer’s name on the credit card used
ShippingDate The date the order was shipped
Advertised_Item
**ItemNumber The unique identifier for each Advertised_Item
ItemDescription A description of the item advertised
ItemDepartment A code classifying the item into one of the various product categories
of items for sale
ItemWeight The shipping weight for each item
ItemColor The color of the item
ItemPrice The selling price of the item sold
Supplier
**SupplierID A unique identifier for each supplier
SupplierName The unique name for this supplier
SupplierStreetAddress The street address for this supplier’s main office
SupplierCity The city in which the supplier’s main office is located
SupplierState The state in which the supplier’s main office is located
SupplierZipCode The zip code for the supplier’s main office
Item_Ordered
**ItemNumber The unique identifier for each item on an order
**OrderNumber A unique identifier for each order
ItemDescription The description of the item advertised
QuantityOrdered The number of items purchased
SellingPrice The price of the item purchased
ShippingDate The date the item purchased was shipped to the customer
Restock_Item
**ItemNumber The unique identifier for each item on an order
**SupplierID A unique identifier for each supplier
PurchasePrice The current cost of this item if purchased from this supplier

FIGURE 2.4 The first normal form entity/attribute list.

 Data Normalization ◾ 31

Consider the following definition of a Payroll Deduction entity to record deductions for
every paycheck.

Payroll Deduction
**EmployeeID
**DateDeductionTaken
EmployeeName <== 2NF error; dependent only on EmployeeID
DeductionType
DeductionAmount

Here, the EmployeeName is an error for 2NF because the name is dependent only on the
EmployeeID and not the date when the deduction was taken.
Any adjustments for 2NF violations follow the same steps as for 1NF errors. First,
ensure that the attribute in error exists correctly in 1NF. Next, check the relationship
between the entity in error (here it is Payroll Deduction) and the entity in which the
attribute is correctly associated (Employee). If there is a 1:M relationship, no further
adjustments are necessary. However, if there is an M:M relationship between these
entities, verify that the intersection entity exists, and if necessary, create that derived
entity.
Almost all violations of 2NF are found in entities having more than one attribute con-
catenated together to form the entity key. It seems almost trivial to state that, for entities
with a single key, nonkey attributes must rely on that key. (For example, in a Customer
entity, you would expect to find only attributes that provide information about that cus-
tomer.) If, when the entity/attribute lists are created, keys were immediately identified and
checks made to ensure that only attributes dependent on that key were added, you need
only check entities that use concatenated attributes for keys. If that initial check was not
done, you should check all attributes in each entity to verify that attributes are dependent
on that entity’s key.
Take a look at the 1NF solution in Figure 2.4 and determine what, if any, further adjust-
ments are necessary to move to 2NF. When you are finished, compare your results to
Figure 2.5.

2.5.3 Third Normal Form

Finally, Mr. Date gives a definition for 3NF as follows: “A relation R is in third normal form
(3NF) if and only if it is in 2NF and every nonkey attribute is nontransitively dependent on
the primary key.”3
Once again, I prefer to phrase the requirement differently, adding the following criteria
to that for 2NF:

A nonkey attribute must not depend on any other nonkey attribute.

32 ◾ A Practical Guide to Database Design

Attribute Description

Customer
**CustomerIdentifier The alpha-numeric string that uniquely identifies each customer
CustomerTelephoneNumber The customer’s telephone number
CustomerName The customer’s name
CustomerStreetAddress The street name associated with the customer’s account
CustomerCity The city in which the customer lives
CustomerState The state in which the customer lives
CustomerZipCode The customer’s zip code
CustomerCreditRating The credit rating for this customer
Order
**OrderNumber A unique identifier for each order
CustomerTelephoneNumber The customer’s telephone number
CustomerName The unique name for this customer
OrderDate The date when the order was placed
ShippingStreetAddress The street address for where the order is to be shipped
ShippingCity The city to which the order is to be shipped
ShippingState The state to which the order is to be shipped
ShippingZipCode The zip code associate with the shipping address
CustomerCreditCardNumber The credit card number used for this purchase
CustomerCreditCardName The customer’s name on the credit card used
ShippingDate The date the order was shipped
Advertised_Item
**ItemNumber The unique identifier for each Advertised_Item
ItemDescription A description of the item advertised
ItemDepartment A code classifying the item into one of the various product
categories of items for sale
ItemWeight The shipping weight for each item
ItemColor The color of the item
ItemPrice The selling price of the item sold
Supplier
**SupplierID A unique identifier for each supplier
SupplierName The unique name for this supplier
SupplierStreetAddress The street address for this supplier’s main office
SupplierCity The city in which the supplier’s main office is located
SupplierState The state in which the supplier’s main office is located
SupplierZipCode The zip code for the supplier’s main office
Item_Ordered
**ItemNumber The unique identifier for each item on an order
**OrderNumber A unique identifier for each order
QuantityOrdered The number of items purchased
SellingPrice The price of the item purchased
ShippingDate The date the item purchased was shipped to the customer
Restock_Item
**ItemNumber The unique identifier for each item on an order
**SupplierID A unique identifier for each supplier
PurchasePrice The current cost of this item if purchased from this supplier

FIGURE 2.5 The second normal form entity/attribute list.

 Data Normalization ◾ 33

If a nonkey attribute’s value can be obtained simply by knowing the value of another
nonkey attribute, the entity is not in 3NF.
For example, in the Order entity, you see the nonkey attributes
CustomerCreditCardNumber and CustomerCreditCardName. There is an obvious depen-
dency between the credit card number and the name on that credit card. A violation of
3NF exists, and CustomerCreditCardName must be removed.
How do we make this adjustment? Once again, repeat the steps covered under
1NF adjustments. Make sure the proper entity exists, then check for 1:M versus M:M
relationships. In this case, you need to create a new entity Credit_Card to store infor-
mation about the credit cards that the customer might use. The key for the entity is
CustomerCreditCardNumber, and the CustomerCreditCardName would be a nonkey
attribute.
Start from the 2NF solution in Figure 2.5 and see what other adjustments are necessary
to get to 3NF, then check your solution against that shown in Figure 2.6.
By the way, try this shortcut expression for the rules of normalization.

For an entity to be in 3NF, each nonkey attribute must relate to the key, the
whole key, and nothing but the key.

The entity/attribute list is now in 3NF, and each attribute is where it belongs. Nonkey
attributes appear only once, in the entity which they describe. Attributes in key fields can
(and do) appear in several related entities. These repeated occurrences establish the vari-
ous one-to-many relationships that exist between entities. This redundancy is required
for a relational DBMS, which provides data linkage on the basis of data content only. For
example, those entities related to Advertised_Item (Ordered_Item and Restock_Item)
must all have the Advertised_Item’s key, ItemNumber, stored in them to support access/
data retrieval by ItemNumber.
It is important to keep in mind that the final data structure/design has not been
created/finalized yet. The data model is just a logical view of data elements and how
they relate to each other. This logical structure could be used to create tables and table
structures, but the final decisions on database design and table structures will come
later, after considering the results of how the data will be accessed. This is covered later
in the book.
For now, there is one final step at this part of the analysis, which clarifies your solution
by drawing a picture of the data relationships that have been created.
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
reprisal, a state of retortion, or a state of very uncivil conduct on the
part of Great Britain. Nor did he conceive it material to ascertain
whether there was any intermediate stage between a state of peace
and a state of war, or in which state the depredations of Great
Britain should technically be classed; but one thing was certain and
material—that the United States had sustained substantial wrongs,
which required a substantial remedy. Gentlemen who have regarded
names and disregarded substances have also been extremely
alarmed at the idea of a discrimination of conduct by the United
States towards foreign nations. A gentleman (Mr. Boudinot) observed
yesterday, that the United States had sustained injuries from France
and Spain as well as Great Britain, and asked why there should be
any discrimination in their favor? Mr. G. said he was extremely hurt
that the conduct of France should be so unnecessarily and
inopportunely arraigned in that House. He submitted it to the
gentleman to say, if the United States should be compelled to enter
into the war, which was at this moment not an improbable event,
why then it would be wise to irritate the only nation in the world
who could afford them any substantial assistance! He said that this
conduct was the less justifiable, from the recollection that the
conduct of France was the result of necessity, and there was every
reason to conclude that the conduct of that nation would be
explained in a satisfactory manner. But a consideration mentioned by
a gentleman, (Mr. Smith, of Maryland,) yesterday, was a conclusive
answer—the United States owe to France a pecuniary obligation, as
well as one of a more sacred nature. This is at all times sufficient for
their indemnification. With respect to Spain, if the gentleman would
show the injury sustained, and point out a fund for indemnification,
Mr. G. declared he would not hesitate a moment to apply it to that
object.
But will the gentleman conclude, that because one nation has
injured us, in a degree against which we have no redress, that
therefore we shall not indemnify ourselves from a nation which has
injured us in the extreme, and against which we have the most
ample redress?
He believed the gentleman's coolness, his wisdom, and his
deliberation, could not possibly lead him to such a result. With
respect to discrimination in the conduct of the United States towards
foreign nations, it necessarily grew out of the character of the
conduct of other nations towards the United States. Some
gentlemen appeared to him to have carried their ideas upon this
subject to the most fanciful absurdities. To keep France out of the
comparison, let this indiscriminate conduct, so much applauded, be
applied to Great Britain and Holland. Great Britain destroys our
trade, plunders our property, and, to her injuries, adds insult and
contempt. Holland, engaged in the same cause, fosters our trade,
and respects us as a nation. Under these circumstances, do
gentlemen contend that an indiscriminate conduct is due to Great
Britain and to Holland? Or do they mean to carry this delicate
indiscriminate conduct so far as to refuse to themselves all redress
from one nation, because they would wish to deal out the same
conduct to all others, whether they had offended or not? He said,
that discrimination was stamped in the front of the conduct of
foreign nations towards us, and to make an indiscriminate return
would be the worst and most unjust of all discriminations. He hoped
gentlemen would pardon him, but he could not help thinking that
they had carried their ideas upon this subject to the most fanciful
absurdities. A gentleman (Mr. Smith, of South Carolina) yesterday
remarked, that of late the condition of war had been much
ameliorated as it regards the rights of property, and he thought the
amelioration ought to be extended rather than abridged. Mr. G.
declared, that he heartily joined him in his wishes that the condition
of war would ere long be ameliorated, both as it regards property
and persons. He hoped that mankind would soon learn more wisdom
than to butcher each other for the amusement or security of the
privileged orders of the world. From that source he believed all wars
arose, and until the cause was banished from the earth, he feared
the fatal effects resulting from it would continue to exist. He
declared, that he should view the banishment of the privileged
orders from the world as the surest harbinger of the approach of the
millennium. But this is not the happy period of the world; for,
although the United States are free from this pest of the human
species in their internal organization, yet the evils they at this
moment experience arise from their external intercourse with that
part of the world which is less fortunate. The attack made on the
United States at this moment, is an attack upon property. If there
should be a war between the United States and Great Britain, it will
be a war of property. Unless there should be a species of madness in
the nation not to be calculated upon, they cannot think of invasion
and subjugation. It is known that the United States cannot make an
attack upon Great Britain, and territory and conquest with them are
no objects. Hence the war will be confined to depredations upon
property. This is the most dishonorable species of warfare, and
therefore the more to be regretted. There is this obvious distinction,
however, between the United States and Great Britain. With Great
Britain, at least with the privileged orders, it is matter of choice; with
the United States, it is matter of compulsion. The United States
despise this mode of warfare; they covet not the property of any
nation upon earth, but self-preservation demands it. They are under
the strong hand of a powerful nation, despising their rights, and
regardless of justice. In this state of things, there is but little hope of
strengthening the sacred ties of property; for, in the example of
Great Britain, her late conduct can furnish no consolation for these
theoretic speculations; and however the United States might be
inclined to practise upon them, yet the British depredations will
forbid them—for submission will be an invitation to new acts of
aggression. He most ardently wished the state of things were
otherwise; but, exposed to these inconveniences, the most effectual
means ought to be adopted for their resistance.
Mr. G. proceeded to observe, that having shown the right of reprisal
to be conformable to the laws of nations, and clearly justified by the
existing relation of things between the United States and Great
Britain, he would now submit a few remarks upon the policy of
exercising the right at this time. Under the existing circumstances of
the United States, he thought the policy of the measure was
recommended by the clearest and most obvious principles. The
relation of things between the United States and Great Britain is
such as to demand a final and unequivocal explanation, whether the
proposed measure be adopted or not. In all parts of this committee,
in all parts of the United States, a definitive explanation is called for.
The present state of things between the two nations cannot long
exist.
It is to be hoped that, the tone of language to be used by the United
States will be adjusted to the nature of the injuries they have
sustained. Acquiescence and submission are no longer
recommended. Hence, matters are already reduced to extremities,
and all the irritations already exist which can grow out of an extreme
state of things. The proposed measure can add nothing to these
irritations. The question, therefore, appears to be reduced to this—
whether, in demanding an explanation and attempting negotiation,
we shall use all the means in our power to compel a favorable issue?
or whether we shall tamely supplicate for justice, and suffer the
most effectual means of compulsion to elude our grasp? He did not
mean here to recapitulate the conduct of Great Britain towards us;
he hoped it was sufficiently impressed upon the mind of every
gentleman in the committee; but, after the recent experience of her
conduct, it would be madness, it would be folly, to address our
complaints to her justice or moderation. He thought it would be wise
to lay hold of every thing in our power, and hold it as a pledge for
her good behavior. This measure would put us in the best possible
situation for negotiation. It would authorize an appeal to her
interest, which she could not resist. He begged the committee to
reflect upon the argument which had been used here, to prevent a
late measure which had been adopted, and which had been renewed
upon the present resolution, that a great value in property,
belonging to the citizens of the United States, was in the power of
the British, and that any counteracting measures would place it in
extreme hazard. This seemed to him to have been the most
prevailing argument which had been urged, and for some time was
irresistible. If, then, the argument shall have been applied with so
much force here, with how much more force will it be applied in
Great Britain, when they find that the property of the individuals of
that nation is placed in jeopardy here, and that it greatly exceeds in
value the whole of the property which they have infamously
detained and condemned? Besides, if, in the event of a war, it should
be a war of property, as is every where contemplated. Great Britain
will find that the war will be commenced upon very unequal terms.
Viewing this measure, therefore, as to its probable tendency to
peace or war, he thought the probability greatly in favor of its
producing peace. When Great Britain shall find that she is entering
into a contest upon unequal terms, when she shall find that it may
terminate in a permanent loss of the advantages of her commerce
with the United States, when she shall see before her a precipice,
into which if she should once enter she never can return, she would
pause before she acted, she would take time to count the probable
loss and gain, and peace would be the infallible consequence of such
deliberate calculations. This measure will convince Great Britain that
the United States possess a knowledge of their rights, a confidence
in their ability, and a determination in their disposition to assert and
support them.
A gentleman (Mr. Smith, of South Carolina) observed yesterday, that
a pacific system would probably attach the people of Great Britain to
the United States, and detach them from their own Government.
The gentleman ought to recollect, that a pusillanimous conduct will
not. It is with nations as it is with individuals—to be respected by
others, they should respect themselves. The same gentleman
remarked, that a change of Ministry might be expected, and advised
waiting for the event. The idea is as undignified as it is chimerical.
Mr. G. said, he knew nothing of the change of the Ministry—the
principle was unknown here. The people here were their own
governors. It was immaterial to them who the Minister was. Even in
the country where the people were less fortunate, where Ministers
govern, a change of Ministers never produced any solid advantage to
the nation. It was merely an expedient of the moment, to smother a
popular clamor. But, even proceeding upon the gentleman's
hypothesis, which Mr. G. thought wholly inadmissible, he submitted
to the gentleman to determine, whether a positive submission by
foreigners to the avaricious regulations of a Minister, be the most
likely mean to render him unpopular at home? On the other hand,
whether it was not the most effectual mean of preserving his
popularity, and of keeping him in office? He presumed the people at
home would never complain of injuries abroad, if those who
sustained them refused to complain. It is but by resistance, and
throwing the burden upon the people of England, that they can be
brought to complain. But, in cases of such extremities as the
present, all appeals to the people of England are futile and
degrading. Our only resource should be in our own exertions. They
would be abundantly sufficient, if we could be brought to believe it.
Mr. G. remarked, that the people of Ireland had lately afforded an
instructing lesson upon this point. They had arms in their hands for
the purpose of asserting their rights; under the idea of acquiescence
and submission they had surrendered them to the Government;
perhaps, under the expectation of a change of Ministry. Did this act
of submission render them more respectable in the eyes of the
people of England? Did it encourage the hopes of those who wished
the establishment of Government upon the principle of equal rights?
Did it not rivet the chains upon the people of England? Did it render
the people of Ireland more respectable in the eyes of the people of
the United States? To these questions it was unnecessary to give an
answer. The people of Ireland reaped the usual merits of submission
—imposition and insult.
There was another consideration strongly in favor of the policy of
the proposed measure. Applications have been already made from
different parts of the United States by the immediate sufferers from
the British depreciations, for an indemnification of their losses.
These applications will, probably, be increased, repeated, and
continued; the agricultural and other interests of the United States
will, probably, never consent to equalize this burden. The claims of
the sufferers upon the Government will gain additional weight,
unless this fund should be offered to them for their indemnification.
This is the obvious, the natural and the rightful fund for their
indemnification; and he thought it was, at least, the duty of the
Government to hold it as a pledge for their security. If this measure
should not now be adopted, the refusal will lay a foundation for
further parties in the United States, which may ultimately have a
serious effect upon the Government.
An objection, of a very delicate and influential nature, has been
made to the proposed measure, which required some consideration
—that it would affect the character and credit of the Government.
He had viewed this objection with the most deliberate attention, and
felt the whole force of its imposing delicacy; but was at length
perfectly satisfied that it was unfounded. This objection relates
rather to the right than the policy of the United States to adopt the
measure. If the United States possesses the right of reprisal upon an
honest and sound interpretation of the laws of nations; if the
conduct of Great Britain towards the United States be sufficient to
justify the excess of the right, he believed the policy of exercising
the right could never tarnish the American character, nor lessen the
credit of American citizens hereafter. The world of nations, as well as
individuals, will easily see, that it was a measure of compulsion, not
of choice; that, although the United States believed, they regretted
the necessity; that they were not the authors of the original wrongs;
that they had borne them with patience, had used their endeavors
to prevent the commission of them; and that, when these wrongs
were committed and repeated, the United States possessed no other
means of redress.
Under these circumstances, in the exercise of a substantial right, he
did not believe there could flow any consequential wrong.
The motive would be looked at, and it would furnish a complete
exoneration from blame, whilst the original aggressors would
become justly responsible for all the consequences.
Mr. G. said, he could not sit down without making some remarks
upon the fruits of the conduct heretofore observed by the United
States. The most pacific system has heretofore marked the character
of the Government. All America looked upon the late proclamation of
neutrality as a competent guarantee for peace. He had no doubt but
that it was dictated by the purest regard for peace. But what have
been the fruits of it? He did not mean to condemn the conduct of
the Executive. Perhaps it was suggested by the then existing state of
things. He only intended to show, that it had not met with the return
it merited, and which was reasonably expected from it.
It has not produced peace. A regard for peace has been construed
into a fear of war. A resistance of the feelings of the people for the
cause of France has been a palatable food for British arrogance and
presumption. Submission to aggression has invited new aggressions;
appeals for justice have been deemed testimonies of debility, till at
length the United States, after having been stripped of their citizens
and property, are upon the eve of a war, because they have not
exerted their rights at an earlier period. If this conduct should have
been heretofore wise and pacific, experience has taught us that it is
no longer so; nothing can be expected from the justice, the honor,
or the moderation of a court which has proved itself equally a
stranger to them all; but, before such a tribunal, acquiescence will
beget injuries, injuries will beget insults, and insults will beget
contempt, degradation, and war.
Mr. Swift remarked that, on the first view of the subject, he had
been inclined to favor the proposition, not having attended minutely
to the distinction made by the laws of nations respecting the
property of an enemy liable to reprisal; but on a full investigation of
the subject, and mature deliberation, he was convinced that the
proposition under consideration would be a direct and manifest
violation of the laws of nations; he was, therefore, clearly and
decidedly opposed to its adoption. Gentlemen have said much
respecting the insults and the injuries which we have received from
the British nation; but Mr. S. conceived it to be unnecessary that
gentlemen should describe their insults and injuries in the highest
colors to inflame our passions, and to animate our resentment. He
believed that every gentleman in the committee deeply felt the
indignity which had been offered to their country, and was convinced
that Great Britain had been guilty of a violation of the laws of
nations; but, under such circumstances, it was our duty to conduct
with coolness, candor, and moderation. He thought that the heat and
passion which had been manifested in the course of the debate were
inconsistent with that dignity and propriety which ought to mark the
deliberations of the Legislature.
Mr. S. observed, that the conduct of the British Court in regard to
their concealing in such a singular manner the Order of the 6th of
November, and the equivocal terms in which it was expressed, was
greatly to their dishonor. But he thought that the words legal
adjudication, would fairly admit of a construction that no American
vessel that should be taken pursuant to that order, could be liable to
be condemned, unless warranted by the laws of nations. There was
reason to apprehend that such was the intention of the British
Cabinet; and that the Courts of Admiralty in the West Indies, in their
condemnations, had exceeded their jurisdiction, and contradicted the
design of the Court of London. Recent intelligence confirmed the
idea. No information of these illegal transactions had yet been
communicated to them. It was possible that when that court were
made acquainted with the injuries we had sustained that they would
award restitution or compensation. Mr. S. remarked that, by the laws
of nations, no nation had a right to make reprisal for any injury till all
other means of obtaining justice had failed; that it was our duty in
the first place to represent to the Court of Great Britain the
spoliations that had been made on our commerce by the illegal
condemnation of our vessels; that, till we had done this, the laws of
nations would not warrant us to make reprisals on the goods and
effects of the British nation. That there was a possibility of obtaining
a satisfactory explanation of their conduct and reparation for the
injuries we had suffered. It was, therefore, a proper subject of
negotiation. But, he said, if that nation will not do us justice, then
we are authorized to make reprisals.
Mr. S. then observed that, when we had taken such steps as would
authorize reprisal, we should be precluded by the laws of nations
from adopting the proposition under consideration. He said that a
gentleman from Maryland (Mr. Mercer) had yesterday asserted that
Burlamaqui was the only authority among the writers on the laws of
nations against the measure; and that the opinion of Vattel was in
favor of it. Another gentleman from Maryland (Mr. Smith) had read a
passage from Vattel, which he considered as an authority in point, to
justify the seizing of private debts; but not debts due from the
public. But if these gentlemen had thoroughly examined Vattel, they
would have found, instead of his being an authority in their favor, he
had in the most direct terms maintained a contrary opinion. He then
read a passage from Vattel, that showed that the effects of an
enemy in a country at the time of a declaration of war cannot be
seized, but that the owner is entitled to a reasonable time to remove
them; and another passage, which expressly declared that, by the
usage and custom of modern nations, public and private debts are
not the subject of reprisal. Mr. S. conceived that these rules were
founded in the highest wisdom; that all debts were contracted under
a sanction of public faith, and an understanding that a war should
not render them liable to seizure or confiscation; that a moral
obligation existed between the contracting parties for the payment
of the debts; and that no government could ever have a right to
violate a moral obligation. That, therefore, by the law of nations in
all instances where property comes into the possession of a nation
by a confidence reposed in their honor and faith, as in case of public
or private debts, such property can never be the subject of reprisal,
because this would be to authorize a breach of public faith; but
reprisals are always to be made on property in possession of the
nation who has done the injury, and which may be taken without
any violation of those principles, which ought to be held sacred in
time of war.
Mr. S. remarked, that it had been suggested that the British nation
had been guilty of a violation of the laws of nations in their
treatment of us; and that, therefore, we were not bound to govern
ourselves by that law in our conduct towards them. This argument,
however plausible, he said, would not bear the test of examination;
that all reprisals were justified only on the principle that the nation
on whom reprisal is made has been guilty of a previous violation of
the laws of nations. When a nation disregards that general law by
which the conduct of all independent communities towards each
other is to be regulated, the same law points out the mode of
redress. If there has been no violation of that law, there can be no
reprisal. If there has been a violation, then the reprisal must be
pursuant to the law, for it is the highest absurdity to say, that
because there has been an infraction of a law which authorizes a
certain mode of redress, that we may pursue a different mode of
redress in violation of the law which gives us the right. This would
be at once to renounce the whole system of the laws of nations, and
throw mankind back into a state of savage barbarity and ferocity.
Mr. S. then adverted to the policy of the measure. He said, upon a
fair calculation, it would be found that the adoption of the
proposition would be productive of far greater injury to this country
than the amount of the losses sustained by our citizens in
consequence of the spoliations committed upon our commerce. It is
evident that this country, even admitting that a war should take
place, would wish to renew their commercial connection with Great
Britain. But if, in contempt of the law of nations, we seize on private
debts, we shall for ever forfeit all credit; no trust can be reposed in
our citizens, and no faith in our Government. No foreign merchants
will ever deal on credit with our citizens, from a well-guarded
apprehension that, in case of a war between the countries, the
sacred nature of private contracts will not protect them against the
hand of a Government which has exhibited the example of a
deliberate violation of the laws of nations. When we consider the
immense advantages that can be derived from private credit and
national honor, it will be easy to imagine the infinite mischief that
must result from a disregard of those principles.
Mr. S. objected to the measure on the ground that he considered it
to be a declaration of war; and he did not think that the
circumstances required or justified our taking that step. He said that
notwithstanding the unwarrantable proceedings of the British nation;
yet, no act had been done by the British Court that clearly indicated
an intention to make war directly upon us, or that could be
considered as direct and intentional war, though we might consider
many of their acts as just causes of making war on our part.
The revocation of the Order of the 6th of November, the new
instructions of the 8th of January, and the explanation given to the
merchants of London, clearly evidenced that a war might be avoided
with that nation. While there was the remotest possibility of
preserving our peace we ought not to do an act which might
endanger a war. While then the conduct of the British Cabinet would
admit of an explanation, while there was a prospect that we might
obtain by negotiation restitution of the property of our citizens or
compensation for the losses they had sustained, we ought to pursue
that mode; but if we proceeded to make reprisals by adopting an
illegal measure, it must certainly be deemed a declaration of war.
The omission of the regular means of obtaining satisfaction by
negotiation, and an unwarrantable mode of reprisal, would certainly
be just causes of war. If we must be driven into a war, it would be of
the highest advantage to us to conduct it in such a manner as to
convince the people of Great Britain that we sincerely wished to
avoid it, and that the unjust and illegal proceedings of their own
court have been the sole cause of the war. In such a case we have
reason to think, that so great is the interest of that nation in
preserving our commercial connection, that a powerful party will be
formed in our favor to oppose the injustice of the Government. The
sentiments of the people will be against the war, and the court will
find it extremely difficult to maintain it under such circumstances.
But if, without demanding an explanation, we proceed to adopt rash,
violent, and unwarrantable measures, the spirit of the nation will rise
against us, and the people will join the court in prosecuting a war
which will be then deemed just and necessary.
Mr. S. then observed that we ought to take into consideration the
present situation of Europe; that the late successes of the French
nation had materially changed the political prospect. It was possible
that these successes had been the cause which had produced an
alteration in the views of the British Court. If events had happened
which had rendered the disposition of that nation less unfriendly and
hostile, we ought to take advantage of that circumstance, and not
do any thing to check the progress of that favorable disposition. He
most sincerely hoped that these successes would convince the
combined powers of the impossibility to conquer France, and
produce a general pacification.
While such were the prospects, he ardently wished that a measure
repugnant to the principles of common honesty and common justice
might be rejected; and he hoped that no gentleman in the
committee would vote in favor of a proposition which would fix an
indelible stigma on our national character.
The committee now rose, and had leave to sit again.

Thursday, April 10.

Non-Intercourse with Great Britain.

The House again resolved itself into a Committee of the whole
House, on the motion of the 7th instant, to prohibit all commercial
intercourse between the citizens of the United States and the
subjects of the King of Great Britain, so far as the same respects
articles of the growth or manufacture of Great Britain or Ireland.
Mr. Sedgwick said he was sorry to rise, unprepared as he was, as he
had yesterday occupied as great a portion of the time of the
committee as perhaps he was entitled to. He had hoped some other
gentleman would have risen, who, having better arranged his ideas
than himself, had a preferable claim to the attention of the
committee. Unprepared as he was, he could not permit a question
so important as that under consideration to pass, without entering
against it his solemn protest: a question involving the dearest
interests of our country, and threatening to exchange the
unexampled prosperity it had for some years enjoyed, for all the
horrors of war. He said he the more regretted the part he was
obliged to take on this occasion, because he feared he should, in his
vote, divide from many gentlemen whom he much respected; but as
his opinion had been formed on mature deliberation, neither his
honor, his conscience, nor the duty he owed to his country, would
permit him to be silent. If the evils he foresaw should result from the
measure under consideration, he wished it might be known that no
part of them could with justice be imputed to him as their author. If,
therefore, he should be so unfortunate as to stand single and alone,
he would not fail to oppose, as far as he could, the measure before
the committee.
That injuries unprovoked and inexcusable had been inflicted by
Great Britain on this country, was acknowledged by all. No man felt
stronger indignation than himself at the insults which had been
offered to our country, and the wrongs which had been done to our
citizens; no man was less disposed tamely to bear the haughty and
unprovoked aggressions of any foreign nation; no man would go
further to procure redress for our wounded honor, and
indemnification for our injured citizens. If, after seeking reparation in
the way dictated by prudence and humanity, happily prescribed by
the modern usages of civilized nations and commanded by the
principle of religion; if fair negotiation should be tried, and justice
not obtained, he would then seek redress by the means which God
and nature had given us. He remembered well the miseries and
vices of war, a war in which he had taken a part. It was a war of
honor and interest: he well remembered its circumstances and
effects. He had lived to see the wastes of that war repaired; to see a
state of order and security; to see his country progressing in all the
means of happiness. No man who loved his country, and rejoiced in
its prosperity, would consent, but from inevitable necessity, to see it
again plunged in the horrors of war.
Although all combined in opinion that our injuries were great, that
they must be redressed, yet no one had suggested that war should
precede negotiation. Respecting this, there was happily but one
opinion. On every side of the House, it was acknowledged a duty
indispensable in our present situation, to state our complaints of
injuries to the authors of them, and to demand redress. We were
only divided as to the manner of our application, and the
circumstances under which our demand should be made. He had
already, on another occasion, taken the liberty to declare his opinion
of the line of conduct which was dictated by our present situation;
that we should manifest that we are averse to war; but, should it
become inevitable, we should encounter it with that undaunted spirit
which became freemen, insulted in their honor and injured in their
rights. He had the most perfect confidence in the bravery of our
citizens. At the same time that he knew they would never surrender
their rights, he was sensible that they would avoid, if possible, an
unnecessary and wanton effusion of blood.
Gentlemen had disclaimed any intention to adopt any measures
tending to war; they had said this measure had no tendency to such
an event. This assertion he could not believe, because this measure
contained a threat of inconvenience; and every threat of
inconvenience was a cause of irritation, and every irritation between
nations who had already differences to decide, undoubtedly tended
to widen the breach, and of course to produce war. If gentlemen
were sincere in their declarations, that all differences between
America and Great Britain should be terminated by peaceable
negotiation, (and he would not call their sincerity in question;) if
Great Britain was proud, haughty, and insolent, as she had been
repeatedly denominated, was it probable, he asked, that she would
be more inclined to do us justice, by enlisting her pride and
insolence against us?
Mr. S. said, that the late violences by which the property of our
citizens had been plundered, were the immediate and avowed cause
of the present measure; that as yet no representation of these
injuries—no demand for compensation had been made; that such
representation and demand should precede hostility was conceded
by all. It only then remained to be considered, in what terms and
manner such claim should be exhibited. In terms, he said, doubtless
firm and decided; but if it was intended to produce the desired effect
of peace, and to prevent hostility, the language should be decent
and conciliatory. He called on gentlemen to show an instance, in
modern times, where a nation complaining of injuries, but desirous
of peace, had accompanied their demands of justice with threats of
inconvenience? The opposite practice was universally established,
and on the known principles of human nature. He appealed to the
feelings of every honorable man in the committee, whether demands
for justice and reparation for injuries were enforced by threats?
whether repugnance to a compliance with such demands was not
created by such means? If every man felt the operation of this
principle, how much more powerful would it be on the minds of the
governors of a nation styled proud and insolent? He said he would
charge no man with an intention to involve this country in all the
horrors and desolating scenes of war. He could not, however, help
declaring, that war or amicable negotiation evidently must decide
the controversies between America and Great Britain, and that were
his mind determined on the former, he should recommend those
measures which gentlemen had brought forward to the consideration
of the House, as the most operative means of rendering the event
certain, and of banishing every prospect of accommodation. To seize
on British property, to confiscate or sequester British debts, to
annihilate as far as in our power her commerce, to starve her
manufacturers, and to humble her pride; these were infallible means
of defeating negotiation, and of uniting, as one man, that nation
against us, in all the views of her administration.
It had been said, that a principal benefit to be expected from the
institution of Republican Government was, that cool and temperate
reflection would direct the conduct of nations. How far our conduct
on this occasion had verified such an expectation, he wished
gentlemen to reflect. He had himself fondly hoped, in the
Government of this country, to have seen these principles
exemplified, and all intemperance of expression, and all the heat of
passion, banished. It had been said, that a statesman should be all
intellect: never, surely, was a time or a country, which more required
than the present time, and by this country, the exercise of cool
temper, to the exclusion of passion, to conduct with safety the
political machine through surrounding dangers. He well remembered
a former non-importation agreement; he remembered, too, its
effects: they were such as might have been expected; they were
such as to convince every cool and considerate man, that the
measure itself was impolitic and unwise. It immediately raised the
price of all articles of importation to an exorbitant and extravagant
height. Hence it was immediately beneficial to importers and
shopkeepers, and hence it may be easy to understand why this
measure was said to be so popular in Philadelphia and other great
towns. But as the Representatives of the whole people of America,
the Legislature ought to reflect, that in proportion as this measure
would operate beneficially to the dealers in imported commodities, it
would become burdensome and oppressive to those who are best
entitled to our regard—the substantial yeomanry of the country—on
whom we must principally depend for support, in the arduous
conflict which we had too much reason to apprehend. If we must
eventually support our claims by arms, the more property we could
import before the commencement of war, the more beneficial would
it be. In that case, the most wise and prudent policy would be, that
which would give the greatest extent to our credit; and, on the
contrary, the most unwise and wretched, that which would tend to
deprive our people of the ordinary means of supplies.
If this system should prevail, were we to receive British productions
through other countries? This would be injuring ourselves, without
affecting Great Britain. Was there any other country which could give
us the same supplies we wanted? There certainly was none. Were
we to depend on ourselves alone, the inconvenience would be great,
if not intolerable. What, he further asked, would become of our
produce, in the event contemplated? Without entering into a minute
detail, he said, he would venture to pronounce that a great part of it
would perish on our hands.
It was, he said, doubtful, how far at any time the proposed system
might go to distress Great Britain; but, at this time, it would afford
facility to her in recruiting her fleets and armies. Were manufacturers
and laborers thrown out of employment, and thereby deprived of
bread, they would be alike stimulated by want and despair to fight
the battles of their country against those who had reduced them to
necessity. In short, he saw nothing which should stimulate the
Legislature to adopt this measure, but passion without, and
resentment within, these walls. He saw nothing in the system itself,
as it respected Great Britain, but vain and ineffectual irritation;
nothing in relation to our own country, but defeat, wretchedness,
and want.
He said he had taken the liberty to suggest to the committee certain
constitutional considerations. The answers which had been given
had been by no means satisfactory. It was incumbent on gentlemen
who had so frequently warned us of the danger of usurping power—
who had so frequently, and in language so animated, charged us to
avoid grasping power, by implication and construction; it was
incumbent on those gentlemen, would they preserve consistency of
character, clearly to demonstrate the authority which they assumed,
that it might not be supposed that their construction of the
constitution was a convenient accommodation to the existing
circumstances. It was not now a question whether the people had
made a wise or prudent distribution of the powers of their
Government: they had declared their will, and that will we were
bound by every consideration of honor and duty to execute. In the
instrument under which we acted, they had declared that the
President, under certain modifications, should be their organ, to treat
exclusively with foreign powers. This authority, thus exclusively
delegated, includes all the terms on which a treaty could be formed.
What was the present measure? Prescribing the terms of treaty, and
restraining the constitutional power from treating on any other
terms. If the Legislature could prescribe those terms, in this
instance, it may then prescribe all the terms, in every instance; and
of course control, in all things, the exercise of that power.
To this reasoning two answers have been given; the one by a
gentleman from Pennsylvania, (Mr. Smilie,) that the Legislature might
make such a law, because the Executive could repeal it. He really
could not comprehend the force of the reasoning; he was glad,
however he could, with perfect confidence, contradict the assertion,
which he was sure would be a very disgusting one to the people of
America. There was, in fact, in no instance, an authority given to the
Executive to repeal a constitutional act of the Legislature. The other
answer was that given by a gentleman from Virginia, (Mr. Nicholas,)
that there could be no objection to the exercise of this power, if it
should be assented to by the President and Senate. This was a still
more extraordinary and unsatisfactory answer than the other. It
implied that the President and Senate could make grants of power to
this House not contained in the constitution. To this he would
answer, that all the powers which the House could legally exercise,
were expressed in the instrument under which we acted; that those
powers could be neither enlarged nor abridged, by any man or body
of men on earth, but in the way pointed out by the instrument itself.
Mr. S. said these considerations he had expressed without any
previous preparation, as they occurred to his mind. Should
gentlemen who viewed the subject in the light he did remain silent,
he would, in the further progress of this measure, he pledged
himself, with more orderly arrangement, and he hoped with more
perspicuity and force, address himself to the consideration of this
committee, or of the House. It would avail little to tell him that his
opposition would be unpopular; no man more than himself wished
the good opinion of his countrymen, but no personal inconvenience,
no loss of fame or popular affection, should ever induce him to see
his country threatened with evils incalculable in number and
duration, without warning her of her danger; a country which he
loved, and which he might, on this occasion, be permitted to say, he
had long served with honest fidelity, and without a single instance of
sinister or mere personal regard.
The committee now rose, and had leave to sit again.

Friday, April 11.

Non-Intercourse with Great Britain.

The House again resolved itself into a Committee of the whole
House on the motion of the 7th instant, to prohibit all commercial
intercourse between the citizens of the United States and the
subjects of the King of Great Britain, so far as the same respects
articles of the growth or manufacture of Great Britain or Ireland.
Mr. Boudinot first rose this day, and said: Mr. Chairman, in a question
of so much national importance, there needed no apology from any
member of the committee for claiming their attention, while he gave
the reasons for his vote. The impatience shown by his colleague,
(Mr. Clark,) or any other gentleman, for the question, ought not to
influence any member of the committee. When the fate of a nation
of as much consequence as the United States, appeared to be
suspended on a vote, the least to be expected from gentlemen was,
to act with freedom, deliberation and independence. He supposed he
should be among those who, at the taking of the question, would
probably be found in the minority. That this would be his vote, if he
was convinced that he should be single and alone. He felt himself
deeply and seriously affected with a view of the precipice on which,
in his apprehension, his country seemed to stand, and he wished, for
his own part, to take a full and deliberate view of it, before he joined
in precipitating a leap, that might not add to her safety or happiness.
Reasoning and not declamation should be expected from gentlemen
in favor of the measure under consideration.
He said, he would address himself to the judgments, and not to the
passions of the committee. He acknowledged it might fall to his lot
to mistake the true and essential interests of his country; but, if this
should be the case, he had the satisfaction of knowing that it would
arise from the most honest and upright intentions. It was, therefore,
on these principles, that he should proceed in giving his opinion on
the important resolution on the table.
But, before he went further, he could not forget the respectful
compliment paid yesterday by his honorable friend from Maryland
(Mr. Smith) to his moderation and gray hairs; indeed, he should not
have taken it to himself, as he had the honor of having white,
instead of gray hairs, had not Mr. S.'s attention been immediately
fixed on him. If either age or moderation would command his worthy
friend's close consideration of this subject, he besought him, as well
as the other gentlemen of the committee, to join in attending to it
calmly and seriously for a few moments, before the die was cast. He
said, he owed much, on behalf of his country, to that gentleman for
his services in the field during the late war, when both his zeal and
his passions were rendered so eminently useful, that he could with
pleasure apologize at all times for his warmth and animation on any
subject when their common country was not to be affected. But
would he permit him, earnestly, to request that, with other
members, he would call to mind, that they were now the
Representatives of four millions of people? That perhaps the lives of
thousands of their fellow-citizens were depending on a single vote.
That the welfare of a country dearer to them than life was at stake.
Gentlemen must, therefore, agree, that the question was a serious
one, and deserved to be treated with the most serious and
deliberate consideration. Judgment, and not resentment, should
direct the final determination, let it be what it may, and give a
sanction to all their measures.
He observed, that gentlemen against the question had been accused
of want of propriety, in looking calmly, and without the exercise of
their passions, on the sufferings of the unhappy prisoners at Algiers,
and the piratical spoliations of our fellow-citizens in the West Indies.
Yes, sir, said he, when he knew that it was neither passion nor
declamation that could afford effective relief to these suffering
members of the political body, he should continue to persist in that
steady, serious, and deliberate line of conduct, that, in his
estimation, was only calculated to produce that permanent and
efficient aid and relief, which their extreme distress so loudly called
for; but, in his turn, he asked gentlemen to give up their warmth on
this occasion, that they might also reflect, even without passion, on
the number of their fellow-citizens that must fall a sacrifice in the
most successful war. Will not gentlemen weigh well that vote, that
may possibly increase the number of mourning widows and helpless
orphans?
These considerations had led him to consider the measure now
proposed, as of great moment and importance, and to wish it might
be reasoned on and considered in a manner becoming Legislators
and Representatives of United America, who have been sent here as
her counsellors and trustees, and to whom she has committed her
best and most sacred interests. He said, for argument's sake, and to
simplify the debate, lest he should be drawn into unnecessary
disputation, he should concede for the present: the constitutionality
of the resolution proposed; the right of the committee to originate
and determine on the measure; the unprovoked aggressions of
Great Britain to warrant and justify the prohibition.
These arguments had been repeated and urged with great apparent
force, by gentlemen in favor of the affirmative side of the question;
but, were the principles arising from these facts sufficient to justify a
determination in favor of so harsh and unprecedented a proceeding,
without previously demanding an explanation and full
indemnification, agreeably to the customs and usages of other
nations?
Would arguments of this kind satisfy our constituents, if they should
find themselves suddenly plunged into an expensive and ruinous
war? Would it not very naturally be asked, why were not the true
interests of the United States under these existing circumstances
carefully inquired into, and made the principal and leading object of
attentive consideration? In his opinion, this should peculiarly be the
sum of their present inquiry—was it not the duty of the committee
critically to examine into the preparation they were in for a step,
that, in the imagination of some gentlemen of character and
reputation, at the last, might precipitate our country into an
immediate war? Were our ports and harbors in any tolerable state of
defence? Were our magazines and arsenals properly supplied? Were
our citizens in a state of organization as militia? In short, did not the
measure threaten a sudden transition from a state of profound
peace and happiness, unequalled by any nation, into a state of war
and bloodshed, without taking those previous and prudent measures
that might probably lead to an avoidance of this national evil, or at
all events enable us to meet it with decision and effect?
Gentlemen had referred the committee to the conduct of America in
1776, and the success of the late war has been urged for our
encouragement. The non-importation agreement has been recurred
to as a precedent in point. He said, he was well acquainted with
most of the events of the late Revolution. The first motions towards
it, found him engaged in the common cause, and his best endeavors
to complete and secure it had never since been wanting. He well
remembered the consequences of the non-importation agreement,
and the sufferings of our brave fellow-citizens from that imprudent
measure. He had tracked them over the frozen ground by their
blood, from the want of shoes, and was sensible that many had
perished by the inclemency of the season, for want of tents and
clothing: that agreement was universally reprobated, as a measure
imprudently entered into on the principle of expecting to be involved
in a war, which had it been then contemplated, nothing could have
justified. Mr. B. appealed to the knowledge of many men who heard
him, that this agreement had often been urged to Great Britain, as a
conclusive evidence, that at the time of its adoption, America had
not the least intention of independence, or a separation from the
mother country; otherwise, she could never have been guilty of so
impolitic a resolution. He asked, then, if the committee would now
repeat the mistake with their eyes open, and expose our country to
the same misfortunes, and our fellow-citizens to a repetition of
sufferings, by a measure that promised not one important advantage
to the Union that he had heard of? In the late war, America had all
the ports and harbors of the other European nations open to her, but
now circumstances would be altered; in case of a war the very
reverse would be our position, excepting as to those of France.
Mr. B. confessed, that his arguments were founded on his conviction
that the resolution was a measure that would necessarily produce
war, immediate, inevitable war.
His reasons were drawn from the present state of Great Britain,
being in alliance with the principal powers of Europe, and under
treaties to make all wars, arising from the united opposition to
France, a common cause.
The necessity she would have of employing her supernumerary
hands, if not in manufactures, in her armies and navies, to prevent
trouble at home, added to her old grudge against us on account of
principles that promise much trouble to all the monarchs of Europe:
her late conduct with regard to our trade, founded on the
instructions of the 8th of June, and 6th November last: her
withholding the posts, contrary to every principle of justice and good
faith, and against the most positive assurances: and lastly, from the
anxiety to regain the territory between the Lakes and the Mississippi;
—he agreed that neither of these singly, nor even the whole
together, could justify her in her own opinion, in making an open
attack upon us, but might tempt her to construe the measure before
the committee into an act of hostility on our part, as contrary to our
professed neutrality. He said, it was a point conceded in the laws of
nations, that granting to one of the belligerent powers advantages in
your ports which were refused to another, was a breach of neutrality.
The object with Great Britain would be, to convince her allies, that
the aggression arose on account of the war with France, to prevail
on them to make it a common cause; and in this they would not
want plausible evidence. It was not sufficient, he alleged, that we
knew ourselves innocent of the charge. We should be prudently
careful not unnecessarily to give reason to justify the construction. If
the previous steps of negotiation, used by all civilized nations, were
neglected, they would have the advantage of the argument, and we
should injure ourselves. He asked if any gentleman would say that a
prohibition of commerce at the eve of a war, or even the
apprehension of it, was wisely calculated to clothe an army,
replenish our magazines, supply our arsenals, or provide a revenue
by which to support a war?
He wished every member had taken the trouble he had done, of
looking into their stores, inquiring what was on hand, calculating
what would be absolutely necessary, and reflecting seriously and
dispassionately on the sources of supply. If they had, he doubted not
but that they would find something more than passion and
resentment necessary, to meet the probable consequences of so
premature a determination.
It was no uncommon thing for gentlemen to differ on important
measures; and he would not even insinuate, that he might not be
found wrong in these ideas, and wholly mistaken in his conjectures
on this occasion, but he begged members to consider the different
ground on which the two sides of the House stood. If the minority,
of whom he expected to be one, should in the end be found to have
been alarmed with consequences altogether unfounded, and that
the issue proved successful to the peace of our common country,
they would have the happiness of rejoicing with the majority in their
superior wisdom and foresight; and though even they should suffer
in character, yet their country would be saved. But if the minority
should in the end be right, and our country should be deluged in a
destructive war, and her best interests be endangered by the
discovery of the mistake too late for redress, gentlemen in favor of
the resolution, would seriously regret that they had not at least used
more caution.
He said, as at present advised, he should give his vote against the
resolution. It would be from a thorough conviction, on the most
careful examination, that the resolution was against the interest and
welfare of the United States, all circumstances considered. And this
he should do, wholly regardless of the malevolent insinuations, that
Britain had an influence in that House. He felt a conscious dignity of
mind, a virtuous pride of heart, in believing that it was not all the
wealth of that opulent nation could purchase his influence to a single
measure injurious to his country; and under that conviction, he could
not believe there was a member of the committee in a different
predicament.
He again repeated, that he should most sincerely rejoice, if this
measure should be adopted, to find, in the end, that his mind had
viewed it, as productive of consequences that were wholly
unfounded; and, although under his present view of the subject,
considering it as inimical to his country, he was bound in conscience
to vote against it, yet the councils of America were directed by
superior wisdom, and that this country had reaped the rich harvest
of peace and happiness. But it might now be asked, if it was meant
passively to submit to the injuries acknowledged on all hands to
have been sustained by the imperious and overbearing conduct of
Great Britain? He answered no, by no means.
He would follow the examples and pursue the measures of other
nations in like circumstances—examples and measures founded in
policy and sound understanding. He would, by a special envoy, make
known to that court our sense of her unwarrantable aggressions; he
would demand immediate indemnification for the present, and
security against future sufferings of the like nature—insist on a
categorical answer, after applying to her justice and best interests;
and if at last a war must be the only means of obtaining justice, he
would then (being previously prepared) meet it as became a free
and independent nation, trusting to the righteousness of her cause.
By this means, the other nations of Europe would be made
acquainted with our complaints—become witnesses to our love of
peace, and bear testimony to the justice of our appeal to arms. He
said, he had fully considered the question—he had viewed it in every
point of light—he had endeavored to consider the consequences
which most probably would arise from it, and he could not convince
his mind, that the measure would be productive of any good to the
United States, while it offered many reasons to conclude, that it
might be fraught with the greatest evil. In case of the most
successful war, America had nothing to gain, while her loss of blood
and treasure was sure and certain. He had once flattered himself
that this was the only country on the globe, whose interest it was to
be at peace with all the world, and at the same time the interest of
all the world to be at peace with us. But he feared we had been so
much actuated by a resentment of injuries received, as to lose sight
of our true interests under existing circumstances, and, therefore,
should be hurried into measures we might hereafter have reason
seriously to lament.
The committee now rose.

Monday, April 21.

Non-Intercourse with Great Britain.

The House resumed the consideration of the resolution reported by
the Committee of the whole House on the fifteenth instant, to
prohibit all commercial intercourse between the citizens of the
United States and the subjects of the King of Great Britain, or the
citizens or subjects of any other nation, so far as the same respects
articles of the growth or manufacture of Great Britain or Ireland; and
the amendment and modification thereof, which was proposed on
Friday last, being further considered and debated, the said resolution
was amended to read as follows:
"Whereas, the injuries which have been suffered, and may be
suffered, by the United States, from violations committed by Great
Britain on their neutral rights and commercial interests, as well as
from her failure to execute the seventh[50] article of the Treaty of
Peace, render it expedient for the interest of the United States, that
the commercial intercourse between the two countries should not
continue to be carried on in the extent at present allowed:
"Resolved, That, from and after the first day of November next, all
commercial intercourse between the citizens of the United States
and the subjects of the King of Great Britain, or the citizens or
subjects of any other nation, so far as the same respects articles of
the growth or manufacture of Great Britain or Ireland shall be
prohibited:"
And then the main question being put, that this House doth agree to
the said resolution, as amended, it was resolved in the affirmative—
yeas 58, nays 38, as follows:
Yeas.—James Armstrong, Theodorus Bailey, Abraham Baldwin, John
Beatty, Thomas Blount, Thomas P. Carnes, Gabriel Christie, Thomas
Claiborne, Abraham Clark, Isaac Coles, William J. Dawson, Henry
Dearborn, George Dent, William Findlay, Thomas Fitzsimons, William
B. Giles, James Gillespie, Nicholas Gilman, Christopher Greenup,
Andrew Gregg, Samuel Griffin, William Barry Grove, George
Hancock, Carter B. Harrison, Thomas Hartley, John Heath, John
Hunter, William Irvine, Matthew Locke, William Lyman, Nathaniel
Macon, James Madison, Joseph McDowell, Alexander Mebane,
William Montgomery, Andrew Moore, William Vans Murray, Joseph
Neville, Anthony New, John Nicholas, Alexander D. Orr, John Page,
Josiah Parker, Andrew Pickens, Francis Preston, Robert Rutherford,
Thomas Scott, John S. Sherburne, John Smilie, Israel Smith, Samuel
Smith, Thomas Sprigg, Thomas Tredwell, Abraham Venable, Francis
Walker, Benjamin Williams, Richard Winn, and Joseph Winston.
Nays.—Fisher Ames, Elias Boudinot, Shearjashub Bourne, Benjamin
Bourne, Lambert Cadwalader, David Cobb, Peleg Coffin, Joshua Coit,
Samuel Dexter, Uriah Forrest, Dwight Foster, Ezekiel Gilbert, Henry
Glenn, Benjamin Goodhue, James Gordon, Daniel Heister, James
Hillhouse, William Hindman, John Wilkes Kittera, Henry Latimer,
Amasa Learned, Richard Bland Lee, Francis Malbone, Theodore
Sedgwick, Jeremiah Smith, William Smith, Zephaniah Swift, Silas
Talbot, George Thatcher, Uriah Tracy, Jonathan Trumbull, John E.
Van Allen, Peter Van Gaasbeck, Peleg Wadsworth, Jeremiah
Wadsworth, Artemas Ward, John Watts, and Paine Wingate.

Monday, April 28.

Alexander Gillon, from South Carolina, appeared, produced his
credentials, and took his seat.
 Monday, May 12.

The Embargo.
On a motion made and seconded, that the House do come to the
following resolution:
"Resolved, by the Senate and House of Representatives of the
United States of America in Congress assembled, That the present
Embargo be continued, and every regulation therein shall be in full
force until the twentieth day of June next:"
Mr. Parker observed, that, although he was much in favor of the
Embargo when it was first enacted, yet, at the present time, he
thought it would be improper to continue it.
At that time, a system was formed by a majority of the House, for
carrying into effect measures that might counteract the nefarious
practices of the British Government on our commerce; that the first
object which presented itself to him was to lay an embargo, in order
that the large fleets and armies of the British in the West Indies,
who were there on a design to conquer the islands of our friends,
and had committed robberies on neutral property, that would
disgrace a banditti of pirates; and, in order that they should be
deprived of the supplies which they might require, as well as to
prevent the further capture of our vessels, and treating the American
flag and citizens with insult and cruelty, I thought that would be the
stepping-stone to other measures which were concerted to oppose
the insults of our enemies, and doing justice to our citizens, whose
property had been robbed and persons abused by British armed
vessels; that this was to be followed by a bill which had passed the
House of Representatives by a great majority for breaking off all
commerce with Great Britain after November next, and this was to
be followed by an arrestation of British property, to reimburse our
citizens for the losses we had sustained; that, as the second
measure was rejected by the voice of the Vice President in Senate,
which had broken the chain; and, as the President had appointed a
pacific Envoy Extraordinary to the British Court, and as the fleets and
armies of the British in the West Indies, under Sir John Jervis and Sir
Charles Grey, had captured most of the French islands, he thought it
would be improper to continue the Embargo, the more so as the
President, by slipping in and arresting the progress of the
Representatives, no doubt, with a certain hope of the continuance of
peace, and being responsible therefor, he deemed it best not to
interfere, and to give up every further prospect of hostility, until the
event of the mission to Britain shall be known.
Another reason that operated very forcibly with him, was, that our
French friends were much in want of provisions; and, as there was
no prospect of discriminations in their favor, which he had wished
for, he should give it as his opinion, that it would be improper to
continue the Embargo after the 25th instant.
From the commencement of the administration of this Government,
certain gentlemen, and particularly those of the Eastern States, had
been charged with regulating their political conduct by local
considerations. They had disregarded the interest of every part of
the United States, but the particular districts of country from which
they came. The charge was now reversed: those districts have
suffered infinitely beyond their neighbors, by the effects of those
measures of which we complain; and, notwithstanding all this, the
Representatives of those districts have all at once so totally changed,
have become so tame, so torpid, as to be regardless of the interests
and sufferings of their immediate constituents. Nor (said he) is this
all; our kind Southern brethren have, from pure disinterested
benevolence and with a most acute sensibility, determined to
procure for our constituents that redress to which we are indifferent.
It had been said, that the gentlemen who were in favor of
indemnification had opposed every measure of energy. They had,
indeed, opposed certain measures to which they would give a very
different appellation. They had not only favored, but had been the
authors of every measure of respectable efficiency, as well in respect
to force, as the means of defraying the expenses which our situation
had rendered it necessary should be incurred. He need not say who
had opposed those measures.
Mr. Fitzsimons hoped that the House would not agree to the
resolution. He stated the numerous inconveniences which had arisen
from the measure already. The system of British conduct was now
altered. There were at present many ships detained in the harbors of
the United States, that were cleared out before the Embargo was
laid. Their detention, as far as he could learn, was contrary to the
common practice of nations, in cases of that nature.
Mr. W. Smith said, that the reason why the Embargo had been laid on
was, the piracies of Britain. The second orders of the 8th of January
last had produced no alteration for the better in the conduct of her
privateers. We had yet heard nothing from the agents despatched to
the West Indies; and we ought not to revoke the Embargo till some
change of system, on the part of Britain, should warrant the
measure; we knew nothing about the actual state of matters in the
West Indies. The newspapers were filled with stories of releasing
American vessels in one island, and of capturing them in another.
One captain had come to this port, and told a story to the editor of a
newspaper. He then went to another publisher of a paper, and told a
story quite opposite! The House could make nothing of such a
farrago—such a jumble of contradictory reports. The public
sentiment was against taking off the Embargo.
Mr. Wadsworth was against the motion. It had been said that
American ships did not arrive from the West Indies. They did arrive
in great numbers, and as quickly as could be expected. From this he
inferred that the ravages of British privateers had, in a great
measure, ceased. Insurance at present is not higher than ten per
cent. A million of bushels of salt will be wanted this season in the
American States; and they will be a million of dollars dearer, if the
Embargo is kept on, than if it is taken off. Mr. W. said, that he had
got home all his importations for this year. He had nothing,
therefore, to apprehend on his own account, from the continuance
of the Embargo. It was his firm opinion, and he could declare it upon
his honor to be so, that, if the Embargo continued, the value of his
own imports would rise one hundred per cent. He believed that salt
would rise to three dollars a bushel.
Mr. Nicholas had approved of the Embargo when imposed; and he
now hoped that it would be repealed by as great a majority as that
which voted for laying it on.
Mr. Giles recommended a discontinuance of the Embargo. The
gentleman from South Carolina had urged the public sentiment as a
reason for keeping it on. He was glad to hear that the public
sentiment was an argument in that House for the adoption of
measures; and he was particularly highly pleased that this respect
for the public sentiment had now come from the quarter from which
it was at present announced. He hinted that the gentleman (Mr. W.
Smith) had not always paid an equal deference to public sentiment.
He was for the Embargo being taken off, because he understood
that France would suffer considerably by its continuance; because it
would materially affect the American farmers; and because, as the
danger was now more fully known, merchants would beware of the
danger, and provide more or less for their individual security.
Farmers in the United States had entered into contracts of various
kinds. For the discharge of these, they depended on the sale of their
crops. He was originally for the measure, which had answered many
good purposes, by preventing American vessels from falling into the
hands of British privateers. He was likewise for it, as connected with
a system of other measures. [Mr. G. alluded to the sequestration of
British property, &c.] These measures had been laid aside; and
therefore, he would now likewise be for laying this aside.
Mr. Dayton said, that he had been in favor of laying the Embargo,
both in the first month and in the second month of its continuance;
but he should now be opposed to the proposition on the table, and
against extending the Embargo beyond the 25th of this month,
when the present one would expire. He would not be understood to
found any part of his conduct upon a belief that there was a
Welcome to our website – the perfect destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. We believe that every book holds a new world,
offering opportunities for learning, discovery, and personal growth.
That’s why we are dedicated to bringing you a diverse collection of
books, ranging from classic literature and specialized publications to
self-development guides and children's books.

More than just a book-buying platform, we strive to be a bridge

connecting you with timeless cultural and intellectual values. With an
elegant, user-friendly interface and a smart search system, you can
quickly find the books that best suit your interests. Additionally,
our special promotions and home delivery services help you save time
and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Join us on a journey of knowledge exploration, passion nurturing, and

personal growth every day!

ebookbell.com