DIPLOMA IN AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERING

DIPLOMA IN HEAVY EQUIPMENT ENGINEERING

LEVEL III

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

OPEN DISTANCE & FLEXIBLE LEARNING PROGRAM

PART I

DECEMBER, 2023

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 Introduction

This module has specifically been prepared for Automotive Diploma level III open distance
learning program. It has been prepared with the view of making self-study in Strength of
material for the first residential school easy. This is mainly in view of the fact that the program
does not provide enough time for students to go through all the topics with the trainer(s) in
class.

Consistent practice normally brings improvement which later leads to success. Therefore, as a
student under this program, you need to do your best to manage your busy schedule in a way
that will enable you to study the lessons, and successfully answer the questions following each
topic. It is expected that after studying this subject, you will be adequately equipped with the
necessary knowledge and skills so that you can proficiently apply scientific principles in solving
problems in your field. However, remember never to duplicate, in whole or in part, this
document, and help NORTEC give you the knowledge you deserve without problems.

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 Contents

Topic page

1. Stress and strain 3

2. Poisson’s ratio 9
3. Torsion in circular shafts 11
4. Torsion resilience 17
5. Shaft couplings and keys 18
6. Shear force and bending moments 22

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 STRESS AND STRAIN
Stress

Stress is the force per unit area. It is given by,

Force
stress = Area
[N/m2]

Strain
This is defined as the ratio of the change in dimension to the original dimension. Linear strain is
determined by using the expression,

Change in length ∆L
Strain = =
Original length Lo

It can also be expressed as,

Lo −L1
Strain = 𝐿𝑜

Where, L1= final length

Young’s modulus:
This is the stress per unit strain. In other terms it is the ratio of the stress to the strain. Thus,

stress
Young’s modulus, E= [N/m2]
Strain

Hooke’s law:
This law states that, within the elastic limit, the stress induced into a material is directly
proportional to the strain. It can also be stated as- the force induced into an elastic material
within the elastic limit is directly proportional to the extension produced.

Load-Extension Graph for mild steel

Load (kN)

D
B
A E
C

Extension (mm)
Analyzing the graph reveals the following important points and regions:
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AB = limit of proportionality

AB = Elastic limit

B or C = Yield point

CD = Permanent set

D = maximum load (UTS)

E = Break point or snap point

Ultimate tensile stress:

This is the maximum stress experienced by a material. It is also known as the tensile strength.
It can be found using the expression:

Maximum load
U.T.S =
Original cross sectional area

Factor of safety,

This is the ratio of the ultimate tensile stress to the working stress. Thus,

U.T.S
Factor of safety = [N/m2]
Working stress

Yield stress,
This is the stress at yield point. It is given by:

Load at yield point

Yield stress =
original cross sectional area

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EXAMPLES

1. A component of length 50mm has dimensions of 20mm x 20mm in its cross section. If a
compressive force of 100kN is applied axially, and the young’s modulus of the material
of the component is 2.14 × 108kN/m2, calculate;
(a) The stress experienced by the component
(b) The strain in the material
(c) The shortening in length of the component
Data;
A = 0.02 × 0.02 = 0.0004m2; Lo = 0.05m; E = 2.14 × 1011 𝑃𝑎; F = 100, 000N
Solutions
𝐹
(a) Stress =
𝐴
−100,000
= 0.0004
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 = −2.5 ×108Pa

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
(b) E = 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Stress
strain =
E
−2.5 × 108
Strain =
2.14 × 1011
Strain = - 0.001168 or -1.168 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑

∆𝐿
(c) Strain =
𝐿0
∴ ∆𝐿 = 𝐿𝑜 × 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
= 0.05 × 0.00168
∆𝐋 = − 𝟓. 𝟖𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝐦 or shortening in length = 5.84 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝐦

2. A hollow cast iron cylinder has a length of 4m and an outer diameter of 300mm together
with a thickness of 50mm. It is subjected to a central tensile load on top when standing.
If the stress experienced by the material is 75000kN/m2 and the young’s modulus for
the material of the cylinder is 1.56 × 108kN/m2, calculate;
(a) The applied load
(b) The strain
(c) The total increase in length
(d) The final length of the cylinder
(e) The percentage elongation
4m
0.2m

0.3m

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Data:
π π
Lo=4m; A = 4 (d12 − d22 ) = 4 (0.32 − 0.22 ) = 0.0393m2; stress = 75,000,000N/m2

E = 1.6 × 1011 Pa

Solutions;
𝐹
(a) Stress =
𝐴
Force = A × 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
= 0.03927 × 75,000,000
Force = 2,945,243.113N or 2.945MN

Stress
(b) strain = E
75,000,000
= 1.6×1011
Strain = 0.00046875

∆𝐿
(c) Strain =
𝐿0
∆𝐿 = 𝐿𝑜 × 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
= 4 × 0.00046875
∆𝐋 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟖𝟕𝟓𝐦

∆𝐿
(d) Percentage elongation = 𝐿0
× 100% or strain × 100%
= 0.00046875× 100
Percentage elongation = 0.046875%

Exercise

1. A component has a diameter of 15mm and a length of 1.25m. It is subjected to a

compressive load of 200kN, which causes its length to decrease by 0.5mm. Under these
conditions, determine;
(a) The stress experienced by the material
(b) The strain induced in the material
(c) The young’s modulus for the material of the component
(d) The percentage reduction in length

2. During some testing procedure carried out on some steel of length 2m and diameter
3mm, the material is extended by 0.075cm under some unknown tensile load. When the
same load is applied on some brass material of diameter 2mm and length 2.5m, it is
elongated merely by 4.64mm. If the young’s modulus for steel is 2 × 105 N/mm2,
calculate the young’s modulus for brass.

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 3. The bar shown in the diagram below is subjected to a pulling force of 100kN, and the
stress is limited to 150N/mm2. If the total elongation of the bar is 0.15mm, and the
young’s modulus for the material is 220GN/m2, calculate;

(a) The diameter of the middle portion

(b) The length of the middle portion

40mm diameter

100KN 100kN

260mm

4. A 10m long bar of circular section has 140mm external diameter for the length of 6m
and 120mm external diameter for a length of 4m. The internal diameter is 80mm
throughout as illustrated in the diagram below.

A B C
140mm

80mm 120mm

If the tensile load applied on the ends of this component is 120kN, calculate;

(a) The stress induced in portion AB and BC

(b) The elongation produced in each portion
(c) The total elongation of the bar

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 Assignment #01 D3/7 & D4/7

Due Date: 16TH JUNE 2023

1. A steel tube, whose young’s modulus is 210GPa, has an external diameter of 24mm and
an internal diameter of 18mm. It encloses a copper rod, whose young’s modulus is
100GPa, of diameter 15mm to which it is rigidly joined at each end. If at a temperature
of 10 degrees Celsius there is no longitudinal stress, determine the stresses in the rod
and tube when the temperature has risen to 200 degrees Celsius, given that the
coefficient of linear expansion for steel is 11 x 10-6/⁰C and copper 18 x 10-6/⁰C.

2. If the pin shown in the diagram below has a diameter of 30mm and a force of 8.5kN is
applied on the trailer, determine the shear stress induced in the pin.

8.5kN 8.5kN
D D

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 POISSON’S RATIO
When a material is subjected to a load, its length changes according to the amount of strain
induced. The type of strain involved in this case is known as the linear strain or primary strain.
However, this change length also causes a change in the other dimensions. The type of strain
that causes the change in the other dimension acts at 90⁰ to the primary strain and is known as
the secondary strain or lateral strain.

Poisson’s ratio is defined as the ratio between the lateral strain and the linear strain or the ratio
between the secondary strain and the primary strain.

𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

𝜇=− 𝑜𝑟 𝜇 = −
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

Example:

A steel bar has a cross section of 20mm x 30mm and a length of 50cm. If a tensile load of
magnitude 2kN is applied to it along its length. If it has a young’s modulus of 200GPa, and a
Poisson’s ratio of 0.4, determine the change in length, width and thickness.

Data:

A = 0.02 x 0.03 = 6 x 10-4 m2; Lo = 0.5m; F=2 000N; E = 200 x 109Pa; µ = 0.4;
width, W = 0.02m; Thickness, t = 0.03m

Solution
𝐹 2000
Stress = 𝐴
= 6 x 10−4 = 3,333,333.333𝑁/𝑚2

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 3,333,333.333
Primary Strain = = = 1.667 × 10−5
𝐸 200 × 109

∆𝐿
Primary strain = 𝐿𝑜

∆𝐿 = 𝐿𝑜 × 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

∆𝐿 = 0.5 × 1.667 × 10−5

∆𝐋 = 𝟖. 𝟑𝟑𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝐦

𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
μ=−
𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

−𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝜇 × 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

Dividing through by negative

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Secondary strain = −0.4 × 1.667 × 10−5

𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = −6.667 × 10−6

∆𝑊
Secondary strain =
𝑊𝑜

∆𝑊 = 𝑊𝑜 × 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

∆𝑊 = 0.02 × −6.667 × 10−6

∆𝐖 = −𝟏. 𝟑𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝐦

The negative indicates that there is going to be a reduction in the width of the material
∆𝑡
Secondary strain = 𝑡𝑜

∆𝑡 = 𝑡𝑜 × 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

∆𝑡 = 0.03 × −6.667 × 10−6

∆𝐭 = −𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝐦

Similarly, the negative indicates that there is going to be a reduction in the thickness of the
material.

EXERCISE

1. A shaft has a diameter of 40mm and a length of 150mm. It is subjected to a tensile load
of 50kN and it has a modulus of elasticity of 120GPa. If Poisson’s ratio for the material
of the shaft is 0.3, determine;
(a) The change in length of the shaft
(b) The change in diameter of the shaft

2. A bar of rectangular cross section has a length of 4m and the dimensions of its cross
section are 10mm x 15mm. When a compressive force of 40kN is applied to it, the
length is reduced by 0.001mm. If the Width is only reduced by 0.00005mm, determine;
(a) The transverse strain
(b) The lateral strain
(c) The change in thickness of the bar
(d) The young’s modulus for the bar

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 TORSION IN CIRCULAR SHAFTS
If a shaft is acted upon by a pure torque T about its polar axis, shear stresses will be set
up in directions perpendicular to the radius on all transverse sections. It is assumed that
the points on the radius before twisting will still remain on the radius even afterwards.
As shown in the diagram below, the angle of twist is θ over the length L of the shaft.

r ∅
A O
B

When the above diagram is viewed from one end, point A will shift to point B through
twist angle θ. Therefore, the length of arc AB can be expressed as follows;

SAB = rθ = L∅

However, the shear strain or is given by the ratio between the shear stress and the modulus of
rigidity or bulk modulus. Thus,
𝜏
∅=
𝐺

Substituting the above expression for ∅ in the earlier relationship for the length of an arc, gives
the following;
𝜏
𝑟𝜃 = 𝐿 ( )
𝐺
𝜏 𝐺𝜃
=
𝑟 𝐿
Additionally, according to Ryder (1989) the torque can be equated to the sum of the
moments of the tangential stresses on the element 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟. Therefore;

T = ∫ 𝜏 × 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟 × 𝑟

T = 2𝜋 ∫ 𝜏𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟
𝐺𝜃𝑟
But since, 𝜏 = . The expression is substituted again in the above relationship to give;
𝐿

𝐺𝜃
𝑇 = 2𝜋 ∫ 𝑟 3 𝑑𝑟
𝐿
𝐺𝜃 𝑟4
=2𝜋 ×
𝐿 4

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 𝜋𝑟 4 𝐺𝜃
𝑇= ×
2 𝐿
𝑑
Substituting for r = 2

𝜋 𝑑 4 𝐺𝜃
𝑇= ( ) ×
2 2 𝐿
𝜋𝑑4 𝐺𝜃
T = 2×24 × 𝐿

𝜋𝑑4 𝐺𝜃
T= ×
32 𝐿

𝜋𝑑4 𝜋𝑟 4
However, 𝐽 = or J =
32 2

This factor is called the polar moment of inertia. The final expression therefore
becomes;
𝐺𝜃𝐽
T= 𝐿

Finally, the above expression can be rearranged and taking into account the earlier
expression for the same;

𝐓 𝐆𝛉 𝛕 𝐓 𝐆𝛉 𝟐𝛕
= = 𝐨𝐫 = =
𝐉 𝐋 𝐫 𝐉 𝐋 𝐝

EXAMPLES

1. A shaft of length 2m is required to transmit 100kW of power when rotating at a speed of

800rpm. The angle of twist is 1.5degrees and the shear stress is 90N/mm2,determine;
(a) The torque transmitted
(b) The diameter of the shaft
(c) If the modulus of elasticity for the shaft is 200GPa, determine the suitable shaft
diameter
Data
𝜋
Power = 100,000W; N=800rpm; 𝜃 = 1.5 × 180 = 0.02618𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠; 𝜏 = 90 × 106 𝑃𝑎;
L=2m

Solution
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
(a) 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 60
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 × 60
𝑇=
2𝜋𝑁

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 100000 × 60
𝑇=
2𝜋 × 800

T= 1,193.662Nm

𝑇 𝜏
(b) 𝐽
=𝑟

𝑇 𝐽
=
𝜏 𝑟

𝑇 𝜋𝑟 4 1
= ×
𝜏 2 𝑟

𝑇 𝜋𝑟 3
=
𝜏 2

3 2𝑇
𝑟 = √( )
𝜋𝜏

3 2 × 1,193.662
𝑟 = √( )
𝜋 × 90 × 106

𝑟 = 0.0204𝑚

d = 2r

d = 2 × 0.02036

d = 0.0407m

𝐺𝜃 𝜏
(c) 𝐿
=𝑟

𝜏𝐿
𝑟=
𝐺𝜃

2𝜏𝐿
d= 𝐺𝜃

90×106 ×2×2
d=
200×109 ×0.02618

d = 0.06875m
Therefore, the answer is 0.06875m or 68.75mm
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 2. A shaft of thickness 10mm has an external diameter of 60mm. It has a length of 1.5m
and the modulus of rigidity for the shaft is 100kN/mm2 and the twist angle is not to
exceed 1 degree. Under these conditions, determine the;
(a) Torque that can be transmitted by the shaft
(b) Power transmitted at 500rpm

Data
𝜋 𝜋
J = 32 (𝐷 4 − 𝑑4 ) = 32 (0.064 − 0.044 ) = 0.0000104𝑚4; L=1.5m; G = 100 × 109 𝑃𝑎; 𝜃 =
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
1 × 180 = 180 = 0.01745𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 or 180
radian
Solution
𝑻 𝑮𝜽
(a) =
𝑱 𝑳

𝐺𝜃𝐽
𝑇=
𝐿

100 × 109 × 𝜋 × 0.0000104

𝑇=
180 × 1.5

T = 12,100.86Nm

2𝜋𝑁𝑇
(b) 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 60

2𝜋×500×12100.86
=
60

Power = 633,599.548W

EXERCISE

1. A solid circular shaft is subjected to some twisting load which causes it to twist through
an angle of 2⁰. The shaft has a length of 800mm and the modulus of rigidity for its
material is 80GN/m2. Determine the shear stress;
(a) At the center of the shaft
(b) At a radius of 20mm
(c) If the maximum shear stress in the shaft is 120MN/m2, calculate the outer diameter
of the shaft.
2. A hollow shaft is required to transmit 300kW at 80rpm. The shear stress is not to exceed
60MPa and the internal diameter is 0.6 of the external diameter. Determine the internal
and external diameters, if the maximum torque is 1.5 times the mean torque.

3. A shaft has a length of 3m and has a torque capacity of 300Nm when allowed to
transmit power at 1500kW and at a speed of 360rpm. If the shear modulus for the

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 material of the shaft is 80,000N/mm2, and the twist angle is not to exceed 2⁰, calculate
the;
(a) Diameter of the shaft
(b) Maximum shear stress

4. A shaft is required to transmit 6MW of power at 200rpm. The allowable shear stress is
80N/mm2, and the inside diameter is 3/5th of the outside diameter. If the modulus of
rigidity or shear modulus is 100GPa, determine;
(a) The dimensions of the shaft
(b) The twist angle over a length of 2m

5. A shaft is required to transmit 1000kW of power in such a way that it should only
experience through a maximum twist angle of one degree on a length equivalent
to 15diameters. The shaft is running at a speed of 300rev/min. If the modulus of
rigidity is 80GPa, determine;
(a) The diameter of the shaft
(b) The working stress

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ASSIGNMENT #02

D3/7 & D4/7

Due date: 11TH JULY 2023

QUESTION ONE

a. Define strength of materials

b. Define each of the following terms and clearly state the effects they have on
different materials;
(i) Transverse loads
(ii) Axial loads
(iii) Torsional loads

QUESTION TWO

a. Define the term point of contraflexure

b. For the loading shown in the diagram below draw the shear force and bending
moment diagrams and, determine position of the point of contraflexure; the
maximum bending moment and the maximum shear force.

20N 80N 40N

10N/m

2m 2m 4m 2m

R1 R2

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 TORSION RESILIENCE
Torsional resilience refers to the energy stored in a shaft as a result of being twisted
through an angle. It is also called torsional energy or strain energy and is denoted by U.
Thus,

Torsional energy, U = work done by torque

U = Average Torque x angle of twist

𝑇
U = 2𝜃

However, from the torsion equation,

𝑇 2𝜏 2𝜏𝐽
= ⇒𝑇=
𝐽 𝐷 𝐷
𝜋𝜏
𝑇 = 16𝐷 (𝐷4 − 𝑑 4 ) For a hollow shaft

Additionally,

𝐺𝜃 2𝜏 2𝜏𝐿
= ⇒𝜃=
𝐿 𝐷 𝐺𝐷
Rewriting equation 1, and substituting for T and θ gives;
1 𝜋𝜏 2𝜏𝐿
U = 2 {16𝐷 (𝐷4 − 𝑑4 )} { 𝐺𝐷 }

𝜋𝜏 2 𝐿 𝐷2 − 𝑑2
𝑈= 2
[( ) (𝐷 2 + 𝑑2 )]
4𝐺𝐷 4

𝐷 2 −𝑑2
However, Volume of hollow shaft, V = 𝜋𝐿 ( )
4

Therefore, the expression simplifies to;

𝝉𝟐
𝑼 = 𝟒𝑮𝑫𝟐 (𝑫𝟐 + 𝒅𝟐 ) × 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆

In the case of a solid shaft, the inner diameter is zero, therefore,

𝝉𝟐
𝑼= × 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
𝟒𝑮
In the case of a thin hollow shaft whose thickness is negligible or D≈ 𝑑

𝝉𝟐
𝑼= × 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
𝟐𝑮
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SHAFT COUPLINGS AND KEYS

Shaft couplings are used to transmit motion and power between co-axial shafts. There
are many types of couplings which are used in industry, these include, flexible
couplings, fluid couplings, bolted flange couplings etc.

The analysis below is focused on the bolted flanged couplings which have been said to
be the simplest and most widely used in industry. The torque transmitted by such
coupling is analyzed as follows;

Rb

The torque transmitted by the coupling is experienced as resisting torque in the bolts. Thus,

T = FRb

But the total shear force is given by,

𝜋𝑑 2
F = 𝑛𝜏
4

Therefore, the torque transmitted is given by,

𝝅𝒅𝟐
T = 𝒏𝝉 𝟒
× 𝑹𝒃

Keys

Keys usually fail by shearing across the width. Therefore, the torque is given by,

T = lkbk𝜏𝑘 R

The bearing stress of the key is the direct stress that acts on the thickness of the key. It is given by,
𝐹 𝑡𝑘
Stress, 𝜎𝑐𝑘 = 𝐴 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝐴 = 𝑙𝑘 × 2
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 2𝐹
𝜎𝑐𝑘 =
𝑙𝑘 𝑡𝑘

𝜎𝑐𝑘 𝑙𝑘 𝑡𝑘
𝐹=
2

Therefore, the toque in this case is given by,

𝝈𝒄𝒌 𝒍𝒌 𝒕𝒌
𝑻= ×𝑹
𝟐

EXAMPLES

1. A solid circular shaft has an inner diameter of 40mm and an outer diameter of 70mm. It is
subjected to a shear stress of 50N/mm2 and it is noticed that it has a modulus of rigidity of
230kN/mm2. Determine the strain energy per unit volume of the shaft.
DATA
d = 0.04m; D = 0.07m; 𝜏 = 50,000,000N/m2; G = 230 x 109Pa

Solution

τ2
U = 4GD2 (D2 + d2 ) × volume

50,000,0002 (0.072 + 0.042 )

𝑈=
4 × 230 × 109 × 0.072
16,250,000,000,000
𝑈=
4,508,000,000

U = 3,604.7J/m3

2. During the design of a flanged coupling, it is realized that there are eight bolts needed on a circle
of diameter 150mm. The shaft can be subjected to a tensile load of 400kN. But in some cases, it
can also be subjected to a torsional moment of 18kNm. If the maximum direct and shear
stresses allowed for the material of the bolt are 125MN/mm2 and 55MN/mm2 respectively,
calculate the bolt diameter required.
Data
0.15
nb = 8; Rb = 2
= 0.075𝑚; F=400,000N; T=18,000Nm; 𝜎 = 125 × 106 𝑃𝑎; 𝜏 = 55 × 106 𝑃𝑎

Solution
𝐹
𝜎=
𝐴
𝐹
A=𝜎

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 400,000
𝐴=
125 × 106

𝐴 = 0.0032𝑚2

𝜋𝑑 2
But A = 𝑛𝑏 4

4𝐴
∴ 𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑏 = √
𝜋𝑛𝑏

4 × 0.0032
𝑑𝑏 = √
8𝜋

𝒅𝒃 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟐𝟓𝟕𝒎 or 22.57mm

Additionally;

𝜋𝑑 2
T = 𝑛𝜏 4
× 𝑅𝑏

𝜋 × 𝑑𝑏2
18,000 = 8 × 55 × 106 × × 0.075
4
72,000
𝑑𝑏2 =
103,672,557.568

𝑑𝑏 = √6.945 × 10−4

𝒅𝒃 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟔𝟑𝟓𝒎 𝒐𝒓 𝟐𝟔. 𝟑𝟓𝒎

Therefore, the minimum bolt diameter to satisfy the specified conditions is 0.02635m or
26.35mm

EXERCISE

1. A shaft is required to transmit 20kW of power at 800rpm. It has a diameter of 80mm

and the key fixed on it has a length of 120mm. If the bearing stress of the key is
40N/mm2, determine the suitable thickness of the key.

2. Two shafts are connected end to end or along their lengths with the help of a
flanged coupling which has 12 bolts. The bolts are positioned at a pitch circle of
300mm and the maximum shear stress in the material of the shaft is 60kN/mm2 and
30N/mm2 in the bolts. If one shaft is solid and has a diameter of 60mm while the
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 other shaft is hollow and has an external diameter of 120mm, determine the inner
diameter of the shaft and the diameter of each bolt required if the shafts and
coupling to experience the same strength in tension.
3. A flanged coupling has six bolts on a circle of diameter 300mm. The shaft can be
subjected to a tensile load of 500kN or a twisting moment of 20kNm. If the
maximum direct and shear stresses allowed for the material of the bolt are
130MN/mm2 and 60MN/mm2 respectively, calculate the bolt diameter required.

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 REVISION EXERCISE/TUTORIAL
1. A component has a diameter of 10 mm and a length of 1.5 m. It is subjected to
a compressive load of 300 kN, which causes its length to decrease by 0.01 mm.
Under these conditions, determine;
(a) The stress experienced by the material
(b) The strain induced in the material
(c) The young’s modulus for the material of the component

2. A shaft of thickness 10mm has an external diameter of 80 mm. It has a length of

2m and the modulus of rigidity for the shaft is 120 kN/mm2 and the twist angle
is not to exceed 1.5 degree. Under these conditions, determine the;
(a) Torque that can be transmitted by the shaft
(b) Power transmitted at 600rpm

3. A steel bar has a cross section of 50mm x 20mm and a length of 70cm. A tensile
load of magnitude 1.8 kN is applied to it along its length. If it has a young’s
modulus of 205 GPa, and a Poisson’s ratio of 0.3, determine the change in
length, width and thickness.

4. A flanged coupling has six bolts on a circle of diameter 400mm. The shaft can be
subjected to a tensile load of 600kN or a twisting moment of 30kNm. If the
maximum direct and shear stresses allowed for the material of the bolt are 120
MN/m2 and 80 MN/m2 respectively, calculate the bolt diameter required.

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 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENTS
Shear force: A shear force at any section of a beam is defined by Ryder (1989) as the
tendency of a beam on one side of the section to slide laterally relative to the other
portion. It is therefore also defined as the sum of forces acting on one side of a beam.

Bending Moment: A bending moment is defined as the sum of moments acting on one
side of a given beam. It is also defined as a moment which tends to cause a beam to
bend.

Shear force diagram: A shear force diagram is defined as a graph which shows the
variation of shear force along the axis of a given beam.

Bending moment diagram: This is a graph which shows the variation of shear forces
along the axis of a given beam.

Sign convention for shear force: A positive shear force tends to cause shearing by
forcing the left portion to slide upwards or the right portion to slide down wards. On the
other hand, a negative shear force tends to cause the left portion to slide downwards
and the right portion upwards. The diagram below illustrates;

(a) Positive shear force

Force, F

Reaction, R

(b) Negative shear force

Force, F

Reaction, R
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Sign convention for bending moment: A bending moment is positive if it is positive
on the left hand portion or anticlockwise on the right hand portion. A bending moment is
considered to be positive if it is anticlockwise on the left portion or clockwise on the left
right portion. According to Ryder (1989) a positive bending moment causes hogging of a
beam while a negative bending moment causes sagging of a beam.

(a) Positive bending moment – sagging beam

Clockwise moment anticlockwise moment

(b) Negative bending moment – hogging beam

Right hand side Left hand side

Anticlockwise moment Clockwise moment

Point of contraflexure or flexural point: This is a point where the bending moment
changes either from negative to positive or vice-versa. It is also considered to be a point
where the bending moment is zero besides the most obvious end points in some cases.

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Application

1. A beam of total span 11m is simply supported as shown in the diagram below.
Draw the shear force and bending moment diagram for the loading.

10kN 50kN 40kN 5kN

3m 2m 2m 2m 2m

R1 R2

Taking moments about R2

∑ clockwise moments = ∑ anticlockwise moments

(10× 3) + (𝑅2 × 6) = (50 × 2) + (40 × 4) + (5 × 8)

6𝑅2 + 30 = 300

R2 = 45kN

∑ upwards forces = ∑ Downwards forces

R1 + 45 = 50 + 10 + 40 + 5

R1 + 45 = 105

R1 = 105 − 45

R1 = 60kN

Shear force

A to B or 0 < 𝑥 < 3; ∑ F = −10kN

B to C or 3 < 𝑥 < 5; ∑ F = −10 + 60 = 50kN

C to D or 5 < 𝑥 < 7; ∑ F = − 10 + 60 − 50 = 0

D to E or 7 < 𝑥 < 9; ∑ F = −10 + 60 − 50 − 40 = −40kN

E to F or 9 < 𝑥 < 11; ∑ F = −10 + 60 − 50 − 40 + 45 = 5kN

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Bending moments

At A or 𝑥 = 0; ∑ 𝑀 = −10 × 0 = 0

At B or 𝑥 = 3; ∑ M = (−10 × 3) = −30kNm

At C or 𝑥 = 5; ∑ M = (−10 × 5) + (60 × 2) = 70kNm

At D or 𝑥 = 7; ∑ M = (−10 × 7) + (60 × 4) − (50 × 2) = 70kNm

At E or 𝑥 = 9; ∑ M = (−10 × 9) + (60 × 6) − (50 × 4) − (40 × 2) = −10kNm

At F or 𝑥 = 11; ∑ 𝑀 = (−10 × 11) + (60 × 8) − (50 × 6) − (40 × 4) + (45 × 2) = 0

. 10kN 50kN 40kN 5kN
A B C D E F

50kN

SFD 5kN

0 0

−10kN

−40kN

70kNm

BMD

0 0
−10kNm

−30kNm

2. The system shown in the diagram below is in balance under the action of
concentrated loads and the uniformly distributed load. Determine the reactions
and draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams.

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 20N 80N D 40N
10N/m
A B C E F

2m 2m 4m 2m

R1 R2
Taking moments about R2
∑ clockwise moments = ∑ anticlockwise moments
(20 × 10) + (80 × 6) + (10 × 4 × 4) + (40 × 2) = 𝑅1 × 8
200 + 480 + 160 + (80) = 8𝑅2
R1 = 115N

∑ Upwards forces = ∑ Downwards forces

20 + 80 + (10 × 4) + 40 = 115 + R 2
180−115 = R 2
R 2 = 65N

Shear Forces
A to B or 0 < 𝑥 < 2m; ∑ F = −20N
B to C or 2m < 𝑥 < 4m; ∑ F = −20 + 115 = 95N
At point C, or 𝑥 ≤ 4m; ∑ F = −20 + 115 − 80 = 15N
At point D, or 𝑥 = 6; ∑ F = −20 + 115 − 80 − (10 × 2) = −5N
At Point E, or 𝑥 = 8; ∑ F = −20 + 115 − 80 − (10 × 4) = −25N
E to F or 8 < 𝑥 < 10; ∑ F = −20 + 115 − 80 − (10 × 4) − (40) = −65N

Bending moments
At A or 𝑥 = 0; ∑ M = −20 × 0 = 0
At B or 𝑥 = 2; ∑ M = (−20 × 2) = −40Nm
At C or 𝑥 = 4; ∑ M = (−20 × 4) + (115 × 2) = 150Nm
At D or 𝑥 = 6; ∑ M = (−20 × 6) + (115 × 4) − (80 × 2) − (10 × 2 × 1) = 160Nm
At E or 𝑥 = 8; ∑ M = (−20 × 8) + (115 × 6) − (80 × 4) − (10 × 4 × 2) = 130Nm
At F or 𝑥 = 10; ∑ M = (−20 × 10) + (115 × 8) − (80 × 6) − (10 × 4 × 4) −
(40 × 2) = 0

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 20N 80N 40N

D
10N/m
A B C E F

2m 4m 2m

95

15

−20 -5

165

150
130

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Exercise

a. Draw the shear force and bending moment diagram for the following diagrams.

40N 60N 80N 50N

3m 2m 2m 2m 2m

b.
20N 80N 50N

2m 1m 2m 2m

c. 20kN 10kN

10kN/m

4m 6m 4m

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 DIPLOMA IN AUTOMOTIVE TECHNOLOGY

LEVEL III

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

OPEN DISTANCE & FLEXIBLE LEARNING PROGRAM

PART II

AUGUST, 2015

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 CONTENTS

1. Analyse bending of beams ……………………………………………………………………………. 31

2. Bending of circular shaft and hollow section …………………………………………………… 38
3. Analysing strain energy ……………………………………………………………………………….. 41
4. Impact loads ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 46
5. Designing riveted joints ………………………………………………………………………. 50
6. Welded Joints …………………………………………………………………………………….. 53

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 ANALYSE BENDING OF BEAMS

A beam which is loaded along its section normally bending stresses which result from the
bending moments in that section. In analyzing the bending stresses, an equation is developed
which relates the radius of curvature, bending moment, and the dimensions of the section. This
equation is known as the bending equation.

Bending theory assumptions

Some assumptions that are applied in the analysis of the bending theory or in deriving the
bending equation are:

(i) The material of the beam is homogeneous

(ii) The stress is proportional to the strain and it remains within the elastic limit.
(iii) The young’s modulus for the fibers under compression or tension is the same.
(iv) The transverse of the beam which is plane before bending remains plane after
bending.
(v) There is no resultant pull or push on the cross section of the beam
(vi) The loads are applied in the plane of bending
(vii) The transverse section of the beam is symmetrical about a line passing through the
center of gravity in the plane of bending.
(viii) The radius of curvature of the beam before bending is very large compared to its
transverse dimensions.

The bending equation

Consider a section of beam before and after undergoing bending. After the bending process,
the material on the outer radii is under tension while the strands in the inner radii are under
compression. Therefore the layer between the two regions is neither under compression nor
under tension and is known as the neutral axis.

p q
A m n B

R y

q’
p’
m' n’

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Considering the diagram above; the length pq is equal to the length of the neutral axis m’n’
after the bending. Therefore, the strain induced in the material as a result of the bending is
given by;

𝑝𝑞 − 𝑝′𝑞′
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑝𝑞

But since, pq = m’n’ = Rθ

𝑅𝜃 − 𝑝′𝑞′
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑅𝜃

Additionally, p’q’ = (R – y)θ

Therefore;

𝑅𝜃 − (𝑅 − 𝑦)𝜃
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑅𝜃
𝑅𝜃 − 𝑅𝜃 + 𝑦𝜃 𝑦𝜃
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = =
𝑅𝜃 𝑅𝜃
𝑦
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑅

However, from the definition of young’s modulus, and making strain the subject of the formula;

𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = ′
=
𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝐸

Equating the above expression with the earlier formula for strain gives,
𝑦 𝜎
Strain = 𝑅 = 𝐸

Thus,
𝑦 𝜎 𝐸 𝜎
𝑅
= 𝐸 𝑜𝑟 𝑅
= 𝑦 ……………………………….equation 1

Then, considering a small strip of area 𝛿𝑎 from the transverse section of the shaft, the force
acting on it can be given by;
𝜎
F= 𝑦
× 𝑦 × 𝛿𝑎

𝛿𝑎

Neutral axis

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Considering equation 1, it has been seen that;
𝜎 𝐸
𝑦
= 𝑅 …………………………….. Equation 2

Substituting equation 2 in equation 1 gives;

𝐸
dF = 𝑅 𝑦 × 𝛿𝑎 ………………… Equation 3

The moment of this small force about the neutral axis is given by

Moment = dF × 𝑦 …………. Combining equation 3 and equation 2;

𝐸
dM = (𝑅 𝑦 × 𝛿𝑎) 𝑦

𝐸
= 𝑅 𝑦 2 × 𝛿𝑎

This is the elemental resisting moment of the material due to the stress induced. Therefore, the
total resisting moment is given by;

𝐸 2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑀=∑ 𝑦 𝛿𝑎
𝑅
𝐸
M = 𝑅 ∑ 𝑦 2 𝛿𝑎 ……………….. Equation 4

The second moment of area, I, about the neutral axis is given by;

Ina= ∑ 𝑦 2 𝛿𝑎 …………… Equation 5

Simplifying equation 4 with the help of equation 5 gives;

𝐸
M = 𝑅 𝐼 …………………….. Equation 6

Rearranging equation 6 gives,

𝑀 𝐸
𝐼
= 𝑅 ………………………. Equation 7

Combining equation 7 and equation 2 gives the bending equation;

𝑴 𝑬 𝝈
= =
𝑰 𝑹 𝒚

Section modulus

The section modulus is the ratio between the second moment of area about the neutral axis
and the distance represented by y. Thus,
𝐼
Section modulus, Z = 𝑦

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From the bending equation,

𝑀 𝜎
=
𝐼 𝑦
𝑀𝑦
𝜎= 𝐼

Incorporating the section modulus expression now gives;

𝑴
𝝈=
𝒁

It should be noted that the section modulus is a more widely used parameter than the second
moment of area. In fact, the strength of a beam section is mainly dependent on the section
modulus.

Section modulus for a solid rectangular section

The section modulus for the figure shown above is given by,
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
Section modulus = 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒

𝐼
𝑍=𝑦
𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑏𝑑 3 𝑑
However, I = 12
, while ymax= 2

Combing the above equations and simplifying gives;

𝒃𝒅𝟐
Z= 𝟔

And, moment of resistance;

M = 𝝈𝒁

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Examples

1. A rectangular beam has a section of 250mm (depth) and 150mm (width). It is subjected to
a maximum bending moment of 750kNm. Calculate;
(a) The maximum stress in the beam
(b) The radius of curvature where the bending is maximum if E=200GPa
(c) The longitudinal stress at a distance of 65mm from the top surface of the beam.

Data
b = 0.15m; d = 0.25m; M = 750kNm = 750,000Nm; E = 200 × 109 Pa

Solution
𝑏𝑑 3 0.15×0.253
(a) I = 12
= 12
= 1.953 × 10−4 𝑚4

𝑑 0.25
𝑦= = = 0.125𝑚
2 2
𝑀 𝜎
=
𝐼 𝑦

𝑀𝑦
𝜎=
𝐼
750,000 × 0.125
𝜎=
1.953 × 10−4

𝝈 = 𝟒. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝑷𝒂
𝑀 𝐸
(b) 𝐼
=𝑅

𝐸𝐼
𝑅=
𝑀
200×109 ×(1.953×10−4 )
R= 750,000

R=52.08m 0.15m

(c)
0.25m

0.065m
y =0.125m
Y’=0.06m

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 𝑀 𝜎
=
𝐼 𝑦′

𝑀𝑦′
𝜎=
𝐼
750000 × 0.06
𝜎=
1.953 × 10−4

𝛔 = 𝟐𝟑𝟎, 𝟒𝟏𝟒, 𝟕𝟒𝟔. 𝟓𝟒𝟒𝐍/𝐦𝟐

2. A section of some beam has a depth of 200mm and a moment of inertia of 2.26 × 10−5 m4
about its neutral axis. Determine the longest span over which, when simply supported, the
beam would carry a uniformly distributed load of 4kN/m run without the stress due to
bending exceeding 125MN/m2.

Data
d = 0.2m; I = 2.26 × 10−5 m4; 𝑤 = 4kN/m=4000N/m; σ = 125MPa = 125 × 106 Pa

Solution
𝑑 0.2
𝑦= = = 0.1𝑚
2 2

𝑀 𝜎
=
𝐼 𝑦

σI
M=
y

125 × 106 × (2.26 × 10−5 )

𝑀=
0.1

M = 28,250Nm
L
The maximum bending moment for a UDL occurs at half-length or 2
and is given by,
𝑤𝐿2
M=
8

8𝑀
L=√
𝑤

8 × 28,250
L=√
4000

L = 7.517m

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EXERCISE

1. A rectangular beam has a section of 300mm (depth) and 200mm (width). It is subjected to
a maximum bending moment of 900kNm. Calculate;
(a) The maximum stress in the beam
(b) The radius of curvature where the bending is maximum if E=300GN/m2
(c) The longitudinal stress at a distance of 65mm from the top surface of the beam.

2. The moment of inertia of a symmetrical section of a beam about its neutral axis is 2640cm4
and its depth is 20cm. Determine the longest span over which, when simply supported, the
beam would carry a uniformly distributed load of 6kN/m run without the stress due to
bending exceeding 120MPa. [5.93m]

3. Calculate the dimension of some joist of timber for span 8m to carry a brick wall 200mm
thick and 5m high if the density of brick work is 1850kg/m3 and the maximum permissible
stress is limited to 7.5MPa. Given also that the depth of joist is twice the width.
[b = 0.307m, d = 0.614m]

4. A rectangular beam of width 200mm and thickness 100mm width is subjected to a

maximum bending moment of 500kNm. Calculate the maximum stress in the beam and the
maximum radius of curvature at the point where the bending moment is highest if the
young’s modulus for the material of the beam is 200GPa. [750MPa; 26.67m]

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 Bending of circular shaft and hollow section
When analyzing circular a shaft, the bending equation is still applicable and the moment of
inertia, about the neutral shaft, for a solid shaft is given by;
𝜋𝑑 4
I= 64

In the case of a hollow shaft, the second moment of area about the neutral axis is given by;
𝜋
𝐼= (𝐷 4 − 𝑑4 )
64

Where, Inner diameter= d and the outer diameter is

Outer diameter = D

For a hollow rectangular section, the second moment of area is given by;

𝐵𝐷3 −𝑏𝑑 3
I= 12

Example

1. A shaft has an external diameter of 60mm and an internal diameter of 20mm. If the
bending stress is limited to 120MPa, determine the allowable bending moment for the shaft.

Data

D = 0.06m; d = 0.02m; 𝜎 = 120 × 106 𝑃𝑎;

𝐷 0.06
𝑦= = = 0.03𝑚
2 2

(𝐷 4 − 𝑑4 ) (0.064 − 0.024 )
𝐼= = = 2 × 10−7 𝑚4
64 64

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 Solution

𝑀 𝜎
=
𝐼 𝑦

𝜎𝐼
𝑀=
𝑦

120 × 106 × 2 × 10−7

𝑀=
0.03

M = 800Nm

Exercise

1. A solid circular shaft has a diameter of 85mm and has a young’s modulus of 200GPa, if the
stress in the material of the shaft is not to exceed 100N/mm2, calculate the radius of
curvature of the shaft under these conditions.

2. A steel tube has an external diameter of 5cm and a thickness of 0.5cm. If the allowable
bending moment in the tube is 724 Nm, Calculate;
(a) The allowable stress in the tube
(b) The young’s modulus if the radius at the point of maximum bending is 30.5m

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 Assignment number 01 Due date: 19/10/2017

1. Two wooden planks of cross sections 150mm x 50mm each are connected to form a T-
section of a beam. If a moment of 3.4kNm is applied around the horizontal neutral axis,
inducting tensions below the neutral axis, calculate the stresses at the extreme fibers of
the cross section.

2. A beam which is simply supported has a cross section as shown in the diagram below
and is loaded with a UDL over its length. If the beam has a length of 8m and the
maximum allowable compressive bending stress is 45MPa, while the maximum allowable
tensile bending stress is 30MPa, calculate the UDL

100mm

30mm
120mm

30mm

50mm

120mm

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 ANALYSING STRAIN ENERGY

Strain energy is the energy stored by a system undergoing deformation. This is the
energy which is released when the load is released.

Resilience: Is the energy stored by a body which is still within its elastic limit.

Proof resilience; this is the maximum energy stored by a body up to the elastic limit.
This indicates a material’s capacity to bear shocks.

Modulus of resilience: This is the proof resilience per unit volume of a substance.

Strain energy in simple tension and compression

The strain energy stored in a material undergoing compression or extension is analyzed

using the graph shown below. This energy is given by the area under the graph.

Force

Extension

∆𝐿

The strain energy for this strained material is given by,

1
𝑈 = 𝑊∆𝐿
2
𝜎𝐿
But since, 𝑊 = 𝜎𝐴 and ∆𝐿 = 𝐸

1 𝜎𝐿
𝑈= × 𝜎𝐴 ×
2 𝐸

𝛔𝟐 𝐀𝐋
𝐔=
𝟐𝐄

The volume, V = AL

𝛔𝟐 𝐕
𝐔=
𝟐𝐄
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If the maximum stress up to the elastic limit is, 𝜎𝑝 , is provided the proof resilience is
given by,

𝛔𝟐𝐩 𝐕
𝐔𝐩 =
𝟐𝐄
𝜎𝑝2
While, modulus of resilience = 2𝐸

Gradually applied loads

A load which is applied gradually is one which is applied step by step. Therefore, when
a load W is applied gradually, which causes a change in length of ∆𝐿 when a stress 𝜎 is
acting on the same material, the energy due to that external load is;
1
External load energy = 2 𝑊∆𝐿

Thus, since 𝑊 = 𝜎𝐴
1
Therefore, External load energy, U = 2 × 𝜎𝐴 × ∆𝐿

Additionally, the work done on the body due to the straining action is given by,
1
Work done = 2 𝑊 × ∆𝐿

But since U = work done, i.e the strain energy is equal to the work done, thus,

1 1
× 𝜎𝐴 × ∆𝐿 = 𝑊 × ∆𝐿
2 2
𝑾
𝝈=
𝑨

This is the commonest case because loads applied gradually almost all the time.

Suddenly applied loads

For a suddenly applied load, the work done is given by an external load is,

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑊 × ∆𝐿

Energy stored is equal to external work done.

1
𝑊 × ∆𝐿 = × 𝜎𝑠𝑢 𝐴 × ∆𝐿
2
𝟐𝐖
𝛔𝐬𝐮 =
𝐀

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 Examples

1. A metal bar has a section of 5cm x 5cm and a length of 3m. It is subjected to an
axial pull of 150kN and has a young’s modulus of 230GPa. Calculate;
(a) The change in length of the bar
(b) The amount of energy stored in the bar.

Data
A = 0.05 × 0.05 = 0.0025𝑚2
E = 230 × 109 𝑃𝑎
W = 150,000N
L = 3m

Solution
𝑊 150,000
(a) 𝜎= = = 60,000,000𝑃𝑎
𝐴 0.0025

𝜎
Strain = 𝐸
60,000,000
=
230 × 109
= 2.609 × 10−4

∆𝐿 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 × 𝐿
= 2.609 × 10−4 × 3

∆𝑳 = 𝟕. 𝟖𝟐𝟔𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒎

𝜎2 𝐴𝐿
(b) U= 2𝐸
60,000,0002 × 0.0025 × 3
=
2 × 230 × 109

U = 58.7J

or
1
U = 2 𝑊 × ∆𝐿
U = 0.5 × 150,000 × 7.8261 × 10−4
U = 58.7J

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 2. A trailer of weight 35kN is attached to a wire rope and moving down an incline at
a speed of 3.6km/h when the rope jams and the trailer suddenly comes to rest.
The rope has a length of 60m at the time of the sudden stoppage, and the
diameter of the rope is 30mm while the young’s modulus is 200GPa. Calculate;
(a) The maximum instantaneous stress
(b) The maximum instantaneous elongation

Data

Weight = 35,000N
35,000
m= = 3,567.788𝑘𝑔
9.81

1000
𝑣 = 3.6 × = 1𝑚/𝑠
3600
𝜋×0.032
L = 60m; 𝐴 = = 7.06859× 10−4 𝑚2
4

E = 200 × 109 𝑃𝑎
𝑚𝑣 2
(a) K.E = 2
3,567.788×12
= 2
= 1,783.894J
Strain energy = kinetic energy lost before coming to rest

𝜎 2 𝐴𝐿
= 1,783.894
2𝐸

𝜎 2 × 7.06859 × 10−4 × 60
= 1,783.894
2 × 200 × 109

𝝈𝒊 = 𝟏𝟐𝟗, 𝟕𝟎𝟗, 𝟕𝟏𝟐. 𝟓𝟒𝟓𝑵/𝒎𝟐

𝜎𝐿
(b) ∆𝐿 =
𝐸

129,709,712.545 × 60
=
200 × 109

∆𝐋 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟗𝐦

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 EXAMPLES
1. A metal bar has a section of 5cm x 5cm and a length of 3m. It is subjected to an
axial pull of 150kN and has a young’s modulus of 230GPa. Calculate;
(c) The change in length of the bar
(d) The amount of energy stored in the bar.
2. A trailer of weight 35kN is attached to a wire rope and moving down an incline at
a speed of 3.6km/h when the rope jams and the trailer suddenly comes to rest.
The rope has a length of 60m at the time of the sudden stoppage, and the
diameter of the rope is 30mm while the young’s modulus is 200GPa. Calculate;
(c) The maximum instantaneous stress
(d) The maximum instantaneous elongation

Exercise
1. A steel bar has a cross section of dimensions 2cm by 3.5cm and a length of
1.5m. The elastic limit for the material of the bar is 160MPa, and the young’s
modulus is 200GPa. Calculate;
(a) The proof resilience
(b) The maximum suddenly applied load within the elastic limit
(c) The gradually applied load which would produce the same elongation as the
suddenly applied one above.

2. During some loading process carried out using a bar of diameter 4cm, and length
1.5m, an axial pull of magnitude 100kN is applied on the bar. If the modulus of
elasticity for the bar is noticed to be 180GPa, calculate the;
(a) Elongation experienced by the bar.
(b) Energy stored in the bar during the extension

3. A work piece of cross section 1.5cm2 stretches by 0.05mm over a gauge length
of 5cm when an axial pull of 30kN is applied. If the load at the elastic limit is
50kN, calculate;
(a) The strain energy stored in the work piece under the 30kN load
(b) The elongation at the elastic limit
(c) The resilience

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Impact loads

If a load of weight W falls through a height h on to an a collar attached as shown in the

diagram below, a greater extension may result, and this extension is greater than what
might result under a gradually applied load of the same magnitude.

W L

∆𝐿

If the loss of energy at impact is neglected, it will be noticed that,

Loss of potential energy = gain of strain energy

1
W (h + ∆𝐿) = 2 𝐹∆𝐿

𝜎𝐿 𝐹𝐿
But since, ∆𝐿 = = 𝐴𝐸
𝐸

𝐹𝐿 1 𝐹𝐿
W(ℎ + 𝐴𝐸) = 2 𝐴𝐸 × 𝐹

𝐹𝐿 𝐹2𝐿
W (h + )=
𝐴𝐸 2𝐴𝐸

𝑊𝐹𝐿 𝐹 2 𝐿
wh + =
𝐴𝐸 2𝐴𝐸
𝐴𝐸
Multiplying through by ,
𝐿

𝑊ℎ𝐴𝐸 𝐹2
+ WF =
𝐿 2

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𝐹2 𝑊ℎ𝐴𝐸
− WF − =0
2 𝐿

Ignoring the negative root, the solution for the equivalent load F, is given by;

1
𝑊 2 − 4(2)(−𝑊ℎ𝐴𝐸/𝐿)
𝐹 =𝑊+√
1
2×2

2𝑊ℎ𝐴𝐸
𝐹 = 𝑊 + √𝑊 2 +
𝐿

2𝑊ℎ𝐴𝐸 𝑊
F = 𝑊 + √𝑊 2 + ×𝑊
𝐿

𝟐𝒉𝑨𝑬
F = W (𝟏 + √𝟏 + )
𝑾𝑳

Therefore the stress induced as a result of an instant load is given by,

𝐹 𝑊 2ℎ𝐴𝐸
= (1 + √1 + )
𝐴 𝐴 𝑊𝐿

𝑾 𝟐𝒉𝑨𝑬
𝝈𝒊 = (𝟏 + √𝟏 + )
𝑨 𝑾𝑳

Example:

A mass of 120kg falls 5cm on to a collar attached to a bar of length 2m and diameter
3cm. If the young’s modulus for the material of the bar is 210kN/mm2, calculate;

(a) The maximum impact load experienced by the bar

(b) The maximum stress induced in the bar

Data
𝜋×0.032
W = 120 × 9.81 = 1,177.2𝑁; L = 2m; A = = 7.069 × 10−4 𝑚2;
4

E = 210 × 109 𝑃𝑎; h = 0.05m

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 Solution

2ℎ𝐴𝐸
(a) F = W (1 + √1 + )
𝑊𝐿

2(0.05)(7.069×10−4 )(210×109 )
F = 1,177.2(1 + √1 + 1,177.2×2

F = 94,660.32N

W 2hAE
(b) σi = (1 + √1 + )
A WL

1177.2 2(0.05)(7.069 × 10−4 )(210 × 109 )

𝜎𝑖 = (1 + √1 + )
7.069 × 10−4 1177.2 × 2

𝛔𝐢 = 𝟏𝟑𝟑, 𝟗𝟎𝟗, 𝟎𝟔𝟗. 𝟒𝐍/𝐦𝟐

or
F
σi =
A
94,652.909
=
7.069 × 10−4

𝛔𝐢 = 𝟏𝟑𝟑, 𝟗𝟎𝟗, 𝟎𝟔𝟗. 𝟒𝐍/𝐦𝟐

EXERCISE
1. A load of mass 200kg falls through 10cm to a collar which is attached to a
rod of length 1.3m. If the young’s modulus for the material of the rod is
205GPa and its diameter is 20mm, determine the maximum stress
developed.

2. During some impact test, a load of magnitude 250N, falls freely through a
height of 5m before being suddenly stopped by a collar at the end of a 7m
rod of diameter 40mm and the top is rigidly fixed. Determine the

(a) The maximum stress induced in the material of the rod

(b) The maximum strain induced in the material of the rod

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 REVISION EXERCISE

1. A section of some beam has a depth of 300mm and a moment of inertia of 2 × 10−4 m4
about its neutral axis. Determine the longest span over which, when simply supported,
the beam would carry a uniformly distributed load of 2kN/m run without the stress due
to bending exceeding 150MN/m2.
If the young’s modulus of the beam is 210GPa, determine the radius of curvature.

2. A metal bar has a section of diameter 60mm and a length of 1.1m. It is

subjected to an axial pull of 200kN and has a young’s modulus of 200kN/mm2.
Calculate;
(a) The change in length of the bar
(b) The amount of energy stored in the bar.

3. A component has a cross section of dimensions 3cm by 4cm and a length of

80cm. The elastic limit for the material of the bar is 120MN/m2, and the young’s
modulus is 180GPa. Calculate;
(a) The proof resilience
(b) The maximum suddenly applied load within the elastic limit
(c) The gradually applied load which would produce the same elongation as
the suddenly applied one above.

4. A mass of 500kg falls 6cm on to a collar attached to a bar of length 1.6m and diameter
4cm. If the young’s modulus for the material of the bar is 202kN/mm2, calculate;
(a) The maximum impact or equivalent load experienced by the bar
(b) The maximum stress induced in the bar

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 DESIGNING RIVETED JOINTS

Riveted joints are commonly used in engineering for joining two pieces of metal. The
two main categories of riveted joints are lap joints and butt joints.

Lap joint: This is a joint where two ends of the plates overlap each other.

• Single riveted lap joint: This is a lap joint which is made of a single row of rivets
• Double riveted lap joint: A joint which has two rows of rivets.
• Triple riveted lap joint: A joint with three rows of rivets

Butt joint: This is a joint where the ends of the plates butt against each other.

Riveting terminology

The important terms used in riveting include the following;

Pitch: This is the distance from the center of one rivet to the center of the next rivet
lying in the same row.

Gauge line: This is the line of rivets parallel to the direction of stress

Gauge distance: This is the distance between two consecutive rivets.

Back pitch: It is the distance between the center lines of two rows of rivets

Nominal diameter: This is the diameter of rivets before they are driven

Gross diameter of a rivet: It is the diameter of a rivet hole

Edge distance: This is the distance of the edge of the member from extreme rivet hole.

Repeating section: This is a group of rivets whose pattern repeats itself along the
length of the joint.

Gauge distance

Pitch
Repeating section

Gauge line
Back pitch
Pitch
Edge distance
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Failure of a riveted joint

A riveted joint may fail due to one of the following causes:

(i) Tearing off along the pitch line or rivet holes

For this kind of failure, the resistance to tearing per pitch length is given by,
Rt = (𝑝 − 𝑑)𝑡𝜎𝑡 or Pt = (𝑝 − 𝑑)𝑡𝜎𝑡
Where, Pt = tearing strength, 𝜎𝑡 = safe tensile stress in plates,
d = gross diameter of rivet; p = pitch; t = thickness of plate

(ii) Shearing off of the rivets

This may happen due to the shearing off of the rivets. The shearing strength
of rivets per pitch length is given by,
𝜋𝑑2 𝜏
Ps = 𝑛
4
Where, n = number of rivets per pitch length;
Ps = shearing strength per pitch length
In the case of a double cover butt joint, double shear occurs, thus;
𝜋𝑑2 𝜏
Ps = 𝑛 ×2
4

(iii) Failure due to bearing pressure between rivet and plate

The resistance to crushing pressure per pitch length is given by,
Pc = ndt𝜎𝑐
Where, Pc = crushing strength per pitch strength
𝜎𝑐 = crushing strength per pitch length of rivet per plate

(iv) Failure due to shearing of plate between edge and rivet hole
Distance between center of rivets and edge of plates should be kept 1.5
times rivet diameter.

(v) Failure of joint due to splitting between holes and edge of plate
Distance between center of rivets and edge of plates should be kept 1.5
times rivet diameter.

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Efficiency of a riveted joint

The efficiency of a riveted joint is the ratio between the strength of the joint and the
strength of the solid plate, usually expressed as a percentage. It is therefore given by,

𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑡 , 𝑃𝑠 , 𝑃𝑐
𝜂= × 100%
𝑃. 𝑡. 𝜎𝑡

Where, the strength of the solid plate = 𝑃. 𝑡. 𝜎𝑡

EXAMPLES
1. Two plates 15 mm thick are joined together by a double riveted lap joint. The
pitch in each row of rivets is 60mm and the rivet diameter is 20mm. If the
allowable stresses are 𝜏 = 94.5 MN/m2; 𝜎𝑡 = 150 MN/m2; 𝜎𝑐 = 212.5 MN/m2,
determine;
(a) The maximum tensile force per pitch length.
(b) The efficiency of the joint

Data

𝝉 = 94.5 × 106 N/m2 ; 𝜎𝑡 = 150 × 106 N/m2; 𝜎𝑐 = 212.5 × 106 ; d = 0.02 m;

P = 0.06 m; t = 0.015 m

(a) Resistance against tearing of the plate or tearing force,

Rs = Pt = (𝑝 − 𝑑)𝑡𝜎𝑡
Pt = (0.06 – 0.02) × 0.015 × 150 × 106
Pt = 90, 000 N

Resistance against shearing of rivets, or allowable shearing force

𝜋𝑑2 𝜏
Rs = Ps = 𝑛 ×1
4
𝜋×0.022 ×94.5×106
Rs = Ps = 2 × = 59,376.101 N
4

Resistance to crushing of rivets or crushing strength

Rc = Pc = Pc = ndt𝜎𝑐
Rc = Pc = 2 × 0.02 × 0.015 × 212.5 × 106 = 127,500 N

The maximum tearing force permissible is the least of Pt, Ps, and Pc
Therefore, the permissible tensile force = 𝟓𝟗, 𝟑𝟕𝟔. 𝟏𝟎𝟏 N

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 (b) Efficiency of a joint,
𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑡 , 𝑃𝑠 , 𝑃𝑐
𝜂= × 100%
𝑃. 𝑡. 𝜎𝑡

59,376.101
𝜂= × 100
0.06 × 0.015 × 150 × 106
𝜼 = 43.98%

EXERCISE

1. A thin cylindrical shell 1.5m in diameter is made of 1.2 cm thick plates. The
circumferential joint is a single riveted lap joint with 2.2 cm diameter rivets at a
pitch of 5 cm. If the ultimate tensile stress in the plate is 450MPa, and the
ultimate shearing and bearing stresses for the rivets are 300MPa, and 600MPa
respectively, calculate the efficiency of the joint. Take the factor of safety as 3.
(Ans: 42.2%)

2. A single riveted lap joint for a pair of mild steel plates 1 cm thick has to transmit
a load of 250kN. Assuming that, 𝜎𝑡 = 400MPa, 𝜎𝑐 = 640𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜏 = 320𝑀𝑃𝑎, and
factor of safety is 4, determine;
i. Pitch and number of rivets required for the joint (Ans: 0.045m, 10)
ii. The width of the plate (Ans: 0.45m)

3. Find the suitable pitch for a single riveted lap joint for plates 1 cm thick each, if
the safe working stress in tension is in the plates and the crushing and shearing
of the rivet material are respectively 150MPa, 212.5MPa, and 94.5MPa in the
following joints:
(a) Single riveted
(b) Double riveted

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Welded Joints
Welding is a process of joining two pieces of metal by fusion. Welded joints have many
advantages compared to bolted or riveted joints.

Advantages of welded joints

Some of the advantages of welded joints are as follows:

1. They have high efficiencies compared to riveted joints

2. Welded joints are lighter than rived joints
3. They have greater strengths
4. Additions and modifications can easily be made in an existing joint
5. Members in tension are not weakened as with riveted joints
6. The joints are rigid as required
7. Welding takes less time than riveting
8. There is no need for a layout of punching and drilling holes
9. Smaller sections can be used for the same load as compared to rivets
10. Welded joints leave a smooth and appealing surface

Disadvantages of welded joints

1. It requires skilled labour and consistent supervision

2. The fusing process distorts members and eventually induced stresses
3. Welded joints are difficult to inspect as compared to riveted joints
4. Sometimes cracking of members can occur due to high temperature changes
involved
5. Welding equipment is more complex and expensive as compared to riveting
equipment.
6. Welding can sometime cause air-pollution
7. The flames involved in welding are dangerous to the body

Types of welds

There are two types of welds which are as follows:

(i) Butt welds

Butt welds are applied on members whose ends are either in contact or
almost touching each other. Therefore, in preparing the two ends for the
welding process, various shapes are used which include single – V, double –
V , single J, double J, single U, and double U, including a square butt.

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 When dealing with such welds, it is important to note that, if the thicknesses
of the welded plates are not equal, then the size of the weld should be equal
to the thickness of the thinner plate.

(ii) Lap welds or fillet welds

A lap weld involves two overlapping members that are fused together are
shown below.

Throat thickness, t

45⁰ Leg

Leg

The throat area is the product of the throat thickness and the effective
length of the weld. Where the throat thickness is given by,

t = Leg sin 45 = 0.707Leg.

Strength of butt welds

In the case of a V-groove butt weld, the strength of such a weld is given by,

P = h 𝒍𝝈𝒕

Where, h = weld throat, 𝑙 = length of weld, P = tensile force

𝜎𝑡 = Permissible stress intensity in the weld material

P 𝑙

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In a double V groove butt weld, the strength of the weld is given by,

P = (h1 + h2) 𝑙𝜎𝑡

h1

h2

Examples

1. A plate 40mm wide carrying a load of 100kN is to be welded by four equal fillets to
another plate as shown in the diagram below. If the working stress in the side fillets
is 70MN/m2 and 70MN/m2 in the end fillets, calculate required size of each fillet.

100kN 40mm 100kN

Data

Effective area of fillet = length x throat thickness

= 0.04t

Load taken by side fillets = 2 × 𝜎𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 ×Effective area

= 2 × 70 × 106 × 0.04t

= 5,600,000t

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Load taken by end fillets = 2 × 𝜎𝑒𝑛𝑑 × Effecitive area

= 2 × 100 × 106 × 0.04t

= 8,000,000t

The total load on the fillet is = side fillet(s) load + end fillet(s) load

= 5,600,000t + 8,000,000t

Total load =13,600,000t

But the total load is 100kN = 100,000N

13,600,000t = 100,000

t = 0.007353m

But t = leg sin 45

𝑡
Leg = sin 45

0.007353
Leg = sin 45

Leg = 0.0104m or 10.4mm

2. A welded joint is provided to connect two tie bars 150 mm × 10 mm as shown in

the diagram below. The working stress in the bar is maintained at 120N/mm2. The
working stress in the end fillet is 102.5N/mm2 and in the diagonal fillet 70N/mm2. If
the size of the fillet is 12mm, investigate the weld (i.e recommend if it is safe or
unsafe)

50mm 50mm

50mm

50mm

50mm

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 Data
Cross sectional area of the bar = 0.15 × 0.01 = 0.0015 m2
Stress in the bar of maximum stress bar can resist = 120N/mm2 = 120 × 106 N/m2
Leg or size of fillet = 0.012m
Throat thickness, t = Leg sin 45 = 0.012 sin 45 = 8.485 × 10−3 m
Total Length of diagonal fillets, 𝐿𝑑 = 4 × √0.052 + 0.052 = 0.2828𝑚
Total length of end fillets, 𝐿𝑒 = 0.05 × 2 = 0.1𝑚
Working stress in end fillets 𝜎𝑒 = 102.5 × 106 N/m2
Working stress in diagonal fillets, 𝜎𝑑 = 70 × 106 N/m2

Solution
Maximum force the tie bar can resist = 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑎𝑟 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑟
= 120 × 106 × 0.0015
= 𝟏𝟖𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵
Load in end fillets = 𝜎𝑒 𝐿𝑒 𝑡
= 102.5 × 106 × 0.1 × 8.485 × 10−3
= 86,971.25𝑁

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑠 = 𝜎𝑑 𝐿𝑑 𝑡

= 70 × 106 × 0.2828 × 8.485 × 10−3
= 167,974.63N

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑑 =86,971.25 + 167,974.63 =254,945.88N,

The strength of the weld is higher than the applied load on the joint, therefore, this
weld can withstand the load.

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 Exercise
1. Two metal plates of thickness 12 mm each are loaded by forces of 100 kN
applied eccentrically as shown in the diagram below. If the working shear stress
for side fillets is 80 MN/m2, calculate the effective lengths L and y of the side
fillet welds in order for them to be equally stressed in shear.

L 80 mm

100 kN
100kN
y 40 mm

2. A plate of dimensions 120mm × 12 mm is connected to another plate by fillet

welds around the end of the bar and also inside a machined slot as shown in the
diagram below. The joint is subjected to a pull of 100 kN and the working stress
for the transverse welds is 102.5 MN/m2, while the working stress in the
longitudinal welds is 84 MN/m2. Calculate the suitable size of the weld under
such conditions.

120 mm 60 mm 120 mm

20 mm

100 kN 100 kN

3. A welded joint is provided to connect two tie bars 120 mm × 10 mm as shown in

the diagram below. The working stress in the bar is maintained at 120N/mm2.
The working stress in the end fillet is 100N/mm2 and in the diagonal fillet
50N/mm2. If the size of the fillet is 10mm, investigate the weld (i.e recommend if
it is safe or unsafe)

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 60mm 60mm

60mm

60mm

60mm

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ASSIGMENT # 02 DUE DATE: 24/11/2017

1. A circular plate of diameter 150 mm is welded on to another plate by means of a

10 mm fillet. If the permissible shear stress is 100 MN/m 2, determine the
maximum twisting moment that can be applied to the circular plate.

2. A tie bar of dimensions 100 mm × 10 mm welded to another tie bar 100 mm ×

15 mm is subjected to a load of 100 kN, as illustrated in the figure below. If the
allowable stress in the weld is not to exceed 102.5 MN/m2, determine the sizes
of the end fillets so that the stresses both fillets are the same.

100kN 1.0 cm

1.5 cm 100 kN

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 DIPLOMA IN AUTOMOTIVE TECHNOLOGY

LEVEL III

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

OPEN DISTANCE & FLEXIBLE LEARNING PROGRAM

PART III

April, 2015

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 CONTENTS

1. Analyzing Theories of failure ……………………………………………………………………. 63

2. Analyzing Maximum Principal stress theory ……………………………….………………. 63
3. Analyzing Maximum shear stress theory……………………………………..……………… 63
4. Analyzing Strain energy theory …………………………………………………………………. 67
5. Analyzing Shear strain energy theory ……………………………………………………….. 67
6. Analyzing Maximum Principal strain …….…………………………………………..………. 71
7. Analyzing Strain energy theory and Mohr’s circle …………………..………….……….. 72
8. Assignment number 02 ……………………………………………………………………………. 73

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 ANALYSING THEORIES OF FAILURE
In order to explain the cause of failure and formulate design criteria, there are a number of
theories that have been developed. In any theory of failure, it is assumed that the loading is
gradual or static and no shock loads are involved.

Analyzing Maximum Principal Stress Theory

The maximum principal stress theory states that failure will occur when the maximum principal
tensile stress, 𝜎1 , in the complex system reaches the value of the maximum stress at the elastic
limit, 𝜎𝑒𝑡 , in simple tension. For a material loaded in compression, this theory states that the
failure will occur when the minimum principal stress – maximum compressive stress – reaches
the elastic limit stress, 𝜎𝑒𝑐 , in simple compression.

In this analysis, it should be noted that,

𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑒𝑡 in simple tension

|𝜎3 | = 𝜎𝑒𝑡 in simple compression

Additionally, when the maximum principal stress theory is used as the design criterion, the
maximum principal stress is not supposed to exceed the working stress for the material. Thus,

𝜎1 ≤ 𝜎

Maximum Shear Stress Theory

According to this theory, failure can occur when the maximum shear stress 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 in the complex
system reaches the value of the maximum shear stress in simple tension at the elastic limit.
Therefore, in simple tension
𝜎1 − 𝜎3 𝜎𝑒𝑡
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =
2 2

Or 𝜎1 − 𝜎3 = 𝜎𝑒𝑡

This theory has been recommended mainly for ductile materials. In analyzing designs, 𝜎𝑒𝑡 , in
the above equation is replaced by the safe stress or working stress. Thus,

𝜎1 − 𝜎3 = 𝜎𝑡

When any of the principal stresses is compressive, it must be taken as 𝜎3 .

The principal stresses are thus given by the relationship,

𝜎𝑏 𝜎𝑏 2
𝜎= ± √( ) + 𝜏 2
2 2
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The limitations of this theory are as follows:

➢ It does not give accurate results for the state of stress of pure shear in which the
maximum shear is developed.
➢ It is not applicable in cases where the state of stress consists of triaxial tensile stresses
of nearly equal magnitude reducing the shearing stress to a small magnitude, so that
failure would be by brittle fracture instead of yielding.
➢ The theory does not produce results close to those found by experiments on ductile
materials, it only provides safe results.

EXAMPLES

1. A metallic component has principal stresses of + 35 MN/m2 and – 95 MN/m2, while the
third principal stress is zero. The elastic limit in simple tension as well as in simple
compression is 220 MN/m2. If the criterion of failure for the material is the maximum
principal stress theory, calculate the factor of safety based on the elastic limit.
Data
𝜎1 = +35MN/m2 ; 𝜎2 = 0; 𝜎3 = −95MN/m2; 𝜎𝑒𝑡 = 𝜎𝑒𝑐 = 220N/m2
Solution
𝜎𝑒𝑡 220
F.O.S = = = 6.286
𝜎1 35
𝜎𝑒𝑐 220
F.O.S = = = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟐
𝜎3 95
Failure is likely to occur under the compressive principal stress, therefore, the factor of
safety is 2.3

2. A mild steel shaft 120 mm diameter is subjected to a maximum torque of 20 kNm and a
maximum bending moment of 12 kNm at a particular section. If the maximum elastic
limit in simple tension is 220 MN/m2, calculate the factor of safety if the analysis is
based on the maximum shear stress theory.
Data
D = 0.12 m; T = 20 kNm = 20, 0000Nm; M=12 kNm =12, 000Nm; 𝜎𝑒𝑡 = 220 MN/m2
Solution
𝜋𝑑 4 𝜋×0.124
I= = = 1.018 × 10−5 m4
64 64

𝐷 0.12
𝑦= 2
= 2
= 0.06m

𝑀 𝜎𝑏
=
𝐼 𝑦

12,000 𝜎𝑏
−5
=
1.018 × 10 0.06
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 𝜎𝑏 = 70,735,530.263N/m2

𝜋𝑑 4 𝜋×0.124
J= 32
= 32
= 2.036 × 10−5 m4

𝑇 2𝜏
=
𝐽 𝐷

20,000 2𝜏
−5
=
2.036 × 10 0.12

𝜏 = 58,946,275.219 N/m4

𝜎𝑏 𝜎𝑏 2
𝜎= ± √( ) + 𝜏 2
2 2

70,735,530.263 70,735,530.263 2
𝜎= √
± ( ) + 58,946,275.219 2
2 2

𝜎1 = 104,110,344.2 N/m2

𝜎3 = −33,374,813.9 N/m2,

𝜎2 = 0

Applying the maximum shear stress theory,

𝜎1 − 𝜎3 = 𝜎𝑡

104,110,344.2 − (−33,374,813.9) = 𝜎𝑡

𝜎𝑡 = 137,485,158.1N/m2
𝜎𝑒𝑡
F.O.S = 𝜎𝑡
220 × 106
=
137,485,158.1

FOS = 1.6

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 EXERCISE

1. A shaft experiences a maximum torque of 10 kNm and a maximum bending

moment of 7.5 kNm at a particular section. If the allowable equivalent stress in
simple tension is 160 MN/m2, calculate the diameter of the shaft according to the
maximum shear stress theory.

2. The principal stresses in a machine base are + 40 MPa and – 100 MPa, while the
third principal stress is zero. The elastic limit stresses in simple tension and
simple compression are 80 MPa, and 400 MPa, respectively. Determine the factor
of safety based on the elastic limit if the criterion for failure is the maximum
principal stress theory.

3. A component has principal stresses of magnitudes + 30 MN/m2 and – 88 MN/m2,

while the third principal stress is zero. The elastic limit in simple tension as well
as in simple compression is 190 MN/m2. If the criterion of failure for the material
is the maximum principal stress theory, calculate the factor of safety based on
the elastic limit.

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 STRAIN ENERGY THEORY

This theory states that the failure of a material occurs when the total strain energy in the
material is reaches the total strain energy of the material at elastic limit in simple tension.

In a three dimensional stress system, the strain energy per unit volume is given by;

1 2
𝑈= [𝜎12 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎32 − (𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎1 𝜎1 )]
2𝐸 𝑚

Only the absolute values are used for the three stresses. And, at the point of failure,

1 2 2 2
2 𝜎𝑒2
[𝜎 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 − (𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎1 𝜎1 )] =
2𝐸 1 𝑚 2𝐸
2
𝜎12 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎32 − (𝜎 𝜎 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎1 𝜎3 ) = 𝜎𝑒2
𝑚 1 2

During the design process, the stress at elastic limit, 𝜎𝑒 is replaced by the working stress.

When dealing with a two dimensional stress, the stress acting in the z-plane, 𝜎3 = 0

Substituting in the previous expression gives,

2
𝜎12 + 𝜎22 − (𝜎 𝜎 ) = 𝜎𝑒2
𝑚 1 2

When 𝜎𝑒 is replaced by the working stress 𝜎, then the following relationship is applicable;

2
𝜎12 + 𝜎22 − 𝜎 𝜎 ≤ 𝜎2
𝑚 1 2

When applying this theory, the following factors are worth noting;

1. The results of this theory are normally similar to those obtained from experiments on
ductile materials for which 𝜎𝑒𝑡 = 𝜎𝑒𝑐
2. The theory does not qualify for materials whose 𝜎𝑒𝑡 is quiet different from 𝜎𝑒𝑐
3. The theory does not give results exactly equal to what is obtained during experiments
even on ductile materials, the results are only close to the experimental values.

SHEAR STRAIN ENERGY THEORY

This theory states that the elastic failure occurs when the shear strain energy per unit
volume is in the stressed material reaches a value equal to the shear strain energy per unit
volume at the elastic limit in simple tension.

The shear strain energy due to the three principal stresses per unit volume is given by,

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 1
𝑈𝑠 = [(𝜎 − 𝜎2 )2 + (𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 + (𝜎3 − 𝜎1 )2 ]
12𝐶 1

However, at the elastic limit, there is only one principal stress, 𝜎𝑒𝑡 , therefore the shear strain
per unit volume is given by,
1
U’s = 12𝐶 [(𝜎𝑒𝑡 − 0)2 + (0 − 0)2 + (0 − 𝜎𝑒𝑡 )2 ]

1
U’s = 12𝐶 × 2𝜎𝑒𝑡
2

The two energies can now be equated,

𝑈𝑠 = U’s

1 1
[(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )2 + (𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 + (𝜎3 − 𝜎1 )2 ] = 2
× 2𝜎𝑒𝑡
12𝐶 12𝐶

(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )2 + (𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 + (𝜎3 − 𝜎1 )2 = 2𝜎𝑒𝑡

2

In simple tension, the stress 𝜎𝑒𝑡 is replaced by the equivalent safe working stress 𝜎𝑡

This theory gives excellent results for ductile materials for which,

𝜎𝑒𝑡 = 𝜎𝑒𝑐

When dealing with this theory, the following points should be kept in mind;

1. The theory does not produce accurate results for materials whose 𝜎𝑒𝑡 ≠ 𝜎𝑒𝑐
2. The theory gives 𝜎𝑒𝑡 = 0 for hydrostatic pressure or tension, which is incorrect
3. This theory conforms with many ductile materials even under a variety of loads.

Examples

A shaft is subjected to a maximum torque of 10 kNm and a maximum bending moment of 8

kNm at a particular section. If the allowable equivalent stress in simple tension is 162 MPa, and
1
𝑚
= 0.24, calculate the diameter of the shaft using the strain energy theory

Data

T = 10, 000 Nm; M = 8,000 Nm; 𝜎𝑡 = 162 × 106 Pa

16
(a) 𝜎 = 𝜋𝑑3 (𝑀 ± √𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 )
16
𝜎1 = [ (𝑀 + √𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 )]
𝜋𝑑3
𝜎2 = 0
16
𝜎3 = 3 (𝑀 − √𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 )
𝜋𝑑
According to the strain energy theory

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 2
𝜎𝑡2 = 𝜎12 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎32 − (𝜎 𝜎 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎1 𝜎3 )
𝑚 1 2
𝜎2 = 0

2
𝜎𝑡2 = 𝜎12 + 𝜎32 − 𝜎𝜎
𝑚 1 3

16 2 16 2 2 16
𝜎𝑡2 = [𝜋𝑑3 (𝑀 + √𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 )] + [𝜋𝑑3 (𝑀 − √𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 )] − [
𝑚 𝜋𝑑 3
(𝑀 +
16
√𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 )] [𝜋𝑑3 (𝑀 − √𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 )]

16 2
𝜎𝑡2 = ( 3 ) [(𝑀 + √𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 ) (𝑀 + √𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 ) + (𝑀 − √𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 ) (𝑀 − √𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 )]
𝜋𝑑
2
− [(𝑀 + √𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 ) (𝑀 − √𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 )]
𝑚

16 2
𝜎𝑡2 = ( 3 ) [(𝑀2 + 𝑀√𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 + 𝑀√𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 + 𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 )
𝜋𝑑
2
+ (𝑀2 − 𝑀√𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 − 𝑀√𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 ) + 𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 ] − [𝑀2 − 𝑀2 − 𝑇 2 ]
𝑚

16 2 2
𝜎𝑡2 = ( 3 ) [2𝑀2 + 2√𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 + 𝑇 2 ] + [2𝑀2 − 2√𝑀2 + 𝑇 2 + 𝑇 2 ] − [𝑀2 − 𝑀2 − 𝑇 2 ]
𝜋𝑑 𝑚

16 2 2
𝜎𝑡2 = ( 3 ) (4𝑀2 + 2𝑇 2 ) − [𝑀2 − 𝑀2 − 𝑇 2 ]
𝜋𝑑 𝑚

16 2 2
𝜎𝑡2 = ( 3 ) (4𝑀2 + 2𝑇 2 ) + 𝑇 2
𝜋𝑑 𝑚

16 2 1
𝜎𝑡2 = ( 3 ) [4𝑀2 + 2𝑇 2 (1 + )]
𝜋𝑑 𝑚

16 1
𝜎𝑡 = 3
√[4𝑀2 + 2𝑇 2 (1 + )]
𝜋𝑑 𝑚

16
162 × 106 = √[(4 × 80002 ) + (2 × 100002 )(1 + 0.24)]
𝜋𝑑3
d = 0.089m

Exercise
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 1. A shaft is subjected to a maximum torque of 8 kNm and a maximum bending moment of
6 kNm at a particular section. If the allowable equivalent stress in simple tension is 150
1
MPa, and 𝑚
= 0.3, calculate the diameter of the shaft using the strain energy theory.
(Ans: 0.0843m)

2. During some analytical process carried out on a shaft, the torque experienced is noticed
to be 12 kNm and the bending moment is 9 kNm. If the permissible equivalent stress
acting on the material is 140 MN/m2, calculate the diameter of the shaft using the shear
strain energy theory. (Ans: 0.0923m)

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 MAXIMUM PRINCIPAL STRAIN THEORY

This theory states that the failure of a material occurs when the principal tensile strain in
the material reaches the strain at elastic limit in simple tension or when the minimum
principal strain (maximum principal compressive strain) reaches the elastic limit strain in
simple compression.

Principal strain in the direction of principal stress 𝜎1 ,

1 1
𝑒1 = [𝜎1 − (𝜎2 + 𝜎3 )]
𝐸 𝑚

Principal strain in the direction of minimum or compressive principal stress 𝜎3 ,

1 1
𝑒3 = [𝜎3 − (𝜎1 + 𝜎2 )]
𝐸 𝑚

It should be noted that during the actual analysis, the absolute value is taken, thus, at the point
𝜎
of failure one of the conditions to be met is |𝑒3 | > 𝐸𝑎𝑡

For design purposes,

𝜎𝑡 1 1
= [𝜎3 − (𝜎1 + 𝜎2 )]
𝐸 𝐸 𝑚
1
∴ 𝜎𝑡 = 𝜎3 − (𝜎 + 𝜎2 )
𝑚 1
1
And 𝜎𝑐 = |𝜎3 − 𝑚 (𝜎1 + 𝜎2 )|

When dealing with this theory, the following points should be noted:

1. This theory overestimates the behavior of ductile materials

2. The theory does not fit well with the experimental results except for brittle materials for
biaxial tension – compression state of stress and is not much used in practice.

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Assignment number 01

Due date: 9th February, 2016

Question One

A component has a major principal stress of 180MPa, while the minor principal stress is
compressive. The tensile yield stress for the material of the component is 225MPa. Calculate the
value of the minor principal stress at which yielding will take place using the following criteria or
theory of failure; (Take Poisson’s ratio = 0.3)

(a) Maximum shearing stress

(b) Total strain energy
(c) Maximum shear strain energy

Question Two

The principal stresses in a material are as 55 MPa, 40 MPa, and – 30 MPa. If the young’s
1
modulus is 200 kN/mm2 and 𝑚
= 0.26, determine;

(a) The strain energy

(b) The volumetric strain
(c) Shear strain energy
(d) Factor of safety for the total strain energy if the material yields at 110 MPa.

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 ASSIGNMENT NUMBER 02, D3/8 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, DUE DATE:

Instructions

• Each group will answer one question

• Only answer, on your script, the question meant for your group
• Each group member will write his/her own final correct solutions which will be
submitted
• Each group will select a capable presenter
• Every presentation, of worked solutions, will last for 8 minutes

1. (a) State Hooke’s law

(b) A 10m long bar of circular section has 150mm external diameter for the length
of 6m and 130mm external diameter for a length of 4m. The internal diameter is
100mm throughout as illustrated in the diagram below. Take E = 200 GPa

A B C
150mm

100mm 130mm

If the tensile load applied on the ends of this component is 120kN, calculate;

(i) The stress induced in portion AB and BC

(ii) The elongation produced in each portion

(iii) The total elongation of the bar

2. (a) State the difference between Poisson’s ratio and Young’s modulus
(b) A shaft has a diameter of 40mm and a length of 150mm. It is subjected to a
tensile load of 50kN and it has a modulus of elasticity of 120GPa. If Poisson’s
ratio for the material of the shaft is 0.3, determine;

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 (i) The change in length of the shaft

(ii) The change in diameter of the shaft

3. A solid circular shaft is subjected to some twisting load which causes it to twist
through an angle of 2⁰. The shaft has a length of 800mm and the modulus of
rigidity for its material is 80GN/m2. Determine the shear stress;
(a) At the center of the shaft
(b) At a radius of 20mm
(c) If the maximum shear stress in the shaft is 120MN/m2, calculate
the outer diameter of the shaft

4. (a) Define the term point of contraflexure

(b) For the loading shown in the diagram below draw the shear force and
bending moment diagrams and, determine position of the point of
contraflexure; the maximum bending moment and the maximum shear
force.

20N 80N 40N

10N/m

2m 2m 4m 2m

R1 R2

5. (a) From first principles and with the help of a neat and clear diagram show that,
𝑴 𝑬 𝝈
the bending equation is given by =𝑹=𝒚
𝑰

(b) A section of some beam has a depth of 200mm and a moment of inertia of
2.26 × 10−5 m4 about its neutral axis. Determine the longest span over which,
when simply supported, the beam would carry a uniformly distributed load of
4kN/m run without the stress due to bending exceeding 125MN/m2.

6. A trailer of weight 40 kN is attached to a wire rope and moving down an incline

at a speed of 5 km/h when the rope jams and the trailer suddenly comes to rest.
The rope has a length of 50 m at the time of the sudden stoppage, and the
diameter of the rope is 20mm while the young’s modulus is 210GPa. Calculate;
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 (e) The maximum instantaneous stress
(f) The maximum instantaneous elongation

7. (a) List three advantages of riveting as compared to welding

(b) A single riveted lap joint for a pair of mild steel plates 1 cm thick has to
transmit a load of 250kN. Assuming that, 𝜎𝑡 = 400MPa, 𝜎𝑐 = 640𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜏 =
320𝑀𝑃𝑎, and factor of safety is 4, determine;
(i) Pitch and number of rivets required for the joint
(ii) The width of the plate
8. A mass of 120kg falls 5cm on to a collar attached to a bar of length 2m and
diameter 3cm. If the young’s modulus for the material of the bar is 210kN/mm2,
calculate;
(a) The maximum impact load experienced by the bar
(b) The maximum stress induced in the bar

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