RAJALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(An Autonomous Institution)

Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai-602105.

DEPARTMENT OF
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
CH23331
FLUID MECHANICS
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

LABORATORY MANUAL
CH23331 FLUID MECHANICS LAB MANUAL
R2023

IV SEM B. TECH CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

0
 RAJALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Vision

To be a centre of excellence in chemical engineering to provide well-prepared professionals to industries

and society.

Mission

i. To provide state of art environment to the students for better learning to cater for the
chemical industries and pursue higher studies.
ii. To provide space to the students in research to think, create and innovate things.

PEOs’
I. To produce employable graduates with the knowledge and competency in Chemical Engineering
complemented by the appropriate skills and attributes.
II. To produce creative and innovative graduates with design and soft skills to carry out various
problem solving tasks.
III. To enable the students to work as teams on multidisciplinary projects with effective communication
skills, individual, supportive and leadership qualities with the right attitudes and ethics.
IV. To produce graduates who possess interest in research and lifelong learning, as well as continuously
striving for the forefront of technology.

Chemical Engineering CH23331 1

 Program Outcomes (POs)

Engineering Graduates will be able to

1. Engineering Knowledge:
Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, and engineering fundamentals, to solve the complex chemical
engineering problems
2. Problem analysis:
Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex chemical engineering problems reaching
substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions:
Design solutions for complex chemical engineering problems and design system components or process that
meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural,
societal and environmental considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems:
Use research-based knowledge and research methods including design of experiments, analysis and
interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to proceed valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage:
Create, select and apply appropriate techniques, resources and modern engineering and IT tools including
prediction and modeling to complex chemical engineering activities with an understanding of the
limitations.
6. The engineer and society:
Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural
issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional chemical engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability:
Understand the impact of the professional chemical engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts,
and demonstrate the knowledge of and need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics:
Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of the chemical
engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work:
Function effectively as an individual and as a member or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary
settings.

Chemical Engineering CH23331 2

 10. Communication:
Communicate effectively on complex chemical engineering activities with the engineering community and
with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports and design
documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance:
Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering and management principles and apply these to
one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning:
Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in independent and life-long learning
in the broadest context of technological changes in chemical engineering.

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)

1. Graduates will be able to apply chemical engineering principles to design equipment and a process
plant.
2. They will be able to control and analyze chemical, physical, and biological processes including the
hazards associated with these processes.
3. Will be able to develop mathematical models of real-world industrial problems and compute
solutions to dynamic processes.

Chemical Engineering CH23331 3

 CH23331 FLUID MECHANICS FOR CHEMICAL LTPC
ENGINEERS
3 1 24

OBJECTIVE:

 To impart knowledge on fluid properties

 To explain the concepts of fluid static characteristics and their applications
 To explain the concepts of fluid at motion and its applications
 To explain the principles of dimensional analysis and its application
 To explain the principle of various instruments used to measure fluid properties

LIST OF THE EXPERIMENTS

1. Calibration of Rotameter
2. Determine the Coefficient of Discharge for the Venturi Meter
3. Determine the Coefficient of Discharge for Orifice Meter
4. Friction Losses in Fluid Flow in Pipe
5. Minor Losses in A Pipe
6. Determination of Viscosity of Oil By 'Redwood Viscometer
7. Determination of Viscosity of Oil By 'Ostwald Viscometer
8. Characteristics Studies of a Centrifugal Pump
9. Characteristics Studies of a Reciprocating Pump
10. Characteristics Studies of Gear Oil Pump
11. Pressure Drop Studies in Packed Bed
12. Pressure Drop Studies in Fluidized Bed
13. Drag Coefficient of Solid Particle
14. Flow Through Helical Coil and Spiral Coil

Chemical Engineering CH23331 4

 OUTCOME:

Upon completion of this course, the students

 will have knowledge of basic principles of fluid mechanics and fluid properties
 will be able to apply the concepts of fluid statics and solve the problems
 will be able to apply the concepts of fluid kinetics and dynamics and solve problems with single and
two-phase systems
 will be able to do dimensional analysis and scaling
 will be able to understand the principle of various instruments, valves, and pumps

TEXT BOOKS:
1. Noel de Nevers, “Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engineers “, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill, (2011).
2. McCabe W.L, Smith, J C and Harriot. P “Unit operations in Chemical Engineering”, McGraw Hill,
VII Edition, 2005
3. Munson, B. R., Young, D.F., Okiishi, T.H. “Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics”, 5th Edition“, John
Wiley, 2006

MAPPING OF PO’S with Course Outcome:

PO
CO
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
I 3 3 2 3 3 1 1 1 3 1 1 3
II 3 3 2 3 3 1 1 1 3 1 1 3
III 3 3 2 3 3 1 1 1 3 1 1 3
IV 3 3 2 3 3 1 1 1 3 1 1 3
V 3 3 2 3 3 1 1 1 3 1 1 3

PSO’S MAPPING with Course Outcome:

PSO
CO
I II III
I 3 3 2
II 3 3 2
III 3 3 2
IV 3 3 2
V 3 3 2

Chemical Engineering CH23331 5

 RAJALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE
An Autonomous Institution
Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

CH23331 – FLUID MECHANICS FOR CHEMICAL ENGINEERS

Laboratory Safety Precautions

Do’s

 Wear lab coats and shoes while entering the lab.

 Maintain a clean work area.
 Tie back long hair and avoid loose clothing that could get caught in equipment.
 Ensure good ventilation when working.

Don’ts

 Do Not Eat or Drink in the Lab:

 Never conduct experiments alone in the lab
 Do not use equipment that is damaged or malfunctioning
 Refrain from using personal electronic devices, such as cell phones, which can distract and lead to accidents.

Chemical Engineering CH23331 6

 INDEX
S.NO Experiment Page No.

1. Calibration of Rotameter 9

2. Calibration of Venturi meter 12

3. Calibration of Orifice meter 16

4. Flow through a straight pipe - Major Loss 20

5. Flow through pipe fittings - Minor loss 23

6. Determination of Viscosity of Oil By 'Redwood 25

Viscometer
7. Determination of Viscosity of Toluene By 'Ostwald 27
Viscometer
8. Characteristics curves of centrifugal pumps 31

9. Characteristics curves of reciprocating pumps 35

10. Characteristics curves of gear oil pumps 38

11. Pressure Drop Studies in Packed Bed 43

12. Pressure Drop Studies in Fluidised Bed 47

13. Drag Coefficient of Solid Particle 51

14. Flow through Helical coil and Spiral Coil 54

Chemical Engineering CH23331 7

 1. CALIBRATION OF ROTAMETER

AIM:

To generate the calibration curve for the given rotameter

APPARATUS:

Rotameter, measuring jar, stopwatch.

THEORY:

For a given flow rate, the equilibrium position of the float in a rotameter is established by a balance of three
forces: (1) the weight of the float (2) the buoyancy force of the fluid on the float and (3) the drag force on
the float . Force 1 acts down wardsand forces 2 and 3 act upward. For equilibrium

FD gc   f  f g   f -----------------(1)
g

Where FD = drag force

g = acceleration due to gravity

 f = volume of float

 f = density of float

 = density of fluid

mf   
As  f = the above equation can be written as FD gc  m f g1  -------------- (2)
   
f f

For a given meter operating on a certain fluid the right-hand side of equation is constant and independent of
the flow rate. Therefore FD is also constant, and when the flow rate increases the position of the float must

change to keep the drag force constant. The drag force FD can be expressed as a drag coefficient times the
projected area of the float and the velocity head but the velocity head is based on the maximum velocity past
the float, which occurs at the largest diameter or metering edge of the float. Thus

FD  A f u2
C D  2g
max ------------------(3)
c

Chemical Engineering CH23331 8

 If the change in drag coefficient is small, which is usually the case for large rotameters with low or
moderate –viscosity fluids the maximum velocity stays the same with increasing flow rate and the total
flow rate is proportional to the annular area between the float and the wall.

qu

D 2
D2 ----------------------(4)

max t f
4

Where Df = float diameter

Dt = tube diameter

For a linearly tapered tube with a diameter at the bottom about equal to the float diameter, the area for flow
is a quadratic function of the height of the float h:
---------------------------------------
D2  D2  2D ah  a2h2 (5)
t f f

When the clearance between float and tube wall is small, the term a2h2 is relatively unimportant and the
flow is almost a linear function of the height h. Therefore rotameter tend to have a nearly linear relationship
between flow and position of the float, compared with a calibration curve for an orifice meter, for which the
flow rate is propotional to the square root of the reading. The calibration of a rotameter unlike that of an
orifice meter is not sensitive to the velocity distribution in the approaching stream and neither long, straight,
approaches nor straightening vanes are necessary.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

1. Set a particular flow rate using a rotameter.

2. Measure the outlet flow rate from the rotameter using measuring jar.
3. Repeat the experiment for 10 different readings.

Chemical Engineering CH23331 9

 OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.NO Volume measured Time Observed flow rate

(m3) (sec) (m3/s)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

GRAPH:

Draw a graph between rotameter reading on Y-axis and observed flow rate on X-axis

RESULT:

The given rotameter is calibrated.

Chemical Engineering CH23331 10

 2. DETERMINE THE COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE FOR VENTURI
METER

AIM:

To determine the coefficient of discharge of Venturi meter

APPARATUS:

Venturi meter, sump tank, measuring tank, manometer, globe valve , Stop watch, collector.

THEORY:

These Flow Meters are based on the general energy conservation equation. Because pressure drop is
measured after introducing the meter. This pressure head is converted in to down stream velocity [measured
at minimum cross sectional area] which is in turn converted in to volumetric flow rate by multiplying it by
throat cross sectional area.

For unit mass, general energy conservation equation is

P1
V12
+ + g Z1+U1+q = P2 V 22 +g Z2+U2+Ws-------------------------------------------------------------(1)
 2  +
2

In the absence of any pump, any heat interaction, any change in internal energy and change in absence of

friction [ideal flow] equation (1) reduces and for incompressible fluid

(i.e      )
1 2

P1
V12
+ + g Z1 = P2 V 22 +g Z2
 2  +
2

This is Bernoulli’s equation which represents energy/mass. So if there is no change in elevations

(i.e Z1=Z2)

P1 2
+ V1 P2 V 2
 =  + 2
2 2

Chemical Engineering CH23331 11

 P P V2 V 2

=> -1
= 2
- 1 2 ----------(2)
  2 2

Chemical Engineering CH23331 12

 From continuity equation,
 A2 
A1V1 = A2V2  V1 =  A V2 ----------(3)
 1

Where A1 = Cross sectional area of pipe

A2 = Cross sectional area of throat

V1 =Velocity of fluid in pipe

V2 =Velocity of fluid in throat

Putting the value of V1 in equation (2), we get

1 2P
V2 = m/s
A 
2 
1 2 
 A1 

since P = gH , V2 = A1 2gH m/s

A  A22
2
1

At venturi throat, theoretical volumetric flow rate is

Qth = A2V2

m3/s

m3/s
 A2
= A1 2gH
A12  A22

volume
Actual discharge Qa = m3/s
time

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

1. Check all the clamps for tightness.

Chemical Engineering CH23331 13

 2. Open the gate valve and start the flow.
3. Open the outlet valve of the venturimeter and close valve of orificemeter .

Chemical Engineering CH23331 14

 4. First open air cocks then open the venturimeter cocks, remove all the air bubbles and close the air cocks
slowly and simultaneously. So that mercury does not run away into water.
5. Close the drain valve of measuring tank and measure the time taken for 10lt. water discharge and also the
manometer difference.
6. Repeat the procedure by changing the discharge and also for orificemeter.

OBSERVATIONS:

S.No Manometer Tme for 10 volume H = h  12.6 A1  A2 2gH

Qa = time Qth  A1 2  2A 2
Qa
Reading,h lt. , t (m) C 
(m3/s) d Q th
(m) (sec) (m3/s)

1 2 Diff., h

Chemical Engineering CH23331 15

 SAMPLE CALCULATION:

1. Actual discharge, Qa volume

 time =--------m3/s

Let H be the pressure head across manometer.

H = manometer difference  (sp.gravity of Hg - sp.gravity of water)

= manometer difference (13.6 -1)

= h  12.6 =-------m

A1  A2  2gH
2. Theoretical Discharge, Qth 
A1 2  A 22

Where A1= Cross sectional area of pipe = 3.46  10-4m2

A2 = Cross sectional area of throat = 1.26  10-

4m2 H = Pressure head across manometer.

Q
3. Coefficient of discharge, C d  Q a
th

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Operate the manometer valve gently. Air bubbles are to be removed so that mercury does not run away
into water.
2. Don’t close the outlet valve completely.
3. There should be no air bubbles entrapped while taking reading of liquid level in tubes.

GRAPH:

Draw a graph between Cd on Y-axis and Qth on X-axis for venturi meter

Chemical Engineering CH23331 16

 RESULT:

The coefficient of discharge for venturi meter or venturi coefficient is ---------------

Chemical Engineering CH23331 17

 3. DETERMINE THE COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE FOR ORIFICE
METER

AIM:
To determine the coefficient of discharge of the given orifice meter and to calibrate.

APPARATUS USED:
 A pipe fitted with a orifice meter.
 A single column mercury manometer
 Stop clock
 Meter scale
 A Collecting tank with piezometer.

FORMULA:

1. Actual Discharge = Qact = Ah/t in m3/sec

2. Theoretical Discharge = Qth= {a1a22gH}/a12 - a22 in m3/sec.
3. Co-efficient of discharge = Cd =
Qact/Qth. Where, A= area of the collecting
tank in m2

h = 5 cm rise of water in sec

t = time taken for 5 cm rise of water in sec

a1 = area of the pipe (inlet) at section 1 in

m2

a2 = area of the pipe (throat) at section 2 in m2

H = head over the orifice meter in m

THEORY:

An orifice meter is a simple device used for measuring the discharge through pipes. It works on the
principle same as that of venturi meter i.e. by reducing the cross sectional area of the flow passage a
pressure difference between the two sections is developed and the measurement of the pressure differences
enables the determination of the discharge through the pipe. It consists of a flat circular plate with a circular
hole called orifice, which is concentric with the pipe axis. The thickness of the plate less than or equal to

Chemical Engineering CH23331 18

 0.05 times the diameter of the piece.

Chemical Engineering CH23331 19

 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

1. The internal dimensions of the collecting tank were measured.

2. Inlet valve of collecting tank was closed.
3. Water was allowed to rise of mercury in manometer.
4. readings was taken down in both limbs of mercury in manometer
5. Head of venturi meter was noted.
6. Inlet valve of collecting tank was opened.
7. Outlet valve was closed.
8. Time taken for 5 cms rise of water in collecting tank was noted.
9. Procedure was repeated for various heads over the orifice meter and the coefficient of discharge
was calculated.
OBSERVATIONS:

Length of the collecting tank = cm

Breadth of the collecting tank = cm

Diameter of the inlet = cm

Diameter of the throat = cm

Rise of water in the collecting tank = cm

Specimen Calculations:

1. Actual discharge = Qact = Ah/t in m3/sec

Length of the collecting tank , L = cm = m

Breadth of the collecting tank , B = cm = m

Diameter of the inlet = cm = m

Diameter of the throat = cm = m

Rise of water in the collecting tank = cm = m

2. Total head H = (h2 - h1) in m

Left limb reading of the manometer = h1 = cm= m

Right limb reading of the manometer = h2 = cm= m

H =----------m

Chemical Engineering CH23331 11

0
 3. Theoretical Discharge = Qth= {a1a22gH}/a12 - a22 in m3/sec.

Diameter of the pipe = d1 = cm = m.

Area of the pipe = a1 = d12/4 = m2

Diameter of the orifice = d2 = cm= m

Area of the pipe = a2 =d22/4 = m2

Acceleration due to gravity = g = 9.81 m/sec2

Total head = Qth = m3/sec

4. Co-efficient of discharge = Cd = Qact/Qth.

Actual discharge = Qact = in m3/sec

Theoretical Discharge = Qth= in

m3/sec. Observation Table:

S.NO Head Head Time taken for h

cm rise in collecting Qact Qth Cd
h1 h2 h1 - h2
tank

cm cm cm cm sec m3/sec m3/sec

Chemical Engineering CH23331 11

1
 RESULT:

Coefficient of Discharge for orifice meter is found to be , Cd =

Chemical Engineering CH23331 11

2
 4. FRICTION LOSSES IN FLUID FLOW IN PIPES-MAJOR LOSS

AIM:

To determine the Coefficient of friction or Friction factor for the given pipes.

APPARATUS:

17mm G.I pipe, 14mm Cu pipe,14 mm Al pipe, globe valve, tapings, stop watch, piezometer, sump tank,
measuring tank and centrifugal pump.

THEORY:

The liquid flowing under pressure in a pipe line will be subjected to head loss, which may be major or minor.
This is also called the head loss due to friction. Minor losses are caused due to losses at entry or exit and
major losses due to change in cross section of pipe line sudden contraction in pipe lines, due to elbow or
bends which change direction of fluids and loss due to obstruction of flow path. In long pipes, the minor
losses are very less compared to major losses due to friction. However, minor losses will be appreciable.

When a fluid is flowing through pipes it is subjected to resistance to flow due to shear force between
the pipe wall and fluid particles and between the fluid particles also. This resistance is called frictional
resistance which depends upon the velocity of flow and area of surface in contact. It also depends on the type
of flow i.e. laminar or turbulent. This frictional resistance causes loss of pressure in the direction of flow.

PROCEDURE:
1. Fill the sump tank with water. Open inlet valve fully.
2. Open the outlet valve and start the pump.
3. Check for leakages by closing outlet valves for each pipe and correct the leaks if any.
4. Open the outlet valves of the pipe to be tested.
5. Remove all the air bubbles from manometer and connecting pipes.
6. Reduce the flow. Adjust the outlet valves, so that water heads in manometer are to be the readable height.
7. Note down the heads and flow rate.
8. Now increase the flow and accordingly adjust the outlet valve, so that liquid will not overflow. Note
down heads and flow rate.
9. Repeat the procedure for other pipes.

Chemical Engineering CH23331 20

 SAMPLE CALCULATION:

D 2=--------m2
1. Area of pipe A =
4

2. Flow rate volume

Q =----------m3/sec
time

Q
3. Velocity of water V  =--------m/s
A

4. Coefficient of friction or friction factor h f Dg c

f  2LV 2

Where hf (head loss) = manometer difference between tappings 1 & 3

L = length of pipe = 1m

V = velocity of water in m/s

gc = 1 in S.I.units.

D = inside diameter of pipe

The value of friction is not constant and depends upon roughness of pipe inside surface and Reynolds number.
Any oil content in water also affects value of ‘f’. The same calculations are repeated for other pipes.
5. Reynolds DV
number N 
Re 

Where  = density of water at room temperature

 = viscosity of water at room temperature

(Note: sample calculation for single flow rate & for three

pipes)

Chemical Engineering CH23331 21

 Data:

Temperature (0F) H O (lb/ft3) H O (cp)

2 2

80 62.22 0.862
90 62.11 0.764
100 62.00 0.682

OBSERVATIONS

(a) 17mm G.I pipe

S.No Manometer Time for Q

volume V = (m/s) h f Dg c N  DV
Q  time f  2LV 2 Re
difference collecting 10 lt A 
water (sec) (m3/s)
(m)

GRAPH:

Draw a graph between ‘f’ on Y-axis and NRe on X-axis on log-log graph.

RESULT:

The coefficient of friction for G.I pipe = --------

Chemical Engineering CH23331 22

 5. MINOR LOSSES IN A PIPE

AIM:
To determine the loss coefficient of a fluid in a pipe

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on the power supply to the pump
2. Adjust the delivery flow control valves and note down the manometer reading.
3. Note down the time taken for 10cm rise of water level in collecting tank.
4. Repeat the 2 & 3 for different flow rates.
5. once the experiment is over, switch off the pump.

FORMUALE :
Flow rate Q = (A*h)/(t), m3/s
A is area of collecting tank, m2
h- level of water, Velocity (V1) = Q/A1, m/s & Velocity (V2) = Q/A2, m/s
A1 is area of larger pipe and A2 is area of smaller pipe.
hf = x ((Sn/So)-1), m
X = difference in manometer, m
Sn = specific gravity of heavier liquid
So = specific gravity of liquid flowing through a pipe
hf = K (V2^2-V1^2)/2g
K – coefficient of friction.

Chemical Engineering CH23331 23

 OBSERVATION TABLE:
S.NO Manometer Manometer Manometer Time Actual Velocity Velocity Coefficient
reading(m) difference head, taken discharge V1, V2, of friction
3
(m) hf(m) for (m /s) (m/s) (m/s)
10cm
rise
(sec)

RESULT:
The coefficient of friction (analytical) = -----------
The coefficient of friction (Graphical) =--------------

Chemical Engineering CH23331 24

 6. DETERMINATION OF VISCOSITY OF OIL BY 'REDWOOD
VISCOMETER

Aim:

To determine the viscosity of coconut oil using redwood viscometer

Apparatus Required

Redwood viscometer, Thermostat, Thermometer, 50ml beaker, oil

Theory:

Viscosity means the resistance to the fluid flow.

'Redwood Viscometer' determines the viscosity in terms of seconds (which are terms as Redwood
seconds), a time taken by oil to pass through a standard orifice, and collection of the same oil in 50 cc
flask.

Redwood Viscometer' are of two types:

1. Redwood Viscometer No.1 (For fluid having viscosity corresponds to Redwood seconds less than 2000)
2. Redwood Viscometer No. 2 ( For fluid having viscosity corresponds to Redwood seconds greater than
2000)

Chemical Engineering CH23331 25

 Formula used,
To convert Redwood seconds to kinematic viscosity unit i.e. centistokes.
At-B/t (Where A = 0.26 and B = 171).
The absolute viscosity is found by measuring the density of the fluid whose viscosity is being measured.
Absolute Viscosity = Kinematic Viscosity x Density
Experimental Procedure:

1. Fill the oil cup with oil to the required oil level indicated by the marker point
2. Heat the water at a uniform temperature.
3. When the required temperature of the oil is attained, lift the ball above the orifice hole.
4. Allow the oil to pass through it (start the stopwatch) and collect 50 CC of oil in the volumetric flask.
5. The measured seconds are in terms of the viscosity of oil measured.

Observation table :
S.No Temperature Time taken to Density Kinematic Dynamic
℃ collect 50CC Kg/m3 Viscosity Viscosity
oil ,s m2/s
Ns/m2

Result:
The dynamic viscosity of oil was found to be = -----------------

Chemical Engineering CH23331 26

 7. DETERMINATION OF VISCOSITY OF TOLUENE BY 'OSTWALD

VISCOMETER

Aim:
To determine the viscosity of toluene using Oswald viscometer.
Apparatus Required:
Pycnometer, stopwatch, Ostwald viscometer, clamp stand, pipette, beaker
Theory:
Viscosity is the one of the properties of liquid. A liquid may be considered to be consisting of molecular
layers arranged one over the other. When a shearing force is applied to a liquid, it flows. However, the
forces of friction between the layers offer resistance to this flow. Viscosity of a liquid is a measure of its
frictional resistance.

Let us examine a liquid flowing on a glass surface. The molecular layer in contact with the stationary
surface has zero velocity. The successive layers above it move with increasingly higher velocities. In the
direction of flow.

Now consider two adjacent moving layers of a liquid. Let these be separated by a distance dx and have a
velocity difference dv. The force of friction (F) resisting the relative motion of the two layers is directly
proportional to the area A and the velocity difference dv, while it is inversely proportional to the distance dx
between the layers.

𝑑𝑢
𝐹 = 𝜇𝐴
𝑑𝑦

𝜇 =𝐹
𝑑𝑦
*
𝐴 𝑑𝑢

µ is the proportionality constant. It is known as the coefficient of viscosity or viscosity of liquid. µ has a
specific value for a given liquid at the same temperature.

Coefficient of viscosity is defined as the force of resistance per unit area which will maintain unit velocity
difference between layers of a liquid at a unit distance from each other.

Units of viscosity

In CGS – gcm-1s-1

In SI kgm-1s-1
Chemical Engineering CH23331 27
 One poise is equal to one-tenth of the SI unit i.e 1 poise = 1 gcm-1s-1= 0.1kgm-1s-1

There are intermolecular forces in liquid layers which are responsible for viscosity. Viscosity of a liquid can
be determined on the basis of flow time. In fact, viscosity is directly proportional to the flow time. This
principle has been in Oswald’s viscometer. It consists of two bulbs joined by a U-tube containing a capillary
tube.

Formula used:
The relative viscosity coefficient is calculated from the expression:
𝜇2 𝑡2 𝑑2
𝜇1 = 𝑡1 𝑑1

µ1 and µ2 are the viscosity coefficient of water and given liquid

t1 and t2 are the flow time of water and given liquid

d1 and d2 are densities of water and given liquid

Knowing the value of the viscosity coefficient of water µ1 at the temperature of the experiment, the absolute
viscosity coefficient of the given liquid can be found.

Experimental Procedure:
Determination of density of water and given liquid (ethanol)
1. Clean the density bottle with chromic acid solution and wash thoroughly with distilled water. Then
wash with alcohol or acetone and then dry.
2. Weigh an empty density bottle (W1)
3. Fill the density bottle with distilled water, completely insert the stopper and weigh again (W2)
4. Take out the distilled water and rinse the density bottle 2-3 times with given experimental liquid .
5. Fill the given experimental liquid into the density bottle and record the weight again (W3).

Determination of viscosity
1. Clean the viscometer with chromic acid solution and then with distilled water .Rinse with water and
ether and then dry.
2. Attach the viscometer to the burette stand exactly vertical position.
3. Fill the distilled water in the lower bulb of viscometer till the bulb fills completely.

Chemical Engineering CH23331 28

 4. Suck the distilled water from the other end through the rubber tube above mark(A).
5. Allow water to flow freely. Start the stop watch as soon as the upper layer of water marks A and stop
the stop watch as soon as it crosses mark (B).

6. Repeat the recording of flow time three times for distilled water as well as for the given
experimental liquid .

Observation and Calculations

Determine the densities of water and given liquid

1. Room temperature =
2. Weight of empty density bottle= W1= g
3. Weight of density bottle with water = W2= g
4. Weight of density bottle with given liquid =W3= g
5. Volume of density bottle =V= ml

𝑑1 =
𝖶2−𝖶1 𝑑2 =
w3−w1
𝑉 𝑉

𝑑2
= 𝑤3 − 𝑤1
𝑑1 𝑤2 − 𝑤1

Chemical Engineering CH23331 29

 Determination of relative viscosity and absolute viscosity of ethanol
Viscosity of water at room temperature= µ1=………poise

𝜇2 =
𝑡2 𝑑2
S.No Flow Time (s) Relative Viscosity Absolute Viscosity
𝜇2 𝑡2 𝑑2
𝜇1= 𝑡1 𝑑1 𝑡1 𝑑1
*µ1
water Mean Toluene Mean
(t1) (t2)

Result

The relative viscosity of given liquid relative to water was found to be………..
Absolute viscosity of given liquid was found to be............poise

Chemical Engineering CH23331 30

 8. CHARACTERISTICS STUDIES OF A CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

AIM:
To study the performance of the centrifugal pump at constant speed-variable flow rate & constant flow rate-
variable speed.

APPARATUS:
centrifugal pump, sump tank, collecting tank, stop watch, pressure gauge, energy meter, voltmeter and
tachometer.

THEORY:
Centrifugal pump is a rotodynamic machine which develops dynamic pressure of liquid by virtue of
rotation for pumping of liquid to a higher height. The liquid is fed into the center of the casing of the pump
in axial direction, which is rocked by the vanes of the impeller and thrown outwards by centrifugal action
into a chamber of increasing cross section with triangular outlet. As a result of high speed of the impeller
the liquid acquires a large kinetic energy and pressure difference between suction and delivery size of the
pump by conversion of kinetic energy into pressure energy. The delivery pressure of the pump depends on
the efficiency with which the conversion of one form of energy into the other takes place.

If W = Power consumption
Q = Discharge rate
N = Speed of impeller
H = Head developed by the pump
= Discharge head (hd)+suction head (hs)+hf
Then for centrifugal pump
W 3 3 2 2
Q  N  H Q  N 
1
  1    1  and 1   1    1 
W2  Q2  N2 H 2  Q2  N2


Chemical Engineering CH23331 31

 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
1. Fill up sufficient water in the sump tank.
2. Open the priming nipple plug (at the top of the pump) and fill up water upto the nipple. Replace the plug.
3. Shut off the discharge valve.
4. Start the pump. As discharge valve is closed, no discharge will be observed. But discharge pressure will
be indicated. This is called “shut off head of the pump”.
5. Slowly open the discharge valve, so that small discharge is observed.

6. Note down discharge head, suction vacuum and time required for 10 lt. of water level rise in measuring
tank and time taken for 10 revolutions in energy meter for a particular motor speed.
7. Repeat the procedure for different speeds (at constant flow rate) and also for different flow rates (at
constant speed) and note down the observations.

OBSERVATION & CALCULATION TABLE:

(i) Constant speed – variable flow rate
S.No Speed Discharge Suction Time Qa Time hd hs ht Sp Wp 
(rpm) pressure Pressure for for
(m3/s) (m) (m) (m) (Kw) (Kw)
Pd 10lt. 10 rev.
Ps
(kg/cm2)
mmHg

Chemical Engineering CH23331 32

 (ii) Constant flow rate – variable speed

S.No Speed Discharge Suction Time Qa Time hd hs ht Sp Wp 

(rpm) pressure Pressure for for
(m3/s) (m) (m) (m) (Kw) (Kw)
Pd 10lt. 10 rev.
Ps
(kg/cm2)
mmHg

SAMPLE CALCULATION:
1. Discharge pressure Pd =-----------Kg/cm2
2. For water, 10m height corresponding to 1 Kg/cm2
Discharge head hd = Pd  10 =---------m of water.

Suction head vacuum Ps =------------mm Hg.

 Suction head hs = Ps  0.0136 =------m of water.

 760mmHg = 10.34 m of water.

3. Total head ht  hd  hs  h f m

Where hf = 2 m.is the head loss due to friction.

volume
Actual discharge Q  =--------m3/s
a
time
3. Electrical input:
Let the time required for 10 revolutions of energy meter disc be te sec.
10 3600
Electrical input power Ip =  =-------KW
te 1200
Taking motor efficiency as 75% we have input shaft power
Sp = Electrical input 0.75

Chemical Engineering CH23331 33

 4. Output power (or water power)
W  Qa  ht
WP = =----KW
1000
Where W = specific weight of water =  H O  g =-----N/m3
2

Qa = Actual discharge in
m3/s ht = Total head, m

5. Overall efficiency of the pump WP

 100
SP
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Priming is must before starting the pump. Pump should never be run empty.
2. Use clean water in the sump tank.

GRAPH:
Draw the graph of Flow rate Vs Head, Flow rate Vs efficiency and Flow rate vs I/p and O/p power.

Chemical Engineering CH23331 34

 RESULT:
1. The maximum efficiency of the centrifugal pump from the graph is ------------
2. The design head of the centrifugal pump from the graph is ------------
3. The design discharge of the centrifugal pump from the graph is ------------

Chemical Engineering CH23331 35

 9. CHARACTERISTIC STUDIES OF RECIPROCATING PUMP

AIM:

To Determine the co-efficient of discharge, % slip, and efficiency of the reciprocating pump

APPARATUS USED:

Reciprocating pump, Collecting tank, Pressure gauge, Stop watch, Energy meter, Meter scale, Piezometer

FORMULA USED:

 Actual Discharge = Q act =Ah/t in m3 / sec

 Theoretical Discharge = Q th =AcLNp/60 in m3 / Sec
 Total Head = H=HD +X in m
 Co-efficient of Discharge = Cd = Qact /Qth
 % of Slip = [Qth - Qact]/Qth x 100
 INPUT POWER = {(3600 n)/ NT} (Kw)
 OUTPUT POWER = {( g Q act H)/(1000)} (Kw)
 %Efficiency = Output power/Input power

A =Area of Collecting Tank in m2

H = Rise of water in the collecting tank in m T=

Time taken for 5cm rise of water in Sec Hd

= Delivery heat in meters of water
X= Difference in level between the center of pressure Gauge and top of water level in the sump in meter n =
Number of revolutions in the energy meter Disc
N= Energy meter constant in revolution in the kwh
T = Time taken for n revolutions in the energy meter Disc in sec Ac =
Cross-Sectional Area of Cylinder in m2

L = Length of the stroke in m Cd

=Co-efficient of Discharge

Chemical Engineering CH23331 36

 THEORY:

A Pump is a machine used for lifting Liquids from a lower level to a higher level. It converts
mechanical energy into pressure energy. A reciprocating pump is a positive displacement type of pump in
which liquid is sucked and then it is displaced due to the thrust exceeds on it

By a moving member, which results in lifting the lid to the required height These pumps usually have one or
more chambers, which are alternately filled with the liquid to be pumped and emptied again. The
reciprocating pumps can be classified as single-acting and Double acting.

PROCEDURE:

 The Length and breadth of the collecting tank were measured.

 The difference in the level between the center of the pressure gauge and the top water level of the
sump was measured
 The length of the stroke, Diameter of the Cylinder, and Energy meter constant was noted.
 The motor was started on the gate valve was adjusted to get the required heat.
 The pressure gauge reading was noted.
 The time taken for 5 revolutions in the energy meter was noted.
 The Outlet valve of the collecting tank was closed
 The time taken for 5cm rise in the collecting tank was noted
 The outlet valve of collecting tank was opened
 The speed was adjusted to vary the pressure heat and steps 5,6,7,8, &9 were repeated at least 6 times

The coefficient of discharge, % Slip, and efficiency of the pump were calculated.

Chemical Engineering CH23331 37

 GRAPH:

The following graphs were drawn taking Qact on X-axis

I
Discharge (Qact) Vs Head (H)

II
Discharge (Qact) Vs Output (OP)

III
Discharge (Qact) Vs Percentage efficiency

IV
Discharge (Qact) Vs Percentage Slip

RESULT:

The Characteristics curves were drawn

The maximum efficiency

From Tabular form = %

From Graph = %

Chemical Engineering CH23331 38

 10. CHARACTERISTICS STUDIES OF GEAR OIL PUMP

Aim:
To study the performance characteristics of a gear pump and to determine its efficiency

Introduction
The gear oil pump consists of two identical intermeshing spur wheels working with a fine clearance
inside the casing. The wheels are so designed that they form a fluid tight joint at the point of contact. One of
the wheels is keyed to driving shaft and the other revolves as the driven wheel. The pump is first filled with
the oil before it starts. As the gear rotates, the oil is trapped in between their teeth and is flown to the
discharge end round the casing. The rotating gears build-up sufficient pressure to force the oil in to the
delivery pipe.

Theory
The gear oil pump is a horizontal slewing gear pump. It is divided into two types: motor-driven and diesel-
driven. It is suitable for conveying various oils and other lubricated medium liquids, such as heavy oil, oil,
etc., and the liquid temperature does not exceed 60 °C. However, it is not suitable for high-sulfur, corrosive,
hard particle-containing, and fiber-containing media liquids. It is also not suitable for conveying highly
volatile, low-flashing medium liquids, such as: gasoline, benzene, etc.
The gear oil pump is mainly composed of gears, shafts, pump bodies, pump covers, bearing sleeves, shaft
end seals and other components. The gears and shafts are subjected to strict heat treatment, have high
hardness and wear resistance, and are installed in the bushing together with the shaft. All moving parts in
the pump are lubricated with the medium they transport. Hard tooth surface residual oil pump. The four
bearing sleeves in the pump are floatingly installed in the pump body, and the end face interval is
automatically adjusted according to the working pressure. Therefore, the pressure of the pump is stable, the
output flow pulse is small, and the volumetric efficiency is high. The gear oil pump is an important part of
the high-pressure oil that can lift the low-pressure oil in the fuel tank through the mutual rolling engagement
of a pair of involute gears with the same parameters and structure. It is a power unit that converts the
mechanical energy of the engine into hydraulic energy. The gear oil pump has a large flow rate and good
reliability. Wear and tear are prone to occur during use, and care should be taken. Wear of internal parts of
the pump can cause internal leakage. Among them, the leakage area between the floating bushing and the
gear end face is large, which is the main part of the internal leakage. This part of the leakage accounted for
about 50% to 70% of the total

Chemical Engineering CH23331 39

 internal leakage. The gear pump with worn inner leakage has a reduced volumetric efficiency, and the
output power of the oil pump is much lower than the input power. All of its losses are converted into heat,
which can cause the pump to overheat. If the joint plane is pressed, the floating bushing will have a small
amount of motion during work, resulting in wear and tear, resulting in slow or impossible lifting of the
implement. Such a floating bushing must be replaced or repaired.

1. Gear pump
2. Motor
3. Collecting tank
4. Sump tank
5. Flow regulating
valve
6. Drain valve
7. Gauge glass scale
8. Overflow pipe
9. Suction pipe
10. Delivery pipe
11. Drain pipe

E – Energy meter
P – Pressure gauge
V – Vacuum gauge
S - Switch

Formula Used

1. Total head = Delivery head + Suction head + Height difference between the gauges.

2. Actual discharge is calculated from the reading in measuring tank with cross section area A
and height h,

Chemical Engineering CH23331 40

 3. Theoretical discharge,

Where,
L = area between the teeth

w = width of gear

N = Speed of gear

n = Number of teeth

4. Input Power,

Where,
= Efficiency (≈ 60%)
K= Energy meter constant

5. Output Power,

Where is the weight density.

6. Efficiency

Experimental Procedure
1. Before starting the experiment check whether the delivery valve is completely open

2. After starting adjust the delivery pressure

3. Close the exit valve

4. The time taken for ‘n’ revolutions in the energy meter is noted with the help of a stopwatch.

5. The time taken for ‘h’ rise in oil level is also noted down after closing the gate valve.

6. With the help of the meter scale the distance between the suction and delivery gauge is noted.

7. For calculating the area of the collecting tank its dimensions are noted down.

8. The experiment is repeated for different delivery gauge readings.

9. Repeat the steps by reducing the discharge delivery pressure

Chemical Engineering CH23331 41

Chemical Engineering CH23331 42
 GRAPHS
Head vs. Discharge
Head vs. Input Power
Head vs. Output Power
Head vs. Efficiency

Result:

The maximum of the gear oil pump was found to be

Chemical Engineering CH23331 43

 11. PRESSURE DROP STUDIES IN PACKED BED

AIM:

To determine the pressure drop induced in the flow of water through packed bed

APPARATUS:

G.I. column, manometer, glass balls, scale, centrifugal pump, sump tank, collecting tank & stop watch.

THEORY:

In packed beds, fluids flow through a bed of stationary solid particles. The resistance to the flow
of a fluid through the voids in a bed of solids is the resultant of total drag of all the particles in the bed.
Depending on the Reynolds number, laminar flow,turbulent flow ,form drag, separation and wake formation
occur.

External void fraction is the ratio of the volume of voids or pores in the bed to the total volume of
the bed.The pressure drop depends on the average velocity(V) in the channel,which is proportional to the
superficial  V0 
velocity or empty tower velocity(V ) and inversely proportional to the porosity. V 
0  
  

For low flow rates ,(NRe,p≤1),Kozeny-karman equation used is

P 150V  (1   )2
0
L g  2
D 2 3
c s p

For high flow rates,(NRe,p1000),Burke-plummer equation used is

P 1.75V 2 (1   )
L  g D
O
3
c s p

An equation covering the entire range of flowrates can be obtained by adding viscous losses and the kinetic
energy losses. It is called Ergun equation.

P 150V  (1   )2 1.75 V 2 (1   )
0 0
L g  2 D 2  3  g  D 3
c s p c s p

Chemical Engineering CH23331 44

 Note: For Raschig rings and Berl saddles, which have porosities of 0.6-0.75, Ergun equation predicts
pressure drops lower than those found experimentally. For these materials and other packings of high
surface area and high porosity ,the pressure drop should be obtained using the packing factors.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the inverted manometer to the pressure tapping of packed bed column
2. Open the inlet valve to allow flow through the packed bed.
3. Open the inlet and out let cocks simultaneously to allow the water into the two limbs of the manometer.
4. Open the drain cocks at the bottom of manometer simultaneously and drain air if necessary and close.

5. Note down the manometer readings on both limbs.

6. Note down the time taken for a rise of ‘h’ cm in the collecting tank.
7. Repeat the procedure for 15 flow rates and note down the observations.
OBSERVATION TABLE:

Time for rise of volume

Qa= (m3/s)
S. No Manometer diff. ‘hm’ m time
‘h’ cm (sec)

SAMPLE CALCULATION:

Total Wt of solid particle mp = 3.65 kg

Average particle diameter Dp = 0.01268m

Density of particle  P = 2.33 103 kg/m3

mp
Volume of solid particles = m3
p

D 2
Volume of fluidized bed V = L =-----------m3
4

Chemical Engineering CH23331 45

 D = I.D of column = 0.44m , L = Length of packed bed = 1.2m

Chemical Engineering CH23331 46

  volumeofsolidparticles 
Porosity ,  = 1  
 volumeoffluidisedbed 

Average velocity, V = Actualdisch arg e

=-------m/s
cross sec
tionalareaofcolumn

Superficial velocity ,V0 = V   , Sphericity s  1

g
Actual Pressure drop ∆Pa = h 
m f
gc

Where hm = difference in manometer reading

 f = density of water at room temperature =--------kg/m3

2
Pth 150V0  f (1   ) 2 1.75 Vf0 (1   )
Theoretical pressure drop  
L g 2
D 2
3 g D 3
c s p c s p

Where f = viscosity of water at room temperature =------------kg/m.sec

NRe,p = D pVO  f , Friction factor f P g  3 D

= 
th c  p 
6 f 1   f LV O2 1  


CALCULATION TABLE:

Superficial NRe,p = ∆Pth

velocity DpVO  f
Average ∆Pa= P g  3 D
6 f 1    g th c p
velocity V0 = V   h  f=  LV 2 1  
f O  
m f
Q 3
gc
V= m /s
A

Chemical Engineering CH23331 47

 GRAPH:
1.
Draw a graph between ∆Pa & ∆Pth on Y-axis and V0 on Y-axis.

2.
Draw a graph between f vs NRe on log-log graph

RESULT:

1. The actual and theoretical pressure loss at different flow rates is determined.

2. The average friction factor is ---------

Chemical Engineering CH23331 48

 12. PRESSURE DROP STUDIES IN FLUIDISED BED

AIM:

To determine the minimum fluidization velocity, void fraction and pressure drop induced in the flow of water through
fluidized bed

APPARATUS:

Glass column, manometer, glass balls, scale, centrifugal pump, sump tank, collecting tank & stop watch.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the inverted manometer to the pressure tapping of fluidized bed column
2. Open the inlet valve to allow flow through the fluidized bed.
3. Open the inlet and out let cocks simultaneously to allow the water in to the two limbs of the manometer.
4. Open the drain cocks at the bottom of manometer simultaneously and drain air if necessary and close.
5. Note manometer readings on both limbs and bed height.
6. Note down the time taken for a rise of ‘h’ cm in the collecting tank which gives the flow rate of water
passing through the packed bed.
7. Repeat the procedure for 15 flow rates and note down the observations.
OBSERVATION TABLE:

S. No Time for rise of Bed height ‘L’ volume

Manometer diff. Qa= time m3/s
‘hm’ m ‘h’ cm (sec) m

Chemical Engineering CH23331 49

 SAMPLE CALCULATION:

Initial bed height = 0.2m

Total Wt of solid particle mp = 400gm

Average particle diameter Dp = 0.5113mm

Density of particle P = 2.33 103 kg/m3

mp
Volume of solid particles = m3
p

D 2 L
Volume of fluidized bed V= m3
4

D = I.D of column = 0.044m

L = Length of fluidized bed =1.2 m

 volumeofsolidparticles 
Porosity ,  = 1  
 volumeoffluidisedbed 

L (1  M )

LM (1   )

Where L = bed height

LM = bed height at minimum fluidization

 M porocity at minimum fluidization

 = porosity at bed height L .

Average velocity, V = Actualdisch arg e

cross sec
tionalareaofcolumn

Superficial velocity ,V0 = V  

g
Actual Pressure drop ∆Pa = h 
m f
gc
Chemical Engineering CH23331 41
0
 hm = difference in manometer reading

 f = density of water at room temperature =-----------kg/m3

f = viscosity of water at room temperature =-----------kg/m.sec

2
Pth 150V0  f (1   ) 2 1.75 Vf0 (1   )
Theoretical pressure drop  
L g 2
D 2
3 g D 3
c s p c s p

DpVO 
NRe =
61   

Friction factor f = Pg c D p 

3

LVO2 1  

CALCULATION TABLE:

Average Superficial  NRe = ∆Pa = f=

velocity velocity DpVO  f g Pth g c 3D p
h . .
Q 3 V0 = V   6 f 1   m
gc
H 2O LV 2 1   
V= m /s O
A (m/s)

GRAPH:
1.
Draw a graph between P on Y-axis & V0 on X-axis.
2.
Draw a graph between bed height (L) on Y-axis & V0 on X-axis.
3.
Draw a graph between  on Y-axis & V0 on X-axis.

Chemical Engineering CH23331 50

 RESULT:

1. The minimum fluidization velocity from graph = ---------------

2. The average frictional factor = --------

Chemical Engineering CH23331 51

 13. DRAG COEFFICIENT OF SOLID PARTICLE

AIM :

To determine the drag coefficient of a given solid particle in a given fluid.

THEORY:

Drag is defined as the force exerted by the fluid on the solid in the direction of flow. Drag coefficient is the
average drag per unit projected area to the product of velocity head and density. Drag coefficient CD is
given by:

A
CD  F D 2 P
U o 2g

where FD is the total drag and

AP is the projected area, m2

 is the density of medium, Kg/m3

Uo is the velocity of the particle, m/s

The drag coefficient of smooth solids in incompressible fluids depends upon Reynolds
number, according to the equation:

CD  b1 n
Re P
N

Where the value of b1 and n must in general be determined experimentally. The normal
values of b1 and n for different ranges are given below :

Type of Settling b1 n NReP Range

Stokes Range 24 1 0-2

Intermediate Range 18.5 0.6 2-1000

Newtons Range 0.44 1000 - 200000

The common equation used to calculate the terminal settling velocities for all ranges of settling is given by:

Chemical Engineering CH23331 52

 4gDp(ρp-ρ)
ut = √ , m/s
3C ρ
D

4gDP  P   
C D 
3ut2 

Where ut = terminal velocity distance traveled / unit time , m/s

Dp= diameter of particle , m

P
= density of the particle , Kg/ m3

 = density of the medium , Kg/ m3

DPut 
NRe 

P

NRe P
= Particle Reynolds number ,  = Viscosity of the medium , N s / m2

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

 Take solid particle of glass beets, steel and marble of different sizes.
 Find their diameter and drop them into the column of castor oil.
 Note the time taken by each particle to travel a distance of 1 meter.

 Calculate the terminal settling velocities ut, Particle Reynolds number N

Re P , the drag
CoefficientCD using the formulae given.
C
 Draw a graph of D Vs NRe P

 Find the values of b1 and n from the equation CD  b n

1
N P
Re for different ranges by drawing graph
between ln CD VS ln NRe.
 Compare with the standard values.

Chemical Engineering CH23331 53

 OBSERVATION:

Viscosity of castor oil = 0.032 Ns/m2

Density of castor oil = 956.14 Kg/ m3

Density of glass = 2520 Kg/ m3

Density of steel = 7800 Kg/ m3

Density of marble = 2730 Kg/ m3

OBSERVATION TABLE :

DIAMETER TIME VELOCITY

S.NO LENGTH (m) NRe FD Cd
(m) (min) (m/s)

RESULT:

The drag coefficient of a given solid particle in a given fluid is found to be = --------------

Chemical Engineering CH23331 54

 14. FLOW THROUGH HELICAL COIL AND SPIRAL COIL

AIM:
To determine the pressure drop and friction factor in a helical coil for various liquid velocities.

APPARATUS USED:

1. Helical coil & spiral coil arrangement

2. A single column mercury manometer.
3. Stop watch
4. A collecting tank with piezometer.
PRINCIPLE:

Coils are used in process and vessels in whish large lower surfaces are required for heating and Cooling
when liquid force acts on the different elements of the fluid moving with different velocities called
secondary circular super imposed and axial velocity protect the secondary effect called Deans effect and it
takes place in a right angle to the main flow element of the secondary flow.

Helical coil set up makes high heat coefficient and lower heat transfer pressure drop in a helical coil
compared to the steel pipe. The increase in the heat transfer coefficient may be centrifugal to the large
surface area provides the coil which are compact enough to be placed inside the heat exchanger.

FORMULAE:

1. Equivalent diameter: Deq = 4 x cross sectional area/wetted perimeter

= 𝑎
= 4𝑎
2
(m)
4𝑎

𝐻𝐻20 (𝑚 )
=
𝑅𝑚 ( 𝜌 𝑚 −
2. Difference pressure head:
𝜌w)
𝜌w

Where ρ m = Density of manometer head

ρ w = Density of water (Kg/m3)
∆H = Difference in level between manometer (m)

Ah

t
3. Volumetric flow rate (Q): Q= (m3/s)

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 Where, t = Time take for rise of water in collecting tank (sec)
A= Area of collecting tank (m2)

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 h = Rise of water in collecting tank (m)

V=
Q
3. Velocity of flow (V):
(m/s)
A

Where, A = Area of circular pipe.𝐴 =

𝜋𝐷2

=
(𝐷𝑒 𝑉 𝜌)
4. Reynolds number
𝜇
𝑁𝑅𝑒
Where, De = equivalent diameter (m)
V = Velocity (m/s)
ρ = Density of water (kg/m3)
μ = Dynamic viscosity of water (kg s/m2)
∆𝐻𝐻20 g𝐷

2𝑙𝑣2
5. Experimental Friction factor (f): fExp =

Where g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)

L = length of the pipe (m)
De = Diameter of the circular pipe (m)
6. Calculated Friction factor (f) : 𝑓 = 16 𝑅
𝑁−1 (for Laminar flow)
𝑒

𝑓 = 0.079𝑅𝑁−0.25 (for turbulant flow)

𝑒

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

1. With partial open of bypass valve, the pump was started.

2. After adjusting the inlet valve the water was allowed to pass through the collecting tank.
3. After steady state was attained the manometer reading and the time required for 5 cm rise in
the collecting tank were noted.
4. The same procedure was repeated for various flow rates by adjusting the valve and readings
were tabulated.

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 OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.NO Head Time for ∆H friction REYNOLD

5cm rise H2O Discharge VELOCITY
h1 h2 h1 - h2 factor S NUMBER
in
Qact V=Q/A
collecting NRe
tank
cm cm cm sec m x10-2 m3/sec m/sec

RESULT:
Co-efficient of friction factor - Exp =
Co-efficient of friction factor – Calculated =

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 CH23331 FLUID MECHANICS FOR CHEMICAL ENGINEERS
VIVA QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

UNIT –I (Introduction)
1. Define fluid?
A fluid is a substance having a property to flow easily.
Example: liquid, vapour, gas.
2. Define fluid mechanics?
Fluid mechanics is a branch of science which deals with property and behaviour of
fluids at rest and in motion.
3. Define fluid statics?
The study of fluids at rest is called fluid statics .
4. Define fluid kinematics?
The study of fluids in motion where pressure forces are not considered is called
fluid kinematics.
5. What is the SI unit of density ?
The SI unit of density is kg/m3.
Example: Density of water is 1000 kg/m3.
6. Define specific volume?
It is the ratio of volume to the mass of a fluid. It is denoted by υ.Its unit is m3/kg.
υ= volume of
fluid Mass of
fluid
υ=V/m m3/kg
7. Define specific gravity with respect to density?
It is the ratio of density of a fluid to density of a standard fluid. It is denoted by
s. i.e, s = density of liquid
density of
water s = density
of gas
density of air
8. Define viscosity?
It is defined as the resisting property of liquid to its flow corresponding to its adjacent
layers.
9. Which one of the following has high viscosity, (i) water or (ii) lubricating
oil? Lubricating oil has high viscosity.
10. Define poise ?
Poise is the other name of unit of viscosity in CGS system which equals dyne-sec/cm2.

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 11. Give the classification of
fluids? Classification of
fluids are,
(i) Ideal fluid
(ii) Real fluid
(iii) Newtonian fluid
(iv) Non Newtonian fluid
(v) Ideal plastic fluid.

12. What is real fluid?

A fluid which has viscosity is a real fluid. All fluid in practice are real fluids.

13. What is non Newtonian fluid?

A real fluid in which shear stress is not proportional to rate of shear strain.
τ ≠ µ.du
dy
τ = Shear stress µ = viscosity of the fluid
du = change in velocity dy = change in perpendicular distance.

14. What is compressibility?

Compressibility is the property of fluid which undergoes change in volume under
various pressure conditions.

15. Define compressible fluid?

A liquid is considered to a compressible fluid only when there is a change in
volume of liquid that occurs under large pressure variation .

16. Define compressibility?

It is also defined of reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity (k).
i.e, compressibility = 1/k .
k= compressive stress / volumetric strain

17. Define capillarity?

It is the phenomenon of rise or fall of liquid surface relative to out side liquid surface

18. Give the types of gas laws?

The types of gas laws are,
(i) Boyles law
(ii) Charles law

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0
 19. Give the equation for capillarity fall in an glass tube.
The equation for the capillarity fall is
h = 4σcosθ metre.
ρgd
20. Give some properties of fluid?
Some properties of fluids are density, specific weight, viscosity, surface tension
and capillarity

21. Define fluid dynamics?

The study of fluid in motion where pressure forces are considered is called as
fluid dynamics.

22. Define density or mass density?

Density is the ratio mass of a fluid to its volume it is denoted by ρ.
ρ = m\v kg/m3

23. Define specific weight or weight density ?

Specific weight is defined as the ratio of weight of fluid to its volume .
Its unit is N/m3.
i.e, w = W/V N/m3
24. Define specific gravity with respect to weight density?
It is the ratio of specific weight of fluid to specific weight of a standard fluid .
i.e, s = specific weight of liquid (for liquids)
specific weight of water
i.e, s = specific weight of gas (for gasses)
specific weight of air

25. Define dynamic viscosity?

The shear stress required to move one layer with unit velocity over another layer at unit
distance .It is known as dynamic viscosity .It is denoted as m

26. Give the other names of dynamic viscosity ?

The other name of dynamic viscosity are
(i) absolute viscosity and
(ii) co efficient of viscosity .
Its unit is Ns/m2.

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 27. Give the units of viscosity in (i) MKS (ii) CGS and (iii) SI systems?
The units of viscosity in
(i) MKS system is kgf-sec/m2.
(ii) CGS system is dyne-sec/cm2.
(iii) SI system is Ns/m2.

28. Give equivalent values for poise in SI units and CGS unit
system? Equivalent value in
SI unit, one poise =1/10 Ns/m2
CGS system, one poise = dyne – sec. / cm2.

29. What is cause for viscosity?

The causes for the viscosity are
(i) inter molecular force of cohesion and
(ii) moment of molecules being exchanged .

30. Define ideal fluid?

A fluid which is incompressible and has no viscosity is called as an ideal fluid . It is an
imaginary fluid .

31. Define Newtonian fluid?

A real fluid in which shear stress is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain.
τ = µ. du/dy

32. Define ideal plastic fluid ?

A fluid whose shear is more than yield value and its shear stress is directly proportional to
shear strain is called as ideal plastic fluid.

33. What is an incompressible fluid?

A liquid is considered to be incompressible only when there is a change in volume of a
liquid that occurs under smaller pressure variation.

34. Give some example of surface

tension ? Some examples of surface
tension are ,
(i) coins when placed over liquid gently floats and gives a spherical shape
(ii) molten lead particles while descending spherical shape
(iii) falling droplet of rain water gives spherical shape

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 35. Give some examples of capillarity?
Some examples of capillarity are
1) Rise of shape in tree.
2) Rise of kerosene through wick.

36. Give the equation for capillarity in a glass tube?

The equation for capillarity is h=4scosq /
wd

37. Define vapour pressure?

When evaporation takes place within enclosed surface the partial pressure created on the
liquid surface by the vapour molecules is called as vapour pressure

38. Define Boyles law?

Boyles law for a given quantity of gas constant temperature pressure is inversely
proportional to its volume.
It is denoted as
P 1/v at constant t :pv= a constant V
1/p at constant t

39. Define Avogadro’s law?

Avogadro’s law states that equal volume of gases at the same temperature and pressure
contains equal number of molecules. It is given by pv=nRT
Where r gas constant
N Avogadro number

40. Define surface tension.

It is defined as the tangential force per unit length acting at right angles on
either side of the surface. It is denoted by σ. Its unit is N/m.

41. Give the equation for the effect of surface tension on a liquid droplet.
The equation is given by P = 4σ/d

where P = pressure intensity inside the droplet.

σ = surface tension of liquid. d =
diameter of droplet.

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 42.Give the equation for effect of surface tension on a hollow bubble.
The equation is P = 8σ/d
where P = pressure intensity inside the droplet.
σ = surface tension of liquid.
d = diameter of droplet.

43. Give the equation for effect of surface tension on a liquid jet.
The equation is P = 2σ/d
where P = pressure intensity inside the droplet.
σ = surface tension of liquid. d = diameter of droplet.

44. Define capillarity.

It is defined as the phenomenon of rise or fall of liquid surface relative to outside liquid
surface.

45. Define Charles law.

Charles law for a given quantity of gas at constant pressure, the volume varies directly
with absolute temperature. v α T at constant P.

46. Give the values for angle of contact for (1) mercury and glass tube (2) water and
glass tube. The values for the angle of contact θ for,
(1) mercury and glass tubes θ = 128º
(2) water and glass tubes θ = 0º

47. What are the causes for

viscosity? The causes for
viscosity are,
1. inter molecular force of cohesion and
2. moment of molecules being exchanged.

48. What is an incompressible fluid?

A liquid is considered to be incompressible only when there is a change in volume of a

liquid that occurs under smaller pressure variation.

49. Give the equation for capillarity fall in an glass tube.

The equation for the capillarity fall is
h = 4σcosθ metre.
ρgd

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 UNIT V FLOW MEASUREMENT AND
TUBRO
50. Define pump? MACHINERY
It is defined as the hydraulic machine in which converts the mechanical energy into
hydraulic energy, which is mainly in the form of pressure energy.

51. What is the main parts of reciprocating pump?

(i) A cylinder with a piston, Piston rod, connecting rod and a crank.
(ii) Suction pipe, Delivery pipe.
(iii) Suction valve and
(iv) Delivery valve.

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 52. Why negative slip occures in reciprocating pump?
If actual discharge is more than the theoretical discharge the slip of the pump
will be negative. Negative slip occurs only when delivery pipe is short, Suction
pipe is long and pump is running at high speed.

53. How will you classify the reciprocating

pump? The reciprocating pump may be classified
as,
(i) According to the water in contact with one side
or both sides of the piston. 2.According to the number of
cylinders provided.
Classification according to the contact of water is (1) Single acting
(2)Double acting. According to the number of cylinders provided they
are classified as,
1. Single Cylinder pump.
2. Double cylinder pump.
3. Triple cylinder pump.

54. What is single acting pump and double acting pump?

If the water is in contact with one side of the piston the pump is known
as single acting pump, On the other hand if the water is in contact with both sides
of the piston the pump is called double acting pump.

55. Differentiate Laminar & Turbulent Flow : -

Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow
A flow is said to be laminar if Reynolds 1) A flow is said to be turbulent if
number is less than 2000 is known as Laminar Reynolds number is greater than 4000 is
flow. known as Turbulent flow .
Laminar flow is possible only at low 2) Is the flow is possible at
velocities and high viscous fluids . both velocities and low viscous
fluid .
3) In such type of flow fluid particle 3) In that type of flow fluid
moves in laminas or layers gliding particle move in a zig – zag manner .
smoothly over the adjacent layer .

56. What is the expression for head loss due to friction in Darcy formula ?

hf = 4fLV2 / 2gD
Where
f = Coefficient of
friction in pipe L =
Length of the pipe
D = Diameter of pipe
V = velocity of the fluid
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66
5
 57. What are the factors influencing the frictional loss in pipe flow ?
Frictional resistance for the turbulent flow is
(i) Proportional to vn where v varies from 1.5 to 2.0 .
(ii) Proportional to the density of fluid .
(iii) Proportional to the area of surface in contact.
(iv) Independent of pressure .
(v) Depend on the nature of the surface in contact .

58. What are the factors to the determined when viscous fluid flows through
the circular pipe ?
The factors to the determined as
(i) Velocity distribution across the section .
(ii) Ratio of maximum velocity to the average velocity .
(iii) Shear stress distribution .
(iv) Drop of pressure for a given length .

59. Give the equation for average velocity : -

The equation for average velocity is given as
ðp/ 2
Ū = ⅛ µ (- ðx ) R
Where R = Radius of the pipe

60. What do you understand by the terms a) major energy losses , b)

minor energy losses Major energy losses : -
This loss due to friction and it is calculated by Darcy weisbach formula and chezy’s
formula .
Minor energy losses :-
This is due to
(i) Sudden expansion in pipe .
(ii) Sudden contraction in pipe .
(iii) Bend in pipe .
(iv) Due to obstruction in pipe .

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 61. How will you determine the loss of head due to friction in pipes?
Darcy weis-bach

hf =
4fLV2 /
2gD Where
hf = Loss of head
due to friction . f =
Coefficient of friction
in pipe . D =
Diameter of pipe .
L = Length of the pipe
V = Mean
velocity of flow .

62. Give an expression for loss of head due to sudden enlargement of the pipe :-

he = (V1-V2)2 /2g
Where
he = Loss of head due to sudden
enlargement of pipe . V1 = Velocity of
flow at section 1-1
V2 = Velocity of flow at section 2-2

63. Give an expression for loss of head due to sudden contraction : -

hc =0.5 V2/2g
Where
hc = Loss of head due to
sudden contraction . V =
Velocity at outlet of pipe.

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