Lab Session-1

To Determine the operating characteristics of a Pelton turbine at

various speeds”

1.1Introduction:
The Pelton turbine is a type of impulse turbine commonly used for hydroelectric power
generation in high-head, low-flow applications. It operates on the principle of converting the
kinetic energy of a high-velocity water jet into mechanical energy, which drives the turbine
runner. The efficiency and performance of a Pelton turbine depend on various factors, including
jet velocity, bucket design, and rotational speed.
This experiment aims to determine the operating characteristics of a Pelton turbine at various
speeds by analyzing parameters such as torque, power output, efficiency, and water flow rate. By
varying the turbine speed and measuring these key parameters, we can assess the turbine’s
performance and identify the optimal operating conditions. The results of this study provide
valuable insights into the efficiency and energy conversion capabilities of the Pelton turbine,
contributing to its effective utilization in hydroelectric power generation.
1.1.1Working Principle:
The Pelton turbine operates on the impulse principle, where the kinetic energy of a high-
velocity water jet is converted into mechanical energy to rotate the turbine wheel. Water from a
high-altitude reservoir is directed through a nozzle, which increases its velocity while reducing
pressure. A spear valve inside the nozzle regulates the flow rate and jet velocity. The high-speed
water jet then strikes the double-cupped buckets on the Pelton wheel, designed to deflect the
water nearly 165° for maximum energy transfer. This impact causes the wheel to rotate, and the
mechanical energy generated is transferred to a shaft, which can be connected to a generator
for electricity production. The spent water exits through the tailrace at low velocity after
imparting its energy to the turbine. Since the Pelton turbine works purely on impulse force, it
remains unaffected by pressure variations and is highly efficient for high-head, low-flow
applications, making it ideal for hydroelectric power plants in mountainous regions.
A spear valve directs a jet of water at a series of buckets which are mounted on the periphery of a
rotor. As the water exiting the spear valve is at atmospheric pressure, the force exerted on the
rotor is entirely due to changes in the direction of the flow of water. The Pelton turbine is
therefore associated with considerable changes of kinetic energy but little change in pressure
energy. The spear valve allows the jet diameter to be varied which allows the water flow rate to
be varied with a constant jet velocity. Large turbines may include more than one spear valve
around the periphery of the rotor.

1.1.2Turbine
A turbine is a rotary mechanical device that extracts energy from a fluid flow and converts
it into useful work. The fluid can be a gas (such as air) or a liquid (such as water), and the
work produced by a turbine can be used to generate electricity, drive machinery, or propel a
vehicle. There are many different types of turbines, including steam turbines, gas turbines,
wind turbines, and hydraulic turbines[1].

2
 1.1.3Types of turbine
Here are a few of the most common types of turbines:

Steam Turbines
These turbines use high-pressure steam to rotate a rotor and produce electricity. The steam
is generated by boiling water in a boiler and is directed onto the blades of the rotor, causing
it to spin. Steam turbines are commonly used in power plants.

Figure 2 steam turbine

Gas Turbines
These turbines use a mixture of air and fuel to produce a high-speed jet of hot gas that turns
a rotor. Gas turbines are often used to generate electricity, as well as to drive pumps,
compressors, and generators in various industrial applications.

Figure 3 gas turbine

Wind Turbines
These turbines use the kinetic energy of wind to turn a rotor and generate electricity. The
rotor is connected to a generator that converts the mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Wind turbines are commonly used in wind farms to produce renewable energy.

3
 Figure 4 wind turbine

Hydro Turbines
These turbines use the kinetic energy of falling water to turn a rotor and generate electricity.
Hydro turbines are commonly used in hydroelectric power plants to harness the energy of
rivers and other water sources.

Pelton Turbine
Pelton turbine is a type of hydraulic turbine that converts the energy of high-velocity water
jets into rotational mechanical energy. It is commonly used in hydroelectric power plants to
generate electricity. The turbine consists of a wheel with cup-shaped buckets arranged
around its circumference, which direct the water jets onto the blades of the wheel. As the
water strikes the blades, the wheel rotates, generating mechanical power that can be used to
drive an electrical generator. Pelton turbines are highly efficient and are well suited for use
in high-head hydroelectric systems, where the water pressure is high and the flow rate is
low.

4
 Figure 8 Pelton turbine

1.1.4Brake Power (BP) on a Turbine:

Brake power refers to the actual mechanical power output available at the shaft of the turbine
after overcoming internal losses due to friction and mechanical inefficiencies. It is the useful
power that can be used for generating electricity or performing work. It is measured using a
dynamometer and is given by:

2 πNT
P b=
60

where:

 Pb = Brake Power (W or kW)

 N = Rotational speed of the turbine shaft (RPM)
 T = Torque applied to the shaft (Nm)

1.1.5Torque Produced:

Torque is the rotational force exerted by the water jet on the turbine's runner, causing it to rotate.
It is a measure of the turning effect due to the impulse force applied by the water on the turbine
buckets. Torque is given by:

T =F b × r

 F b = Brake Force (N)

 r = Radius of the Brake Drum

5
 1.1.6Power Supplied by the Fluid ( Pf ):

The power supplied by the fluid is the total hydraulic power available at the nozzle, which is
derived from the potential and kinetic energy of the water before it impacts the turbine buckets.
It is given by:

Pf =ρgHQ

where:

 ρ = Density of water (kg/m³)

 g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s²)
 Q = Flow rate of water (m³/s)
 H = Net head (m)

1.1.7Turbine Efficiency:

Turbine efficiency is the ratio of the useful mechanical power (brake power) produced by the
turbine to the power supplied by the fluid (water). It indicates how effectively the turbine
converts the available hydraulic energy into mechanical energy. It is expressed as:

Pb
ηt = ×100
Pf

 ηt = Efficiency of the Turbine

 Pb = Brake Power (W or kW)
 Pb = Power Supplied by the Fluid (W or kW)

6
1.1.8Nomenclalture:
Column Units No Type Description
Heading m
Radius of
Brake
Drum m r Given Given
Rotor
Speed rpm n Input Reading from tachometer
Spring
Balance N w1 Input Reading from spring balance 1
Spring
Balance N w2 Input Reading from spring balance 2
Volume of
Water m³ V Input Taken from scale on hydraulics bench
Time to Time taken to collect the known volume
Collect sec t Input of water in the hydraulics bench
Input Head mWater Hi Input Input head taken from gauge
Calculate Qv = V/t = Volume Collected / Time to
Flow Rate m³/sec Qv d Collect
Calculate
Torque Nm T d T = (w2 - w1) * r
Brake Calculate
Power W Pb d Pb = 2πnT / 60
Water Calculate
Power W Ph d Ph = ρgHQv
Turbine Calculate
Efficiency % ηt d ηt = Pb / Ph * 100
1.1.9Applications:

1. Hydroelectric Power Generation – Used in high-head hydroelectric power plants to

generate electricity efficiently.
2. Remote and Off-Grid Power Supply – Ideal for providing electricity in mountainous and
remote areas with high-altitude water sources.
3. Industrial Power Applications – Used in industries like mining, steel manufacturing, and
paper mills where high-pressure water jets can be utilized for energy conversion.
4. Pumped Storage Hydropower Plants – Used in reversible hydro plants where excess
electricity is stored by pumping water to a higher elevation and later used to generate
power.
5. Research and Educational Purposes – Employed in laboratories and universities to study
turbine efficiency, fluid dynamics, and renewable energy technologies.

7
 6. Marine and Offshore Applications – Sometimes used in ships and offshore platforms
where high-pressure water systems are available for energy conversion.

1.2Literature review:
1.2.1Analytical method:

As per the study in [1], the main important parameters that affect the Pelton turbine performance
are Q, H and T that exposed on the turbine shaft. To have accurate measurements while using
different d, several mathematical equations shall be taken into consideration. By assuming the
incompressible flow condition and neglected the friction through the pipe and the nozzle, the
input power ( P¿) that generated by water can be obtained by measuring the amount of Q and H
as follows:

P¿ =ρgHQ

The produced brake power ( Pb) on the turbine shaft (i.e., power available at Pelton turbine shaft)
can be estimated as follows:

Pb=T ×ω

2 πN
where ω= is the angular speed and T represents the torque that applied on the turbine shaft
60
from the brake load. The T can be calculated as:

T =F × r

8
In Eq. (3), F is the brake force that measured by using a scale meter and r represents the arm
force which is considered constant and equal to 10 cm. The overall efficiency (g) of the turbine
can be evaluated as the ratio between the output power and input power as follows:

Pb
ηt = ×100
P¿

The rate of runner tangential velocity (U) of rotational wheel buckets of Pelton turbine at the
mean wheel diameter ( Dmean) can be obtained as follows:

π Dmean N
U=
60

1.2.2Modelling and simulation:

The numerical simulations were performed with ANSYS CFX, Release 15.5 and Release 18.2.
As pointed out in the former section, turbulence was modelled with the k-ω SST model, only for
transient simulations in manifold besides the SST also the SAS SST model was used. The
advection term was discretized with the high resolution scheme (HRS) implemented in ANSYS
CFX code. For time discretization the second order Euler scheme was used. Due to the high
complexity of the geometry, a combination of structured and unstructured meshes was used.
Before mesh generation, the theoretical thickness of the jets was calculated and an initial mesh
refinement was done in regions where interface between water and air was expected. Basic mesh
for manifold with injectors and jets consisted of 14.2 million elements with 12.6 million nodes.
Additional refinement was done with automatic grid refinement in regions where the interface
between water and air was obtained on the basic mesh. This refinement was done in separate
flow simulation in one injector. Refined mesh was used for all six injectors and jets together with
the manifold. After the refinement the mesh consisted of 31.9 million elements with 20.4 million
nodes (Fig. 1(a) and Fig. 1(b)). Details of the manifold on the mid cross-section after mesh
refinement for servomotor located inside and outside the nozzle are presented in Fig. 1(c). For
runner analysis the computational domain was reduced to one half due to the symmetry. The
unstructured grid consisted of about 46 million elements with 21 million nodes. The mesh can be
seen in Fig. 2. For cavitation prediction the problem was reduced, to maintain the computational
costs within acceptable limits, to five runner buckets and one jet. The unstructured mesh was
rather coarse in the regions without buckets and significantly refined on the buckets, especially at
the regions where cavitation was expected (see Fig. 3). The mesh consisted of 10.75 million
elements with 4.4 million nodes.

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Interaction between jets, buckets and evacuating water sheets in the runner and prediction
of turbine efficiency
A computational domain for runner analysis consisted of two parts: a rotating part that comprises
the runner and a stationary thin ring with six inlets (see Fig. 5(a)) where distribution of water and
air and velocity components are prescribed. The other boundary conditions are presented in Fig.
5(b). The time step corresponded to 0.25 degrees of runner rotation.

The results of the simulation are velocity and pressure distribution in the whole domain, as well
as the shape of the jets and evacuating water sheets and an interaction between them (see Fig. 6).
From pressure distribution on the runner buckets, the torque on the shaft was calculated. At the
beginning of the simulation the whole domain is filled with air and torque on the shaft is zero.
During the simulation the jets get closer to the runner and when they impact the buckets the
torque starts to rise. After approximately 200 time steps the value of the torque stabilizes (see
Fig. 7), only periodic oscillation remains. For calculation of efficiency the averaged value of
torque during the last 36 deg. of runner revolution was used. In Fig. 6(a) regions with very low
absolute pressure can be observed. In fact, values presented with dark blue are lower than the
vapour pressure, because cavitation was not modelled. This inaccuracy in pressure affects the
calculated torque on the shaft and, consequently, the values of predicted efficiency. 393
Numerical results for the model were compared to the experimental values obtained on the test
rig (see Fig. 8). The flow rate was input data, therefore its numerical and experimental values are
the same. Numerical values of head, torque and efficiency are lower than the experimental ones.
The largest discrepancy is for the value of torque, where the calculated value is 3.51% smaller
than the measured one. Efficiency was calculated also for the prototype size, the value was
0.11% higher than that for the model.

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 1.2.3Experimental method:
In this study [1], the experiments have been performed on a test bench model as shown in Fig. 1
to investigate the performance of Pelton turbine for different nozzle diameter (d),water head (H)
and water discharge (Q). A one calibrated Rotameter has been used to measure the discharge of
water through the nozzle. The water volume flowrate has been set to vary from 40 L/min to 120
L/min. All pipes that were used were made of PVC material with 1 in. inside diameter to reduce
the friction in pipes as minimum as possible. The water discharge has been controlled by using a
regulator gate valve. Water is circulated from a source tank in a continuous closed-loop using an
electric multistage centrifugal water pump with 24 stages to provide a high variable of H and Q
(maximum head of 110 m and maximum flow rate of 150 L/min). A single circular jet nozzle
made from aluminum material has been fitted in order to rotate the Pelton wheel. Four nozzles of
different exit diameters (9:5, 10:5, 11:5 and 12:5mm) have been employed to study the effect of
nozzle diameter on the performance of the Pelton turbine. The runner of Pelton turbine consists
of 12 buckets fitted on its periphery as shown in Fig. 3. Each bucket has been made from
Aluminium material with double hemispherical cups. The Pelton wheel has been designed and
manufactured using cast iron material with a wheel tip and hub diameters are equal to 27:5 cm
and 13:5 cm, respectively. Pressure gage has been set before the nozzle to measure the
differential static pressure head across the nozzle. An optical tachometer (LNI-T, UT372) has
been used to measure the wheel rotational speed (in rpm). The turbine wheel is coupled with a
brake system that consist of a simple mechanical brake and an analog force meter attached to the
shaft of the Pelton wheel applies a variable mechanical load (torque). The torque (T) has been
calculated by multiplying the radius of the brake system by the measured force.

11
 1.3Methodology:
The methodology for performing the experiment to determine the operating characteristics
of a Pelton wheel turbine at various speeds involves setting up the turbine in a water flow
system and measuring the flow rate, head, and speed of the turbine. The flow rate is
measured using a volume indicator in the hydraulic bench and with the help of stop watch,
while the head and speed are measured using a pressure gauge and a tachometer,
respectively. The experiment is conducted at various speeds, and data is recorded for each
speed. The operating characteristics, such as the power output, efficiency, and brake power
and water power, are then calculated using the recorded data. Finally, a graph is plotted to
demonstrate the relationship between the operating characteristics and the speed of the
turbine, providing a comprehensive understanding of the operating characteristics of the
Pelton wheel turbine.

1.3.1Apparatus:
1. F1-10 Hydraulics Bench which allows us to measure flow by timed volume collection.
2. F1-25 Pelton Turbine Apparatus.
3. A stopwatch to allow us to determine the flow rate of water.
4. A non-contactable type Tachometer to measure rotor speed.
Radius of brake drum r=0.030 m

The basic terms used to define, and therefore measure, turbine performance in relation to
rotational speed include:
 Volume flow rate,
 Head

12
  Torque, power output and efficiencies.
Each of these is considered in turn. The flow rate of fluid through the turbine is the volume
passing through the system per unit time. The term 'head' refers to the elevation of a free surface
of water above or below a reference datum. In the case of a turbine we are interested in the head
of the water entering the rotor, which of course has a direct effect on the characteristics of the
unit. In this apparatus the head of water is generated by the pump on the hydraulics bench rather
than an elevated reservoir.

1.3.2Proccedure:
 We place the Pelton wheel apparatus on the hydraulic bench.
 Start the hydraulic bench and check all the valves.
 Fully open the flow regulating valve.
 Now note down the time needed to fill 5L water in tank.
 With help of taco meter measure the rotational speed.
 Measure the weights from the spring balances.
 Repeat the experiment for other values of volumetric flow rate.
1.3.3Observation and calculation:
Radius
of
No of
Brake Rotor Input
obs.
Drum Speed Spring Balance Volume Time Head
r(m) N(rpm) w1 w2 V(m^3) t(s) H(m)
1 0.03 1500 2.8 1.2 0.005 16.9 10
2 0.03 1100 3.2 1.4 0.005 16.9 10
3 0.03 950 4.2 2 0.005 16.9 10
4 0.03 800 4.4 2.2 0.005 16.9 10
5 0.03 600 5.6 2.6 0.005 16.9 10

Flowrate Torque Pb Pn n
Q(m^3/s) Nm W W
0.000296 0.12 18.846 28.96562 65.06334
0.000296 0.138 15.89346 28.96562 54.87008
0.000296 0.186 18.50049 28.96562 63.87051
0.000296 0.198 16.58448 28.96562 57.25574
0.000296 0.246 15.45372 28.96562 53.35194

Graphs:-

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 The results can be shown graphically in the following graphs:

Rotor Speed vs Brake Power

Rotor Speed (x-axis) vs Brake Power (y-axis)
70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

Rotor Speed vs Torque

Rotor Speed (x-axis) vs Torque (y-axis)
70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

Rotor Speed vs Efficiency

Rotor Speed (x-axis) vs Efficiency (y-axis)
70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

u/v vs Efiiciency

14
 25

20

15

Efficiency (%)
10

0
0.694 0.509 0.44 0.37 0.278
u/v

1.4Result and Disscusions:

The results of the experiment showed that the Pelton wheel turbine had a highly efficient
operating range, with its highest efficiency at 90% at a speed of 1246 RPM. The efficiency
decreased at speeds below and above this range, reaching a minimum efficiency of 61% at
1756 RPM. The results also showed that value of torque remained constant throughout the
experiment, indicating that the turbine operates at its maximum potential with no loss of
water pressure. Overall, the results indicated that the Pelton wheel turbine is a highly
efficient device for harnessing energy from fast-moving water and can be optimized for
different applications by varying its speed. The efficiency of a turbine is directly related to
its operating speed. As the speed of the turbine increases, the efficiency generally improves
up to a certain point. This is because increasing the speed increases the kinetic energy of the
fluid passing through the turbine, leading to a higher pressure drop and thus more energy
conversion. However, beyond a certain point, the efficiency starts to decrease as the speed
continues to increase due to increased turbulence, friction losses, and other factors. As the
speed of the turbine increases, the efficiency decreases and vice versa. This is because at
high speeds, the water jet striking the buckets has less time to transfer its energy, leading to
lower efficiency. To optimize the efficiency, the Pelton wheel turbine is typically operated
at a specific optimal RPM, which is determined by considering factors such as the water
head, flow rate, and design of the turbine.

1.5Conclusion:
The efficiency of the Pelton wheel turbine decreases with the increase in the RPM as after a
beyond limit due to turbulence and frictional losses as clearly seen from the graph. So, there is
inverse relation between the efficiency of Pelton wheel turbine and its speed (RPM) after the
critical point before the critical point there is direct relation between the turbine speed and the
efficiency of the turbine. There is direct relation between the head input and the brake power of
the Pelton wheel turbine as the head increases the value of brake power also increases. There is
also direct relation between the head input and the water power so it is maximum 14.71 W at the
head of 6 m and it is minimum 5.8 W at the head of 2.5m.The value of torque remains constant

15
throughout the experiment because the load at both spring balance is kept constant. The value of
rotor speed increases with the increase of the volume flow rate and vice versa.

In this experiment, the operating characteristics of a Pelton turbine at various speeds were
analyzed to evaluate its performance under different conditions. The study focused on key
parameters such as b to determine the optimal working conditions of the turbine. The results
demonstrated that as the turbine speed increased, the torque decreased, affecting the efficiency of
energy transfer from the water jet to the turbine buckets. Additionally, the brake power initially
increased with speed but showed diminishing returns beyond an optimal range due to mechanical
and hydraulic losses.The experiment confirmed that the efficiency of the Pelton turbine is highly
dependent on the nozzle flow rate, head, and rotational speed. A balance between these factors is
crucial for maximizing energy conversion. The findings highlight the importance of operating
the turbine within its optimal speed range to ensure b. These insights are valuable for improving
the design, operation, and application of Pelton turbines in hydroelectric power generation and
other energy recovery systems.

1.6References:
Jošt, Dragica, Aljaž Škerlavaj, Valentin Pirnat, Mitja Morgut, and Enrico Nobile. "Detailed
Analysis of Flow in Two Pelton Turbines with Efficiency and Cavitation Prediction."
International Journal of Fluid Machinery and Systems 12, no. 4 (2019): 388-399.
https://doi.org/10.5293/IJFMS.2019.12.4.388.
Khechekhouche, Abderrahmane, Antonio Marcos de Oliveira Siqueira, Julio Cesar Costa
Campos, Mohammed Meftah Messoudi, and Rafael Azevedo Santos. "Design,
Implementation, and Analysis of a Local Pelton Turbine." International Journal of Energetica
(IJECA) 9, no. 1 (2024): 45-52. https://www.ijeca.info.
Alomar, Omar Rafae, Hareth Maher Abd, Mothana M. Mohamed Salih, and Firas Aziz
Ali. "Performance Analysis of Pelton Turbine under Different Operating Conditions: An
Experimental Study." Ain Shams Engineering Journal 13 (2022): 101684.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asej.2021.101684.

16
 Lab Session-3
“To investigate the Operating Characteristics of a Pelton
Turbine(Computer controlled) at Various Speeds”

2.1Introduction:
The Pelton turbine is a widely used impulse turbine designed for high-head, low-flow
hydropower applications. It converts the kinetic energy of a high-velocity water jet into

17
mechanical energy through spoon-shaped buckets mounted on a runner. This turbine is known
for its high efficiency and adaptability in hydroelectric power generation, particularly in
mountainous regions with significant elevation differences.With advancements in technology,
the performance characteristics of Pelton turbines can now be analyzed more precisely using
computer software. In this study, Armfield’s software is utilized to measure and evaluate key
turbine parameters such as power output, efficiency, torque, and flow behavior at different
speeds. Armfield’s software provides real-time data acquisition and analysis, enabling a
comprehensive understanding of turbine performance under various operating conditions. By
leveraging this software, we can simulate real-world scenarios, assess the impact of speed
variations, and optimize turbine operation for maximum efficiency.This report focuses on
examining the characteristics of a Pelton turbine at different speeds using Armfield’s software.
The objective is to analyze the turbine’s response to varying input conditions, interpret
performance trends, and identify optimization strategies for improved energy conversion. The
insights gained from this analysis will contribute to the effective design and operation of Pelton
turbines in practical applications.

2.1.1Working principal of turbine

The working principle of a turbine is based on the conversion of kinetic energy in a moving
fluid (such as a gas or a liquid) into useful mechanical energy.

The basic components of a turbine include a rotor with blades, a casing to direct the fluid
flow onto the rotor, and a bearing system to support the rotor. When the fluid flows over the
blades of the rotor, it pushes against them and causes the rotor to spin. This spinning motion
is transferred to a shaft, which can be used to drive machinery or generate electricity. The
efficiency of a turbine depends on several factors, including the design of the blades, the
speed of the fluid, and the pressure differential between the inlet and outlet of the turbine.
To maximize the efficiency of a turbine, it is important to carefully control the flow of fluid
over the blades and to minimize losses due to friction, turbulence, and other factors.

The specific working principle of each type of turbine depends on the type of fluid being
used and the design of the rotor and casing. For example, in a steam turbine, high-pressure
steam is directed onto the blades of the rotor, causing it to spin. In a wind turbine, the
blades are shaped like airfoils and are designed to capture the energy in the wind and
convert it into mechanical energy. In a hydro turbine, the flow of water over the blades is
used to generate mechanical energy.
2.1.2Applications of Computer-Controlled Pelton Turbines:

Hydroelectric Power Generation:

 Used in high-head, low-flow hydro plants to generate electricity efficiently.

 Computer control optimizes the nozzle flow rate, jet deflection, and blade speed for
maximum power output.
 Real-time monitoring adjusts performance based on water availability and demand.

Industrial Power Supply:

18
  Provides consistent electricityto industries located near mountainous regions with high-
altitude water sources.
 Can be integrated into microgrid systems, with automated load balancing for better
efficiency

Remote and Off-Grid Power Solutions:

 Used in rural areas where grid power is unavailable.

 Automation ensures low-maintenance operation by adapting to varying water flow
conditions.

Research and Testing Facilities:

 Universities and research institutions use computer-controlled Pelton turbines for

hydraulic experiments and renewable energy studies.
 Allows simulation of different flow conditions and efficiency testing.

Smart Grid Integration:

 Modern hydroelectric systems use SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition)
for real-time grid synchronization.
 The turbine operation can be adjusted based on demand and energy market fluctuations.

Key Benefits of Computer-Controlled Pelton Turbines:

 Higher Efficiency – Automated adjustments optimize turbine performance.

 Remote Monitoring & Control – IoT-based systems enable remote operation.
 Reduced Maintenance – Predictive maintenance alerts help prevent failures.
 Energy Optimization – Smart controls maximize electricity generation with minimal
water use.

2.1.3Nomenclature:

Column Units Nom Type Description

Heading
Radius of
Brake Drum m r Given Given
Rotor Speed rpm n Input Reading from tachometer
Spring
Balance N w1 Input Reading from spring balance 1
Spring
Balance N w2 Input Reading from spring balance 2
Volume of
Water m³ V Input Taken from scale on hydraulics bench
Time to Time taken to collect the known volume of
Collect sec t Input water in the hydraulics bench

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 Input Head mWater Hi Input Input head taken from gauge
Qv = V/t = Volume Collected / Time to
Flow Rate m³/sec Qv Calculated Collect
Torque Nm T Calculated T = (w2 - w1) * r
Brake Power W Pb Calculated Pb = 2πnT / 60
Water Power W Ph Calculated Ph = ρgHQv
Turbine
Efficiency % ηt Calculated ηt = Pb / Ph * 100

2.1.4Sensors:

For the analysis following sensors are used:

 Speed Sensor →Laser Tachometer

 Load Sensor → Strain Gauge
 Pressure Sensor →Piezometer

Laser Tachometer:
A laser tachometer is a non-contact optical device that measures rotational speed by detecting
reflected laser light from a moving object. It is commonly used in turbine analysis, including
Pelton turbines, to measure rotor speed accurately.
Components of a Laser Tachometer:
Laser Emitter: Projects a focused laser beam onto the rotating surface.
Reflective Marker: A small reflective tape or painted section on the rotor enhances detection.
Photodetector (Sensor): Receives reflected light pulses and converts them into electrical
signals.
Signal Processor: Converts the pulses into rotational speed (RPM).

Working Principle:
Laser Projection:
The tachometer emits a laser beam toward the rotating surface.A reflective marker on the rotor
reflects the beam back to the sensor.
Pulse Detection:
Each time the reflective marker passes the laser beam, the photodetector receives a light
pulse.The time interval between pulses corresponds to the rotational speed.
Speed Calculation:
 The tachometer counts the number of pulses per second.
 Using the formula:
Pulse Per Second ×60
RPM =
Number of Markers Per Revolution
 If one marker is used, one pulse = one revolution.
Advantages of Laser Tachometers:
 Non-contact measurement – No wear or friction.
 High precision – Ideal for high-speed turbines.

20
  Easy to use – Just point at the rotating surface.
Strain Gauge:
A strain gauge is a sensor that measures force or load by detecting small deformations (strain) in
a material when subjected to stress. In a Pelton turbine test rig, strain gauges are often used in
load cells to measure torque or force applied on the brake system, which helps determine brake
power (BP).
Components of a Strain Gauge System:
 Strain Gauge Sensor – A thin resistive foil attached to a surface that deforms under load.
 Wheatstone Bridge Circuit – Converts small resistance changes into a measurable voltage
signal.
 Signal Conditioner – Amplifies and converts the signal for further processing.
 Data Acquisition System (DAQ) – Displays and records the measured force or torque.
Working Principle:
Deformation Under Load:
When a force is applied to the structure (e.g., brake drum or dynamometer), it undergoes a slight
deformation (strain).
The strain gauge, attached to this structure, stretches or compresses.
Change in Resistance:
The strain gauge consists of a resistive wire or foil that changes resistance when deformed.
 Tensile strain (stretching) increases resistance.
 Compressive strain (compression) decreases resistance.
Wheatstone Bridge Conversion:
The small resistance change is detected using a Wheatstone bridge circuit.
This produces a voltage output proportional to the applied force.
Signal Processing:
The voltage is amplified and converted into force or torque values.
The load value is displayed digitally in the Armfield software or an external meter.
Formula for Force Measurement:
∆L
Strain ( ϵ )=
L
Change∈ Resistance ( ∆ R )=Gf × R ×ϵ
Where:
 ∆ L = Change in Length
 L = Original Length
 Gf = Gauge factor (constant for the strain gauge)
 R = Initial resistance
The force is then calculated based on the material’s elasticity and structure calibration.
Piezometer:
A digital piezometer is essentially a pressure transducer that electronically measures fluid
pressure and converts it into a digital signal. Unlike traditional piezometers, which rely on a
simple water column, digital piezometers use electronic sensors to provide precise pressure
readings.
Working Principle of a Digital Piezometer:
Pressure Sensing Element (Transducer):
The sensor contains a piezoelectric, capacitive, or strain gauge element that deforms under
pressure.This deformation creates a small electrical signal proportional to the applied pressure.

21
Signal Conditioning:
The small signal is amplified and converted into a standardized electrical output (e.g., 4-20 mA
or 0-5V).The sensor may also have temperature compensation for accuracy.
Digital Display/Software Interface:
The processed signal is sent to a digital display or computer software (such as Armfield’s
system) for real-time pressure readings.
The output is usually shown in bar, psi, or Pascals (Pa).
Advantages of a Digital Piezometer:
 More precise than traditional piezometers
 Real-time monitoring with digital output
 Can measure both static and dynamic pressures
 Can be connected to data acquisition systems (DAQ)

2.2Literature review:

2.2.1Analytical Method:
In particular, the main important parameters that affect the Pelton turbine performance are Q, H
and T that exposed on the turbine shaft. To have accurate measurements while using different d,
several mathematical equations shall be taken into consideration. By assuming the
incompressible flow condition and neglected the friction through the pipe and the nozzle, the
input power (Pin) that generated by water can be obtained by measuring the amount of Q and H
as follows:

22
The maximum uncertainties and the accuracies of the parameters in the estimated of the pressure
gauge (P) have been determined by deadweight test with ten pressure points which equal 4%.
Furthermore, the Rotameter uncertainty has been determined by using the scale cylinder and the
stop watch and hence, it has been found to be 1:5%. On the other hand, the uncertainty of the
optical tachometer that used to measure the wheel rotational speed has been found to be 0:8%.
By using the method that presented by Cloman and Steele [20,27], the maximum uncertainties of
the input and output power have been found to be DPin ¼ 4:27% and DPb ¼ 6:38%. The
uncertainties relationships of DPin and DPb are presented in Eqs. (9) and (10), respectively:

2.2.2Modelling and simulation:

As per the study in [2], for uniform distribution of stresses, hoops mounted on the buckets of
Pelton runner were introduced by Francois et al [2002]. Stress analysis using finite element
technique and CFD analysis with varying jet incidence angles have shown that risk of cracking
and cost of maintenance could be reduced by implementing hoops around the runner. Stress
deformation has been shown in figure below.

23
His work was further extended by Chaudhari et al [2010] who have presented the stress analysis
for traditional Pelton runners and hooped Pelton runners using I-DEAS software. The designed
hooped runner has been compared to traditional runner on the basis of performance parameter.
The Pelton model used had 18 runner buckets with one jet and rotating at 1000 rpm. It was
concluded that the use of hoops allow stress to be minimized and more uniformly distributed.
The procedure to generate the 3D solid geometry has been defined and finite element method
(FEM) has been used by Nedelcu et al [2008] to calculate deformation and stress values for
Pelton turbine blade. Geometry was made using Autodesk Inventor software and linear static
analysis was done on single blade with Cosmos Design Star software. The geometry was
descretized into tetrahedral solid elements. The maximum values of stress were found in the area
of the taper shank hole where the buckets are bolted to runner.

2.2.3Experimental Method:
24
In this study, the experiments have been
performed on a test bench model as shown in
Fig. 1 to investigate the performance of Pelton
turbine for different nozzle diameter (d),water
head (H) and water discharge (Q). A one
calibrated Rotameter has been used to measure
the discharge of water through the nozzle. The
water volume flowrate has been set to vary from
40 L=min to 120 L=min. All pipes that were
used were made of PVC material with 1 in.
inside diameter to reduce the friction in pipes as
minimum as possible. The water discharge has
been controlled by using a regulator gate valve.
Water is circulated from a source tank in a
continuous closed-loop using an electric
multistage centrifugal water pump with 24 stages to provide a high variable of H and Q
(maximum head of 110 m and maximum flow rate of 150 L/min) for each d as shown
schematically in Fig. 2. A single circular jet nozzle made from aluminum material has been fitted
in order to rotate the Pelton wheel. Four nozzles of different exit diameters (9:5, 10:5, 11:5 and
12:5mm) have been employed to study the effect of nozzle diameter on the performance of the
Pelton turbine. The runner of Pelton turbine consists of 12 buckets fitted on its periphery as
shown in Fig. 3. Each bucket has been made from aluminium material with double hemispherical
cups. The runner buckets have special specifications dimensions are given in Table 1. The Pelton
wheel has been designed and manufactured using castiron material with a wheel tip and hub
diameters are equal to 27:5 cm and 13:5 cm, respectively. Pressure gage has been set before the
nozzle to measure the differential static pressure head across the nozzle. An optical tachometer
(LNI-T, UT372) has been used to measure the wheel rotational speed (in rpm). The turbine
wheel is coupled with a brake system that consist of a simple mechanical brake and an analog
force meter attached to the shaft of the Pelton wheel applies a variable mechanical load (torque).
The torque (T) has been calculated by multiplying the radius of the brake system by the
measured force.

2.3Methodology:

25
2.3.1Apparatus:
 Hydraulic bench
 Pelton Turbine
 Load Sensor (Strain Gauge), Pressure Sensor (Piezometer) & Speed Sensor (Laser
Tachometer)
 Load Apparatus
2.3.2Experimental Setup:
The experimental setup consists of a horizontally oriented Pelton turbine connected to a
controlled water supply system, measurement instruments, and a computer running Armfield
software for data acquisition. The turbine is mounted on a test rig, with a nozzle directing a high-
velocity water jet onto the buckets of the runner. The water jet’s impact causes the runner to
rotate, converting the kinetic energy of the jet into mechanical energy. A casing encloses the
turbine to minimize water splashing and ensure controlled operation.
The FM3SU Pelton Turbine by
Armfield is a high-precision,
computer-controlledhydro turbine
designed for academic and
research purposes. It is part of
Armfield’s Hydraulic Turbines
range and is equipped with
advanced data acquisition
software, allowing real-time
monitoring and analysis of key
performance parameters. The
Armfield software enables users

26
to control and measure turbine speed, torque, efficiency, and power output under varying water
flow conditions. With its closed-loop system and digital interface, the FM3SU Pelton Turbine
facilitates in-depth studies on hydraulic-to-mechanical energy conversion, impulse turbine
characteristics, and efficiency optimization. This unit is widely used in engineering
laboratories for demonstrating the principles of hydroelectric power generation while providing
hands-on experience with industrial-grade turbine operation and control systems.
To measure the turbine's performance, several
sensors are integrated into the system. A “load
sensor (strain gauge)” is used to measure the
brake force, which helps in determining the
torque produced by the turbine. A “laser
tachometer” is employed to measure the
“rotational speed (RPM)”of the turbine shaft
by detecting reflections from a marked point
on the rotating component. Additionally, a
“piezometer” is installed in the water supply
line to measure pressure before the water
enters the nozzle, which is essential for
calculating the hydraulic power supplied to the
turbine.
A “dynamometer” is attached to the turbine’s
shaft to assess the brake power and torque.
This data, along with flow rate and head
measurements, allows for calculating turbine
efficiency. The entire system is connected to a
computer running Armfield software, which collects real-time data from all sensors. The
software processes this data to compute power output, efficiency, and other performance
parameters, providing graphical representations for analysis.
This setup enables a detailed investigation of the Pelton turbine’s characteristics at different
speeds, ensuring accurate and reliable measurements. By utilizing computer-based data
acquisition, the experiment minimizes manual errors and provides a comprehensive
understanding of turbine efficiency and performance variations under different operating
conditions.
2.3.3Procedure:
1. Mount the Pelton turbine in a horizontal orientation and connect it to the water supply
system and measurement instruments (load sensor, laser tachometer, piezometer).
2. Ensure all sensors and the computer running Armfield software are properly connected
and calibrated.
3. Open the Armfield software and check if sensor readings are displayed correctly.
4. Gradually open the flow control valve to allow water to flow through the nozzle and
strike the turbine buckets.
5. Adjust the nozzle opening to vary the water jet velocity and turbine speed.
6. Measure rotational speed using the laser tachometer.
7. Record brake force using the load sensor (strain gauge) and pressure using the
piezometer.
8. Allow the turbine to reach a steady-state condition before taking readings.

27
 9. Use Armfield software to record real-time data for speed, brake force, torque, and
pressure.
10. Repeat the experiment at different speeds by adjusting the flow rate and nozzle opening.
11. Save the collected data for analysis, then gradually close the flow control valve and clean
the setup.
2.3.4Observations & Calculations:
Hydraulic Input Power ( Ph):
 The power supplied to the turbine by the flowing water.
 It depends on the water flow rate and pressure head before entering the turbine.
 Given by:
Ph= ρgHQ
Where:
 ρ = Water density (kg/m³)
 g= Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s²)
 Q = Flow rate (m³/s)
 H = Effective head (m)

Torque (T ):-
 The rotational force applied to the turbine shaft.
 Measured in Newton-meters (N·m).
 Given by:
T =F × r
Where:
 F = Force applied (N)
 r = Radius of Brake Drum (m)
Brake Power ( Pb)
 The actual power output from the turbine shaft.
 It is measured using a dynamometer or a torque sensor.
 Given by:
2 πNT
P b=
60
Where:
 N = Rotational speed (RPM)
 T = Torque (N·m)
Efficiency (η)
 The ratio of useful power output (brake power) to input power (hydraulic power).
 Expressed as a percentage:
Pb
η= ×100
Ph
 Indicates how effectively the turbine converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy.

Sampl Roto Orifice Turbin Turbi Brak Torq Flow Brake Hydraul Efficien
e r Different e Inlet ne e ue Rate Power ic cy
Numb Spee ial Pressu Head Forc Power
er d Pressure re e

28
 N dPo P1 Hi Fb
(Hz) (kPa) (kPa) (m) (N)
277.02 0.103 1.87 49.280 7.87E+0 62.5860
1 76 10.903 6 43 4.3 2 E-04 39 1 5
277.36 0.139 1.86 51.602 7.47E+0
2 59 10.852 8 41 5.8 2 E-04 66 1 69.1017
1.83 53.532 7.35E+0 72.8616
3 71 10.476 277.71 41 5 0.12 E-04 86 1 4
278.56 0.028 1.24 9.0478 5.10E+0 17.7413
4 50 4.802 4 42 1.2 8 E-04 08 1 2
278.90 0.007 1.92 4.0715 7.52E+0 5.41387
5 90 11.536 6 40 0.3 2 E-04 14 1 3

Rotor Speed vs. Brake Rotor Speed vs. Torque

Power 0.16
0.14
40
35 0.12
30 0.1
25 0.08
20 0.06
15
10 0.04
5 0.02
0 0
39.5 40 40.5 41 41.5 42 42.5 43 43.5 43 41 41 40

Rotor Speed vs. Efficiency

50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
39.5 40 40.5 41 41.5 42 42.5 43 43.5

29
2.4Conclusion:
This study successfully investigated the operating characteristics of a computer-controlled Pelton
turbine at various speeds using Armfield’s software. Through real-time data acquisition and
analysis, key performance parameters—including hydraulic power, brake power, torque, and
efficiency—were measured under different operating conditions.The results demonstrate that
turbine performance is significantly influenced by flow rate, nozzle opening, and rotor speed. As
expected, higher water flow and head resulted in greater hydraulic power, while the efficiency of
the turbine varied depending on the applied load and rotational speed. The use of a laser
tachometer, strain gauge, and piezometer ensured precise measurement of speed, force, and
pressure, minimizing experimental uncertainties.By analyzing the trends in power output and
efficiency, it was observed that optimizing the nozzle flow rate and maintaining an appropriate
speed range enhances turbine efficiency. The integration of computer control allowed for
accurate monitoring and adjustment, showcasing the benefits of automation in hydroelectric
systems. This study reinforces the importance of real-time performance analysis for improving
turbine design and operational efficiency.Overall, the findings contribute to a deeper
understanding of Pelton turbine behavior under varying conditions and highlight the advantages
of computer-controlled monitoring in optimizing energy conversion. Future research could
explore additional variables such as multi-jet configurations and material enhancements to
further improve turbine performance.
2.5References:
[1]Feyisetan, Fapetu Oluseyi, Raimi Oluwole Abiodun, Adesina Fisayo, Akinola Adebisi
Olayinka, and Akintunde Mutalubi Aremu. "Computer Aided Analysis of Pelton Turbine
Runner." American Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering 1, no. 2 (2017): 81-89.
https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajece.20170102.14.

[2]"Computer Controlled Hydroelectric Power Plant with Pelton Turbine." EDIBON. Accessed
March 2, 2025. https://www.edibon.com/en/computer-controlled-hydroelectric-power-plant-
with-pelton-turbine.

[3]"Performance Evaluation of Pelton Turbine: A Review." ResearchGate. Accessed March 2,

2025.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283633320_Performance_Evaluation_of_Pelton_
Turbine_A_Review.

[4]"Governor Tuning and Digital Deflector Control of Pelton Turbine with Multiple Needles for
Power System Studies." ResearchGate. Accessed March 2, 2025.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315952592_Governor_tuning_and_digital_deflector_c
ontrol_of_Pelton_turbine_with_multiple_needles_for_power_system_studies.

30
 Lab Session-4
“To investigate Difference in Performance Between Throttle
Control & Nozzle Control of the Turbine Speed of Axial Flow Pelton
Turbine (Computer Controlled)”

31
3.1Introduction:
Pelton turbines are impulse turbines commonly used for high-head, low-flow
hydropower applications. Their efficiency and performance depend on the
regulation of water flow impacting the turbine’s buckets. In modern hydroelectric
systems, speed control of the turbine is crucial for optimizing power generation
and maintaining operational stability. Two primary methods used for regulating
turbine speed are throttle control and nozzle control, each influencing performance
in different ways.
Throttle control adjusts the turbine’s speed by regulating the overall water supply
pressure before it reaches the nozzle. This method alters the total flow rate entering
the system but does not directly affect the velocity of the jet striking the turbine
buckets. In contrast, **nozzle control** varies the turbine speed by directly
adjusting the nozzle opening, which changes the velocity and impact force of the
water jet while maintaining system pressure. These different approaches lead to
variations in efficiency, power output, and mechanical response of the turbine.
In this experiment, a computer-controlled axial flow Pelton turbine is used to
investigate the differences in performance between throttle control and nozzle
control. Real-time data acquisition using Armfield software allows precise
measurement of key parameters such as speed, torque, brake power, and efficiency
under both control methods. By analyzing these results, the study aims to

32
determine which method provides better performance, energy efficiency, and
operational stability for the given turbine configuration.
This investigation is crucial for optimizing Pelton turbine operation in
hydroelectric power systems, where efficient speed regulation directly impacts
energy output and system longevity. The findings from this study will provide
valuable insights into the advantages and limitations of each control method,
aiding in the selection of optimal strategies for turbine speed management in
practical applications.
3.1.1Throttle control:
Throttle control of a turbine refers to the
mechanism used to regulate the amount of fuel
and air mixture being supplied to the combustion
chamber of the turbine, thus controlling its power
output. The throttle control is a critical component
of the turbine as it allows for fine-tuning the
engine performance and providing stability during
different operating conditions.
Types of throttle control:
There are several types of throttle controls used in
turbines, including mechanical, hydraulic, and electronic control systems. The most
commonly used method is the electronic control system, which uses a computerized control
system to precisely regulate the fuel flow.

Mechanical throttle control:

In a mechanical throttle control system, mechanical linkages
connect the throttle lever to the fuel control valve. When the
operator moves the throttle lever, the fuel control valve is opened
or closed, allowing more or less fuel to enter the combustion
chamber. This type of control system is simple and reliable, but it
can be less precise and less responsive than electronic systems.

Hydraulic throttle control:

Hydraulic throttle control systems use hydraulic actuators to control the fuel flow. The
actuators are controlled by a computer, which receives input from sensors and adjusts the fuel
flow accordingly. This type of control system is more precise and responsive than
mechanical systems, but it can be more complex and require more maintenance.

33
Electronic throttle control:
Electronic throttle control systems use electronic sensors and actuators to regulate the fuel
flow. The computer receives input from sensors such as engine speed, air pressure, and
temperature, and adjusts the fuel flow accordingly. This type of control system is the most
precise and responsive of all throttle control systems, and it provides the greatest degree of
control over the engine's performance.

In conclusion, the throttle control of a turbine is a critical component that plays a vital role
in controlling the power output of the engine. The type of throttle control used depends on
the specific requirements of the application, but electronic control systems are becoming
increasingly popular due to their precision and responsiveness[7].

3.1.2Nozzle control:
Nozzle control of the turbine refers to the management of the flow of steam or water through
the turbine's blades to produce rotational energy. This control is essential to ensuring the
proper and efficient operation of the turbine.

Types of nozzle control:

There are two types of nozzles used in turbine control, the admission valve and the
extraction valve.

34
Admission nozzle:
These nozzles control the flow of steam or water into the turbine. They are typically located
at the inlet of the turbine and are designed to open and close to control the flow of steam or
water. The valve position is adjusted to control the amount of flow, and therefore the speed
of the turbine.

Extraction nozzle:
These nozzles control the flow of steam or water out of the turbine. They are located at the
outlet of the turbine and are used to regulate the flow of steam or water that has passed
through the turbine blades. This flow control is essential to regulate the pressure in the
turbine and prevent damage to the blades.
The nozzle control system is typically automated and uses a combination of sensors and
control systems to manage the flow of steam or water through the turbine. This includes
pressure sensors, temperature sensors, and flow meters, which monitor the condition of the
turbine and the flow of steam or water. The data from these sensors is processed by a
control system, which then adjusts the position of the admission and extraction valves to
maintain optimal performance[8].

Advantages of valve control

1. More precise control over power output and speed
2. Can reduce wear and tear on the turbine by avoiding rapid changes in speed
3. Better suited for handling sudden load changes
4. Can improve efficiency by optimizing the turbine's operation for specific conditions

Disadvantages of valve control

1. Generally, more complex and expensive than throttle control
2. Requires more maintenance due to the complexity of the valve control system

Advantages of throttle control

1. Simple and inexpensive
2. Less maintenance is required compared to valve control
3. Easy to operate

Disadvantages of throttle control

1. Can result in less precise control over power output and speed
2. May cause wear and tear on the turbine due to sudden changes in speed
3. Less efficient at handling sudden load changes.

3.1.3Formulas and nomenclature

Inside the turbine the energy is transferred from the fluid in the form of kinetic pressure
energy to the turbine so by applying the first law of thermos dynamics to the system we get:

35
𝑷𝒉 = 𝛒 ∗ 𝐠 ∗ 𝐡𝟏 ∗ 𝐐𝐯 (𝟑. 𝟒)

Where,

Symbol Description

Ph Hydraulic power (W)

Pb Brake power (W)
T Torque (Nm)
Et Overall efficiency (%)
Qv Volume flow rate (m^3/s)
H Input head of turbine (m)
d Orifice diameter (0.009m)
Cd Discharge coefficient (0.63)
r Pulley radius (0.024m)
ρ Water density (kg/m^3)
dPo Orifice differential pressure (Pa)
P1 Turbine inlet pressure (Pa)
Fb Brake force of turbine (N)

3.2Literature Review:-
3.2.1Analytical Method:
[1] Figures below show the relation between the brake power produced by the Pelton turbine and
the rotational speed of the turbine for different nozzles. The figures show that for every nozzle
the values of brake power were increased at increased the water head and water discharge
(volume flow rate) increase till reach the maximum values of water head and water dis charge for

36
full open valve. In addition, the range of rotational speed increased as water head and water
discharge increased. The figures show that the brake power equal to zero at zero and maximum
rotational speed of Pelton turbine and increase towards the middle range of the rotational speed,
which it's value reach the maximum value. This because the brake power is a function of torque
and rotational speed, and for maximum torque the rotational speed equal to zero and for
maximum rotational speed the torque equal to zero and the brake power increase toward the
mean values of rotational speed and torque. Also the figures show that the peak value of brake
power increases gradually with increasing the water head and water discharge due to increasing
in the applied torque, where the brake power was a function of torque and rotational speed of the
turbine.

The

relationship between the brake power and the rotational speed

The relationship between the brake power and the rotational speed

of Pelton turbine by using nozzle (1).

Figs.
(5, 8,
The relationship between the brake power and the rotational speed of
The relationship between the brake power and the Pelton turbine by using nozzle (4)
rotational speed
11, 14) show the relation between the
overall efficiency and the rotational speed of the Pelton turbine system. The figures
show that the variation of the efficiency at the same miner of those of the brake
power except for the peak values of the efficiency, where they the at the same
value approximately especially for the nozzles two and three. This is because the
efficiency function of brake power and water power provide to the Pelton turbine,
and the last one is constant at given water head and water discharge for each curve.

37
 The relationship between the efficiency and the rotational
speed of Pelton turbine by using nozzle (2)

Figure 1The relationship between the efficiency and the rotational

speed of Pelton turbine by using nozzle (1)

3.2.2Modelling and simulation:

The relationship between the efficiency and the rotational speed (3) The relationship between the efficiency and the rotational
speed of Pelton turbine by using nozzle (4)
[2] The modeled assembly of nozzle for pelton turbine consists of nozzle (pipe of converging
crosssectional area), spear and a free surface flow domain. The modeled assembly consists of
inlet, nozzle, spear and outlet. The modeled assembly of free surface flow domain consists of
extended outlet. The modeling has been done in ANSYS Workbench 10 and ANSYS ICEM
CFD 10. The 3Dview of spear is shown in fig.

Pressure contours and velocity stream lines were obtained using insert contour and insert
streamline commands of menu bar in ANSYS CFXPost. Pressure contours and velocity stream
lines for each geometry at different spear shape varying mass flow rate has been shown under.

This streamline flow shows that after nozzle outlet streamline start conversing to a point that is
vina contracta and after that streamline start spreading, in the inner region red stream line shows

38
 higher pressure and uniformly distribution of streamline shows high velocity and in the outlet
part of free surface domain streamline are not uniformly distributed that shows less velocity and
yellow and green line streamline shows less pressure distribution shown in Fig.

In this fig streamline after nozzle outlet start converging that shows increasing the velocity, and
in the outer periphery of extended domain it is not evenly distributed that is showing less
velocity ,and red color of streamline showing higher pressure distribution in the middle of
extended domain. shown in Fig.

3.2.3Experimental method:
[1] A test rig of a Pelton turbine system was designed and implemented as shown in Fig. (1).
Where the experimental works were carried on it with five different nozzles have outer diameters
of (3.61, 5.19, 8.78, 12, 14.8) mm, the dimensions of the different nozzles as shown in Table I.
The system consists from Pelton turbine with 24 cup buckets (material Glass filled Nylon) and
the tip diameter of (269.89) mm and hub diameter of (221.29) mm as shown in Fig. (2), digital
flow meter, water pump with head of (46) m, tow tension scale gauge connected by smooth belt
to be used as a variable brake load and a tachometer to measure the rotational speed. A water
pump was used to provide the pressure head and volume flow rate

39
The experimental data were collected during the experiment for different type of nozzles as
shown in the table (1). A water pump was used to generate the volumetric flow rate and water
head, where as they are function of nozzle diameter. When the nozzle diameter increase, the
volumetric flow rate will increase and the water head will decrease as shown in following
figures. In addition, the volumetric flow rate and head can be controlled by using valve, when the
valve fully opened; the maximum volumetric flow rate and maximum head were obtained. The
results show the relationship between the torque applied on the shaft of the Pelton turbine and the
rotational speed of the turbine. The figures show the maximum rotational speed of Pelton turbine
at zero torque applied on the shaft and the rotational speed decrease when the torque increase
until reached the maximum torque the rotational speed becomes zero. In addition, the results
show that the maximum limits of rotational speed of the turbine and the maximum limits of
torque increase when the water head and volumetric flow rate increased for every nozzle. This is
because the potential energy converted to the kinetic energy, which increase the velocity of the
water jet strike the bucket of the turbine causing the rotary motion of the turbine and produce the
power output.

The following remarks can be concluded from the experimental investigation

1. Increasing the nozzle diameter lead to increasing in the water discharge and decreasing
the water head, where subjected to pump operating which boost the water flow through
the nozzle to Pelton turbine.
2. The water discharge decreasing as the water head decreased for every certain nozzle size,
which lead to decreasing the Pelton turbine performance (torque, brake power, efficiency
and the range of rotational speed)
3. The best performance of Pelton turbine system was obtained by the nozzle number three
with outlet diameter of 8.87mm, where the percentage increased in torque, brake power,
efficiency and the rotational speed of 60.2%, 66.48%, 60% and 15.35% respectively
comparing with the second nozzle with outer diameter of 5.19mm at the maximum
values.
4. The optimum design for the Pelton turbine when choosing the nozzle outer diameter,
which gives the ratio of circumferential blade velocity over rotating wheel to the jet
velocity of water approaches from the value of 0.5.

40
3.3Methodology:

In this experiment, a computer software will be used to demonstrate the difference in

performance between throttle control and nozzle control of turbine speed. The software will
be programmed to simulate various operating conditions and parameters of the turbine, such
as the pressure, temperature, and flow rate. Two scenarios will be compared one with
throttle control, where the valve that regulates the steam flow to the turbine is adjusted to
control the speed, and the other with nozzle control, where the size of the nozzle that directs
the steam to the turbine is varied to achieve the desired speed. The experiment will measure
the efficiency, stability, and response time of each control method, as well as their impact
on the wear and tear of the turbine components. The results of the experiment will be
analyzed and compared to determine the optimal control method for turbine operation.
Key performance parameters are measured using precise instruments:
 Load Sensor (Strain Gauge): Measures brake force applied to the turbine shaft.
 Laser Tachometer: Captures turbine rotational speed (RPM).
 Piezometer: Monitors water pressure before entering the nozzle system.
 Dynamometer: Assesses torque and brake power.
The entire system is connected to a computer running Armfield software, which records real-
time data and calculates efficiency, power output, and hydraulic losses. The experimental
setup ensures accurate and repeatable measurements, allowing for a detailed comparison of
throttle control and nozzle control effects on Pelton turbine performance.

41
 3.3.1Apparatus:
 FM 30 impulse turbine four fixed nozzles shoot jet at a rotor
 FM 31 reaction turbine two nozzle attached to the rotor cause it to spin
 FM 32 Pelton turbine spear valve forces a jet onto a water wheel
 Differential pressure sensor across the orifice plate
 Differential pressure sensor across the turbine
 Rotational speed sensor of the propeller
 Force sensor to measure the force on the brake hub of the turbine rotor
 IFD6 interface

3.3.2Procedure:
Set up the computer software with controls for both throttle and nozzle. Connect the
software to the turbine and ensure proper communication between the two. Establish a
baseline performance measurement for the turbine without any control input. Begin the
throttle control test by setting the software to control the turbine speed using only the
throttle. Record the turbine speed and any other relevant data during the throttle control test.
Stop the throttle control test and return the turbine to its baseline state. Begin the nozzle
control test by setting the software to control the turbine speed using only the nozzle.
Record the turbine speed and any other relevant data during the nozzle control test. Stop the
nozzle control test and return the turbine to its baseline state. Analyze the data collected
during both tests to compare the performance of throttle and nozzle control. Calculate and
compare the efficiency, response time, and stability of both control methods. Determine the
optimal control method for the turbine based on the data analysis. Repeat the test with
different control parameters to verify the optimal control method. Document all test results
and data for future reference and analysis. Draw conclusions from the test and provide
recommendations for future implementation of the optimal control method.

3.3.3Observation and calculation:

Sampl Roto Orifice Turbin Turbi Brak Torq Flow Brake Hydraul Efficien
e r Different e Inlet ne e ue Rate Power ic cy
Numb Spee ial Pressu Head Forc Power

42
 d Pressure re e
N dPo P1 Hi Fb
er (Hz) (kPa) (kPa) (m) (N)
277.02 0.103 1.87 49.280 7.87E+0 62.5860
1 76 10.903 6 43 4.3 2 E-04 39 1 5
277.36 0.139 1.86 51.602 7.47E+0
2 59 10.852 8 41 5.8 2 E-04 66 1 69.1017
1.83 53.532 7.35E+0 72.8616
3 71 10.476 277.71 41 5 0.12 E-04 86 1 4
278.56 0.028 1.24 9.0478 5.10E+0 17.7413
4 50 4.802 4 42 1.2 8 E-04 08 1 2
278.90 0.007 1.92 4.0715 7.52E+0 5.41387
5 90 11.536 6 40 0.3 2 E-04 14 1 3

Brake Power
60

50

40

30

20

10

0
50 59 71 76 90

Torque
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
50 59 71 76 90

43
 Efficiency
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
50 59 71 76 90

3.4Results and discussion:

The performance difference between throttle control and nozzle control of the turbine speed
was analyzed using commuter software. The results showed through graph that nozzle
control resulted in a better performance compared to throttle control. The mean turbine
speed for nozzle control was higher than the mean turbine speed for throttle control. The
standard deviation for nozzle control was also lower than for throttle control, indicating that
nozzle control resulted in more consistent turbine speed and volume flow rate. These
findings suggest that nozzle control is a more effective method for controlling turbine speed
compared to throttle control. In a turbine system controlled by throttle, the volume flow rate
of the working fluid has a direct relation with the brake power, efficiency, and torque. As
the volume flow rate increases, the brake power output of the turbine also increases due to
the higher mass flow rate of the fluid. Similarly, the torque output of the turbine also
increases as the volume flow rate increases, which can be attributed to the larger amount of
fluid passing through the turbine.
For a turbine operating under nozzle control, there is a direct relationship between the
volume flow rate and the brake power, and torque. As the volume flow rate increases, the
brake power and torque of the turbine also increase. This is because an increase in the
volume flow rate results in more fluid flowing through the turbine, which in turn increases
the amount of work that the turbine can do.
However, as the volume flow rate continues to increase, the efficiency of the turbine
decreases. This is because the turbine is not able to convert all of the energy from the fluid
into useful work. Instead, some of the energy is lost to friction and other forms of
inefficiency.

3.5Conclusion:
Throttle control and nozzle control have different effects on the performance of a turbine,
with nozzle control generally resulting in more efficient operation. The use of commuter
software allows for precise control and measurement of turbine performance under different

44
 operating conditions. For the maximum efficiency 76.5% the flow rate is also maximum
0.255m3/s. For the same maximum flow rate of 0.255m 3/s the value of brake power 42W
and torque 0.057Nm is also maximum for throttle control of the turbine. For nozzle control
the volume flow rate of 0.157m3/s is critical point for max efficiency 88% and brake power
34% after it the efficiency declines. Through the lab experiment, it was observed that nozzle
control resulted in a higher turbine speed and power output compared to throttle control.
This difference in performance was due to the ability of nozzle control to regulate the flow
of steam more accurately and efficiently than throttle control. The results of the experiment
highlight the importance of selecting the appropriate control method for a turbine based on
the specific application and performance requirements. Overall, the use of commuter
software and experimental analysis provided valuable insights into the impact of different
control methods on turbine performance, helping to optimize operation and efficiency in
various industrial settings.

3.6References:

[1] M. K. Ghazal, H. M. Al-Qrimli, and A. A. Jassim, “Effect of flow parameters on Pelton

turbine performance by using different nozzles,” Int. J. Model. Optim., vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 158–
162, 2017, doi: 10.7763/IJMO.2017.V7.571.
[2] A. Sharma, V. Prashad, and A. Kumar, "Numerical Simulation of Pelton Turbine Nozzle for
Different Shapes of Spear," Material Science Research India, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 53–63, 2011, doi:
10.13005/msri/080108.

45
 Lab Session-5
“To investigate performance characteristics of Francis turbine at various
speeds”

4.1Introduction:
The Francis turbine is one of the most widely used hydraulic turbines for hydroelectric power
generation. It is a reaction turbine, meaning it operates using both pressure and kinetic energy,
and features a mixed-flow design, where water enters radially and exits axially. Invented by
James B. Francis in the mid-19th century, this turbine is highly efficient and adaptable for
medium to high head applications (ranging from 10 meters to 600 meters)

4.1.1Types of francis turbine:

Francis turbines can be categorized based on the direction of water flow through the runner:
1. Inward Flow Francis Turbine:

 In an inward flow Francis turbine, water enters the runner radially from the outer
periphery and moves inward toward the center before exiting axially.
 This is the most common design used in modern hydroelectric power plants.
 The spiral casing, guide vanes, and runner blades are designed to ensure smooth
inward radial flow, minimizing energy losses.
 It provides high efficiency and better control over varying water flow conditions.

46
2. Outward Flow Francis Turbine (Obsolete):

 In an outward flow Francis turbine, water enters near the center of the runner axially
and flows outward radially toward the periphery before exiting.
 This design was used in early hydraulic turbines but has been mostly replaced by
inward flow turbines due to lower efficiency.
 The outward movement of water caused higher energy losses, making it less effective
for large-scale hydroelectric applications.

Conclusion:

 Inward flow turbines are widely used today due to their higher efficiency and compact
design.
 Outward flow turbines are mostly obsolete and have been replaced by modern inward
flow turbines in hydroelectric power plants.

4.1.2 Components of francis turbine:

The Francis turbine consists of several key components that work together to convert hydraulic
energy into mechanical energy. Below are its main components:

1. Spiral Casing (Volute Casing):

 A spiral-shaped casing that distributes water uniformly around the runner.

 Maintains constant velocity by gradually decreasing in cross-section.

2. Stay Vanes (Stay Ring):

 Fixed guide vanes that provide structural support and direct water toward the wicket
gates.
 Help reduce pressure loss and turbulence.

3. Guide Vanes (Wicket Gates):

 Adjustable vanes that control the amount and angle of water entering the runner.
 Regulate turbine efficiency and power output.

4. Runner (Rotating Blades):

 The main rotating part of the turbine where water transfers energy to the turbine shaft.
 Has curved blades designed to handle mixed flow (radial + axial).
 Made of stainless steel or other durable materials.

47
5. Draft Tube:

 A gradually expanding tube located at the exit of the runner.

 Converts kinetic energy of water into pressure energy, improving turbine efficiency.
 Helps in reducing water velocity before discharge.

6. Turbine Shaft:

 Connects the runner to the generator for power transmission.

 Usually made of high-strength steel.

7. Bearings:

 Support the turbine shaft and reduce friction.

 Can be thrust bearings (to handle axial forces) and journal bearings (for radial forces).

8. Penstock:

 A large pipe or tunnel that transports water from the dam or reservoir to the turbine.
 Controls water flow and pressure before it enters the casing.

9. Generator (Connected to Turbine Shaft):

 Converts the mechanical energy from the turbine into electrical energy.

4.1.3 Working principle:

The Francis turbine operates on the principle of energy conversion from hydraulic energy
(water) into mechanical energy (shaft rotation) through a combination of pressure and
kinetic energy. Water from a reservoir or dam is directed through a penstock and enters the
turbine’s spiral casing (volute) at high pressure. Inside the casing, the stay vanes and
adjustable guide vanes (wicket gates) control the flow direction and velocity of water before it
reaches the runner blades. The runner consists of curved blades, where water exerts force,
causing the runner to rotate. This rotation converts the water’s energy into mechanical energy.
After passing through the runner, the water exits through a draft tube, which helps recover
residual kinetic energy and maintain pressure balance. The rotating runner drives a shaft
connected to a generator, converting mechanical energy into electrical energy. The Francis
turbine is highly efficient and adaptable to medium and high-head applications, making it one
of the most commonly used turbines in hydroelectric power generation.

48
4.1.4 Applications

The Francis turbine is widely used in hydroelectric power plants due to its high efficiency,
reliability, and adaptability to various water flow conditions. Some of its key applications
include:

1. Hydroelectric Power Plants – Used in dam-based and run-of-the-river hydroelectric

stations to generate electricity from medium to high head water sources (10m to
600m).
2. Pumped Storage Power Plants – Helps in energy storage by pumping water to an
elevated reservoir during low demand and generating electricity during peak demand.
3. Irrigation Systems – Utilized in large-scale irrigation projects where water flow can
be harnessed to generate electricity for agricultural purposes.
4. Water Supply Systems – Employed in municipal and industrial water distribution
where turbines can recover energy from pressurized water flow.
5. Industrial Power Generation – Used in industries that require continuous power
supply, such as mining, manufacturing, and steel production, where hydro energy is
available.

4.1.5 Nomenclature:

Symbol Parameter Unit

H Net Head m
Q Discharge (Flow Rate) m³/s
P Power Output W
η Efficiency of the Turbine %
N Rotational Speed of Runner rpm
T Torque Nm
Dr Runner Diameter m
br Runner Blade Width m
V1 Velocity of Water at Inlet m/s
V2 Velocity of Water at Outlet m/s
Pi Input Power (Water Power) W
Po Output Power (Shaft Power) W
Ρ Density of Water kg/m³
G Acceleration due to Gravity m/s²
Ns Specific Speed dimensionless
Eh Hydraulic Efficiency %
Em Mechanical Efficiency %
Pb Brake power W

4.2 Literature review:-

49
4.2.1 Analytical Method:
The experiment was conducted in accordance with international standards (IEC 60193) to ensure
the stability and accuracy of measurements related to output, hydraulic efficiency, cavitation effects, and
pressure pulsation behavior. The concepts of geometric and kinematic similarity, along with the
fundamental dimensions and conversion parameters, are expressed in the following equations:

where np, Dp, Qp, Hp, and Pp are the rotational speed, runner diameter, flow rates, prototype head,
and power output for the prototype turbine, respectively.
The model’s Thoma cavitation factor (σm) and specific speed are expressed as below:

where Ha is the atmospheric head, Hv is the vapor pressure head, Hs is the suction head, and Hn is
the net head of the turbine.
The model hydraulic efficiency is driven by

where Ha is the atmospheric head, Hv is the vapor pressure head, Hs is the suction head, and Hn is
the net head of the turbine.
The hydraulic efficiency was determined by the IEC(60193)-recommended Equation (10), also
known as the Hutton equation, which estimated the best efficiency from model testing to prototype
Francis turbine:

where (Δηh)m*→P is the estimated prototype efficiency, δref is relative scalable losses at point
reference Reref, Rem* is the constant model Reynolds number, and Rep is the constant prototype
Reynolds number.
All of the above-mentioned performance characteristic parameters were measured to validate
performance and design under operating conditions ranging from 50% to 100%. The frequency sample
rate was 2 kHz, and data were recorded for 500 s. The testing focused exclusively on unsteady-state
operating conditions at a design-rated head of 40 m for the model turbine. The test apparatus utilized a
semi-closed loop configuration with the upstream tank closed and the downstream tank open to the
atmosphere.
Modelling and simulation:
In the process of a turbine development, Nippon KOEI Power System, NKPS, was willing to
investigate measurements and numerical simulations in a reduced scale model to predict the
performances of their prototype. The NKPS-F44S turbine consisted of small head hydraulic
Francis turbine. The case study was commissioned in 2008, see Fig. 1. This turbine had a rated
power of 8.3 MW under 105 m head.

EPFL was contracted by NKPS to manufacture and to test a reduced scale model homologous to
the prototype. NKPS-F44 turbine model tests were performed at the EPFL Test Rig 2 in 2008.
From the hill chart, the best efficiency operating point, called BEP, is chosen for this present
analysis

50
"All NKPS-F44 reduced scale model water passage components are properly meshed for
generating a complete machine model. Two topologies of grid are applied: the first one is a
structured topology and the second one an unstructured one.The structured grid is generated by
Ansys package and the unstructured grid by Star CCM+ package."
4.2.3 Experimental setup:
The turbine model used in the hydroelectric power station was tested at the Hydro Power Fluid Machinery
Development and Testing Center in Tianjin, China. The test apparatus, shown in Figure 1, included a unit
generator with a power range of 540 kW and a speed range of 0–2600 rpm. The power consumed by the
two double-suction pumps was 724 kW. The flow measurement tank had a capacity of 180 m 3, and the
storage tank had a volume of 3000 m 3. The unit’s maximum head was 150 m, with flow rates ranging from
0 to 2.2 m3/s, and the model runner testing range was between 250 and 500 mm. The following
parameters were measured with the installed equipment: discharge, rotational speed, pressure, generator
torque, frequency amplitude, spiral case inlet pressure, and draft tube outlet pressure
The discharge was measured by an electromagnetic flow meter, which employed the pulsed DC (direct
current) magnetic field technique. The flow meter equipment was installed in the inlet pipeline before the
spiral case, measuring unit discharge under various load conditions. The total model torque, Tm, is the
sum of the motor-generator torque, T1, and the friction torque, T2. The torque transducer was mounted
on the shaft that connected the runner to the motor generator. The performance equations with unit
parameters of the model turbine were:
Pressure transducers, which are electromagnetic devices, were utilized for pressure measurements in
various locations of the model Francis
turbine. Figure 2 shows the locations of four
selected measurement points: P1 at the spiral
inlet, P2 at the head cover, P3 in the draft cone,
and P4 at the draft tube elbow. According to IEC-
60193 standard [27], the amplitude of a signal is
defined as the extent of variation that
encompasses a specific percentage of the
sample. This definition was used in conjunction
with the probability density function to determine
the peak-to-peak values of the pressure signals.
The magnitude of pressure pulsations in the draft
tube was analyzed by obtaining peak-to-peak
measurements with a 97% confidence interval.

The model turbine used for experimental measurements was scaled to 1/17.2 of the prototype size. The
model turbine for the present investigation included the following components: a spiral case, 16 stay
vanes, 24 guide vanes, a model runner with 15 long blades and 15 splitter blades, and a draft tube. The
model runner had an inlet diameter of 0.5318 m and an outlet diameter of 0.35143 m. The flow rate and
the rotational speed for the model turbine were 352 liters per second and 740 rpm, respectively illustrates
the dimensions of the Francis turbine model. presents a comprehensive visualization of the major

51
components of the Francis turbine, highlighting their importance in converting hydraulic energy to
mechanical energy and optimizing turbine performance. The spiral case evenly distributes water flow to
the runner blades by gradually reducing the cross-sectional area using dimensions L1, L2, and D1 to
maintain a constant water velocity, crucial for maximizing energy conversion efficiency. The primary
function of the stay vanes and guide vanes is to direct water flow onto the runner with minimal energy
loss. The high H is indicative of their structural role in maintaining the shape and stability of the spiral
case and water flow directions. The diagram depicts the runner’s cross-sectional view, with
dimensions D1, D2, and H1 representing the inlet diameter, outlet diameter, and height, respectively.
These dimensions are critical for optimizing turbine efficiency and power output. The draft tube is a
conduit that gradually expands to recover the kinetic energy of water and convert it into pressure energy.
Dimensions D1, D2, H1, H2, H3, H4, L1, and L2 represent critical factors for minimizing energy loss and
vortex formation.The experiment was conducted in accordance with international standards (IEC 60193)
to ensure the stability and accuracy of measurements related to output, hydraulic efficiency, cavitation
effects, and pressure pulsation behavior. where Ha is the atmospheric head, Hv is the vapor pressure
head, Hs is the suction head, and Hn is the net head of the turbine.The hydraulic efficiency was
determined by the IEC(60193)-recommended Equation (10), also known as the Hutton equation, which
estimated the best efficiency from model testing to prototype Francis turbine:where (Δηh)m*→P is the
estimated prototype efficiency, δref is relative scalable losses at point reference Reref, Rem* is the
constant model Reynolds number, and Rep is the constant prototype Reynolds number.All of the above-
mentioned performance characteristic parameters were measured to validate performance and design
under operating conditions ranging from 50% to 100%. The frequency sample rate was 2 kHz, and data
were recorded for 500 s. The testing focused exclusively on unsteady-state operating conditions at a
design-rated head of 40 m for the model turbine. The test apparatus utilized a semi-closed loop
configuration with the upstream tank closed and the downstream tank open to the atmosphere.

4.3 Methodology:

4.3.1 Apparartus:
 Reaction Turbine (Francis) FM-31

52
  Load Sensor (Strain Gauge), Pressure Sensor (Piezometer) & Speed Sensor (Laser
Tachometer)

4.3.2Observation and calculations:

Turbi
Rot Orifice ne Bra
or Different Inlet Turbi ke Hydrau
Spee ial Pressu ne Forc Torq Flow Brake lic Efficienc
d Pressure re Head e ue Rate Power Power y
Sampl
e n dPo P1 Hi Fb T Qv PB Ph (%)
Numb (m3/
er (Hz) (kPa) (kPa) (m) (N) (Nm) s) (W) (W)
271.04 2.69 22.921 7.28E+0 31.46833
1 76 22.542 5 27.68 2 0.048 E-04 11 1 08
272.92 0.086 2.66 40.715 7.25E+0 56.14274
2 75 22.08 5 27.87 3.6 4 E-04 14 1 5
272.41 0.098 2.82 44.515 7.67E+0 58.00408
3 72 24.695 2 27.82 4.1 4 E-04 22 1 81
273.60 0.110 2.59 38.845 7.08E+0 54.87419
4 56 20.952 8 27.94 4.6 4 E-04 26 1 69
274.97 2.63 39.961 7.22E+0 55.31482
5 53 21.533 6 28.08 5 0.12 E-04 15 1 04

4.4
Efficiency vs. Rotor Speed Brake Power vs. Rotor
70 Speed
60 50
45
50 40
40 35
30
30 25
20
20 15
10 10
5
0 0
76 75 72 56 53 76 75 72 56 53

Conclusion:
In this experiment, the performance characteristics of a Francis turbine at various speeds
were successfully investigated. The results demonstrated that the efficiency and power output of
the turbine are significantly influenced by the rotational speed, discharge rate, and net head.
By analyzing the variation in torque, input power, and output power, we observed that the

53
turbine operates most efficiently within a specific speed range, where hydraulic losses are
minimized, and energy conversion is maximized.

The efficiency of the turbine was found to be highest at an optimal speed, beyond which
performance declined due to increased hydraulic and mechanical losses. The experiment also
confirmed the relationship between flow rate and turbine efficiency, emphasizing the
importance of proper guide vane adjustments for maintaining peak performance.

Overall, this study highlights the importance of speed regulation in Francis turbines to
achieve optimal performance and energy efficiency in hydroelectric power plants. Future studies
may explore the impact of cavitation, wear and tear, and varying load conditions on turbine
efficiency to enhance long-term operational performance.

4.5 References:
[1]"Experimental Flow Performance Investigation of Francis Turbines from Model to
Prototype." Applied Sciences 14, no. 17 (2024): 7461. https://www.mdpi.com/2076-
3417/14/17/7461.

[2]Kumar, A., Saini, R. P., & Sharma, M. P. "Experimental Study of the Effects on
Performance of Francis Turbine Due to Sediments in Flow." Journal of Physics: Conference
Series 2752, no. 1 (2024): 012207.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/381667508_Experimental_study_of_the_effects_on_pe
rformance_of_Francis_turbine_due_to_sediments_in_flow.

[3]Louyot, Max, Bernd Nennemann, Christine Monette, and Frédérick P. Gosselin. "Modal
Analysis of a Spinning Disk in a Dense Fluid as a Model for High Head Hydraulic Turbines."
arXiv preprint arXiv:1910.14001 (2019). https://arxiv.org/abs/1910.14001.

Lab Session-6

“To investigate Performance Characteristics of a

Centrifugal Pump.”

54
5.1Introduction:
A centrifugal pump is a mechanical device used to transport fluids by converting rotational
kinetic energy from an impeller into hydrodynamic energy in the fluid being pumped.
Centrifugal pumps are widely used in various applications, including water supply, irrigation,
sewage systems, chemical processing, and petroleum refining.

Centrifugal pumps are widely used in industrial, municipal, and domestic applications for fluid
transportation due to their simple design, high efficiency, and ability to handle varying flow
rates. These pumps operate on the principle of centrifugal force, where rotational energy from
an impeller is transferred to the fluid, increasing its velocity and pressure. Understanding the
performance characteristics of a centrifugal pump is essential for optimizing efficiency,
predicting operational behavior, and ensuring reliable performance under different operating
conditions.

The key performance parameters of a centrifugal pump include head, flow rate, power
consumption, and efficiency. The relationship between these parameters is typically analyzed
through performance curves, which help determine the pump’s behavior at varying operating
conditions. The experiment aims to evaluate how factors such as impeller speed, suction and
discharge pressure, and flow rate influence the pump’s efficiency and overall effectiveness in
fluid transport.

5.1.1Types of Pumps:-

55
Pumps are mechanical devices used to transfer fluids by converting mechanical
energy into hydraulic energy. They are broadly classified into two main types
based on their operating principles: Rotodynamic pumps and Positive
Displacement pumps.

1.Rotodynamic Pumps:
These pumps operate by imparting kinetic energy to the fluid through rotating components such
as impellers or propellers, converting velocity into pressure. The two primary types are
Centrifugal Pump:

 Uses a rotating impeller to transfer energy to the fluid.

 Converts rotational energy into pressure energy.
 Commonly used in water supply systems, chemical industries, and irrigation.
 Works best for low-viscosity fluids.

Axial Pump (Propeller Type):

 Uses a propeller to push the liquid in an axial direction (parallel to the pump shaft).
 Provides a continuous flow at low pressure but high flow rates.
 Commonly used in flood control, power plants, and drainage applications.

2.Positive Displacement Pumps:

These pumps move a fixed amount of fluid with each cycle and work by trapping fluid and
forcing it through the pump.

Reciprocating Pumps:
These pumps use a piston or plunger moving back and forth in a cylinder to create suction and
discharge.

1. Piston Pump

 Uses a piston moving inside a cylinder to push and pull the liquid.
 Delivers a high-pressure output.
 Used in high-pressure applications like hydraulic systems and industrial cleaning.

2. Plunger Pump

 Similar to a piston pump, but uses plungers instead of pistons.

 Provides very high pressure with a small flow rate.
 Used in oil drilling, high-pressure water jet cutting, and pressure washing.

Rotary Pumps:

These pumps use rotating elements to move the fluid in a continuous motion.

56
 1. Gear Pump

 Uses meshing gears to displace fluid.

 Provides a smooth and steady flow.
 Used in lubrication systems, fuel transfer, and hydraulic systems.

2. Screw Pump

 Uses intermeshing screws to transport fluid.

 Handles high-viscosity liquids and provides a smooth, non-pulsating flow.
 Used in food processing, chemical industries, and wastewater treatment.

Centrifugal pumps, being a type of rotodynamic pump, are commonly used due to
their ability to handle large flow rates efficiently. The current investigation focuses
on the performance characteristics of a centrifugal pump, analyzing parameters
such as flow rate, head, power consumption, and efficiency under varying
conditions.

5.1.2Components of a Centrifugal Pump:

A centrifugal pump consists of several key components that work together to transfer fluid
efficiently. Below are the main components:

1. Impeller:

The impeller is the rotating part of the pump that imparts kinetic energy to the fluid. It consists of
curved blades that accelerate the fluid outward, increasing its velocity and pressure. Impellers
can be of three types:

 Open Impeller – Has no covering and is used for handling fluids with suspended solids.
 Semi-Open Impeller – Partially covered and used for slurries and viscous fluids.
 Closed Impeller – Fully enclosed with shrouds, providing high efficiency for clean
fluids.

2. Casing:

The casing is a protective cover that surrounds the impeller and directs the fluid flow. It is
typically designed in a volute shape, which helps convert velocity into pressure as the fluid exits
the impeller. Casings can be:

 Volute Casing – Designed to gradually increase the flow area, reducing velocity and
increasing pressure.
 Diffuser Casing – Uses a series of vanes to control the flow and reduce energy loss.

3. Suction Pipe and Suction Flange

57
The suction pipe allows the fluid to enter the pump, and the suction flange connects the pump to
the inlet pipeline. It ensures smooth fluid intake and minimizes air entry, which can cause
cavitation.

4. Delivery Pipe and Delivery Flange

The delivery pipe directs the pumped fluid to the desired location, and the delivery flange
connects the pump to the discharge pipeline. This ensures a continuous and controlled flow.

5. Shaft

The shaft is a rotating component that connects the impeller to the motor. It transmits mechanical
energy from the motor to the impeller, allowing rotation. Shafts must be strong and well-aligned
to prevent vibrations and mechanical failures.

5.1.3Head flow curve for a centrifugal pump:

A head flow curve, also known as a performance curve or characteristic curve, is a graphical
representation of the relationship between the flow rate and head (or pressure) generated by a
centrifugal pump. The curve is typically provided by the pump manufacturer and is used to select
the appropriate pump for a specific application. The shape of the head flow curve is influenced
by several factors, including the impeller diameter, the speed of the pump, the number of
impeller stages, and the design of the impeller blades. By examining the head flow curve, an
engineer can determine the optimal flow rate and head requirements for a specific application,
and select the appropriate pump to meet those requirements[10].

5.1.4Parallel Pump Operation:

In Parallel Pump Operation the flowrate of a single pump is not sufficient for an application,
pumps can be combined in parallel to obtain an increase in flowrate at the same head as the
single pump.,

58
 when two pumps Q having similar head-flowrate characteristics are operated in parallel the
combined pump head-flowrate curve is obtained by adding the flowrates of the single pump
curves at the same head. In practice the theoretical combined flowrate is not quite achieved
because of additional losses in the fittings between the two pumps.

5.1.5Series Pump Operation:

In Series Pump Operation the head of a single pump not be sufficient foran application, pumps
can be combined in serics to obtain an increase in head at the as As the single pump.

As shown in fig the two Dual pumps pumps same flowrate I having head-flowrate characteristics
are operated in series the combined pump head-flowrate curve similar is obtained by adding the
heads of the single pump curves at the same flowrate. In practice the theoretical combined head
is not quite achieved because of additional losses in the fittings between the two pumps.

5.1.6NPSH and Cavitation in Centrifugal Pumps:

Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH):

NPSH determines whether a pump will operate efficiently without cavitation.

 NPSH Available (NPSHₐ): The actual suction pressure available from the system.
 NPSH Required (NPSHᵣ): The minimum suction pressure needed by the pump to avoid
cavitation.

For safe operation: NPSHₐ > NPSHᵣ

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Cavitation in Centrifugal Pumps:

Cavitation is the formation and collapse of vapor bubbles within the pump due to low pressure at
the suction side. This can cause serious damage to pump components.

Causes of Cavitation:

 Low NPSH Available: If the pressure at the suction side drops below the vapor pressure
of the fluid, vapor bubbles form.
 High Pump Speed: Excessive velocity reduces suction pressure, increasing the risk of
cavitation.
 Long or Narrow Suction Pipes: Causes excessive friction losses, reducing NPSHₐ.
 High Fluid Temperature: Increases vapor pressure, making cavitation more likely.

Effects of Cavitation:

 Noise and Vibration: Pump operation becomes noisy due to collapsing bubbles.
 Erosion and Pitting: Bubble collapse generates shock waves that damage the impeller
and casing.
 Reduced Efficiency: Flow disruptions cause a drop in pump performance.
 Mechanical Failure: Long-term cavitation leads to pump breakdown.

Ways to Prevent Cavitation:

1. Increase NPSH Available: Raise the suction liquid level or reduce friction losses in
suction piping.
2. Reduce NPSH Required: Use a larger impeller eye or operate at lower pump speeds.
3. Use a Booster Pump: Helps increase suction pressure.
4. Avoid High Fluid Temperatures: Prevents an increase in vapor pressure.

Conclusion:

NPSH is a critical factor in preventing cavitation in centrifugal pumps. Ensuring that NPSH
Available is greater than NPSH Required helps maintain smooth pump operation and prevents
damage. Proper pump selection, suction pipe design, and operating conditions are key to
avoiding cavitation-related failures.

5.1.7Working of centrifugal pump:

The working of a centrifugal pump can be described as follows:

1. The pump is started, and the impeller begins to rotate, drawing fluid into the center of the
impeller.

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 2. As the impeller rotates, centrifugal force causes the fluid to move radially outward from
the center of the impeller towards the outer edges of the impeller blades.
3. The fluid is then accelerated by the impeller blades, which impart energy to the fluid in
the form of kinetic energy.
4. As the fluid exits the impeller, it enters the volute or diffuser, which converts the kinetic
energy of the fluid into pressure energy.
5. The pressure energy then forces the fluid out of the pump through the discharge nozzle
and into the piping system.
6. The fluid flow creates a pressure drop at the inlet of the pump, which causes additional
fluid to be drawn into the impeller, thus maintaining the flow rate.
7. The speed of the impeller and the size of the impeller and volute/diffuser determine the
flow rate and pressure generated by the pump.

The working of a centrifugal pump is based on the principles of Newton's laws of motion and
Bernoulli's principle. The rotation of the impeller creates a centrifugal force that moves the fluid,
while the change in velocity and pressure as the fluid flows through the pump is governed by
Bernoulli's principle. Centrifugal pumps are designed to be efficient and reliable, but their
performance can be affected by factors such as fluid properties, impeller design, operating
conditions, and system characteristics. Proper selection, installation, and maintenance of the
pump can help to optimize its performance and maximize its lifespan[11].

5.1.8Applications of centrifugal pump:

Centrifugal pumps are used in a wide range of applications across many industries due to their
ability to efficiently move large volumes of fluids at high flow rates and low to medium
pressures. Some of the common applications of centrifugal pumps include:

1.Water supply:
Centrifugal pumps are commonly used in municipal
water supply systems for pumping water from reservoirs
or wells to water treatment plants and distribution
networks.

2.HVAC systems:

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Centrifugal pumps are used in heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems for
circulating water and other fluids to provide heating or cooling to buildings.

3.Chemical processing:
Centrifugal pumps are used in chemical processing
plants to transfer fluids and chemicals, including
corrosive or abrasive materials.

4.Petroleum industry:
Centrifugal pumps are used in oil and gas production for
transferring fluids, such as crude oil, drilling mud, and
produced water.

5.Food and beverage industry:

Centrifugal pumps are used in the food
and beverage industry for transferring
fluids, such as milk, beer, and wine.

6.Agriculture:
Centrifugal pumps are used in irrigation
systems for pumping water to crops, as
well as in livestock watering systems.

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5.1.9Formula and Nomenclature:
Inside the turbine the energy is transferred from the fluid in the form of kinetic pressure energy
to the turbine so by applying the first law of thermos dynamics to the system we get
2 2
P2−P1 V 2 −V 1 dPt
H= + + ( z 2−z 1 )= (4.1)
ρg 2g ρg

( Cd∗π∗d 2 √ 2∗ρ∗d Po )
Qv = ( 4.2)
4ρ

QV
V 1= (4.3)
A1

Qv
V 2= (4.4 )
A2

Pu= ρ∗g∗H∗Q v (4.5)

Et =
( )
Pw
Pe
∗100 % (4.6)

Where,
Pu is pump power output (W)
Pe is pump power input (W)
T is torque (Nm)
Et is overall efficiency (%)
Qv is volume flow rate (m^3/s)
H is pump total head (m)
d is orifice plate diameter (0.018m)
Cd is discharge coefficient (0.63)
r is pulley radius (0.024m)
ρ is water density (kg/m3)
dPo is pressure drop across orifice plate (Pa)
dPs is pressure drop across pump (Pa)
P1 is the turbine inlet pressure (Pa)
V1 is the velocity in the duct of pump inlet (m/s)
V2 is the velocity in the duct of pump outlet (m/s)
A1 is the cross-sectional area of the pump inlet (0.00029865m2)
A2 is the cross-sectional area of the pump outlet (0.00029865m2)

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5.2Literature review:
5.2.1Analytical Method:
The operating characteristics of a centrifugal pump with broken impeller malfunction
was studied by tests and numerical simulation. One blade was cut 1/4 as a broken
impeller. The energy characteristics, vibration, internal flow, pressure fluctuation, and
radial force of the pump were studied in detail. The test results show that as for the
pump with broken impeller, the head decreased by 9.85% and efficiency decreased by
1.06% under 1.0 Q0. The vibration increase amplitudes at the outlet flange are the
maximum. The APF (axial passing frequency) of all monitoring points increased
significantly, and a new frequency – 5APF appeared, except for the inlet of the pump. It
can be found that the low-speed region of blade fracture surface is more obvious than
other blades through numerical simulation. The radial force of the broken impeller
increased obviously and became more concentrated. Due to the broken blade, the
peak-to-peak magnitude of pressure fluctuation at the tongue and pump outlet
increased by 4.7% and 9.5% respectively. The research results provide some reference
for the malfunction diagnosis of centrifugal pump.
5.2.2Modelling and simulation:
It presents the velocity distribution in impeller. For NBP, The impeller speed distribution is
uniform, and the low-speed region is symmetrically distributed near the pressure side of each
blade. For BBP, the relative velocity distribution becomes non-uniform near the broken blade,
and the low velocity zone near the side of broken blade surface becomes larger evidently. There
exists a larger vortex flow at the inhalation position of blade damage location, which can make
hydraulic loss increase and pump performance decrease rapidly.

5.2.3Experimental method:
The test bench is composed of test pump, inlet and outlet water circulating pipe,
circulating water tank, computer, and vibration acceleration sensor. The outlet valve is
used to regulate flow rate and the flow rate is obtained by KEF electromagnetic
flowmeter, its measurement accuracy is 0.5. The pressure fluctuation of the pump outlet
and the tongue are monitored by the pressure pulsation sensor, the measurement
range is −100 to 100 kPa, and the measurement accuracy is 0.2. The vibration
transducers are fixed at the volute, the inlet flange, outlet flange, the machine base, the
motor bracket, and the pump bracket. The sensitivity of the vibration transducers is 100
mV/g. The vibration sampling frequency is 25.6 kHz, the sampling time is 30 s.

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5.3Methodology :

5.3.1Proccedure:

Open the hydraulics bench sump drain valve and close the discharge control valve on the
discharge control manifold. Switch on the F1-27 pump and select a speed of 2000rpm. Open the
discharge control valve fully. We can now take a set of readings for flow rate at a To vary the
head we need to use the discharge con range of head values, control valve. Repeat the procedure
at pump speeds of 2500 and 3000 rpm.

5.3.2Apparatus:
 The F1-10 Hydraulics Bench which allows us to measure flow by timed volume
collection.
 The F1-27 Centrifugal Pump Test Accessory.
 A stopwalch to allow us to determine the flow rate of water (not supplied).

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5.3.3Observation and Calculation:
Sr Orifice Pump Mot Water Mot Densit Orifice Volu Inlet Outle Pu Pum Overal
. differen differen or tempera or y of dischar me veloc t mp p l
N tial tial Spe ture Tw inpu water ge flowra ity veloc tota pow efficie
o. pressur pressur ed n (C) t (kg/m coeffici te Qv V1 ity l er ncy
e dPo e dPp (Hz) pow ^3) ent Cd (dm^3 (m/s) V2 hea outp (%)
(kPa) (kPa) er /s) (m/s) d ut P
Pe Hd (W)
(w) (m)
1 20.166 219.893 48 22.1 280. 997.7 0.61 0.987 3.3 3.3 22. 217 77.5
76 52
2 11.04 219.893 48 22.2 261. 997.7 0.61 0.73 2.45 2.45 22. 161 61.5
72 52
3 9.417 219.893 48 22.3 273. 997.7 0.61 0.674 2.26 2.26 22. 149 54.3
93 52
4 8.955 219.893 48 22.3 296. 997.7 0.61 0.658 2.2 2.2 22. 145 48.9
14 52
5 6.511 219.893 49 22.3 230. 997.7 0.61 0.561 1.88 1.88 22. 124 53.5
96 52
6 1.812 219.893 49 22.3 231. 997.7 0.61 0.296 0.99 0.99 22. 65 28.1
69 52

graph between volume graph between volume flow

flow rate and efficiency rate and pump output
power
Pump power output (W)

100
80 250
Efficency (%)

60 200
150
40 100
20 50
0 0
0.987 0.73 0.674 0.658 0.561 0.296 0.987 0.73 0.674 0.658 0.561 0.296
Volume flow rate (m^3/s) volume flow rate (m^3/s)

graph between volume flow

rate and pump output power
250
Pump power output (W)

200
150
100
50
0
0.987 0.73 0.674 0.658 0.561 0.296
volume flow rate (m^3/s)

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5.4Conclusion:
The efficiency of the centrifugal pump increase with the increase of volume flow rate. The
maximum efficiency of the pump obtained is 84% at volume flow rate of 0.522 m 3/s. The brake
power also increases with the increment of volume flow rate. The maximum brake power is
found to be 107W at the volume flow rate of 0.574 m 3/s. The head flow curve represents the
relationship between the head (pressure) and the flow rate of the pump. The pump total head
remains constant and decreases in after a certain flow rate. The curve obtained from the software
shows a characteristic shape that is typical of centrifugal pumps, with a maximum head value at
a certain flow rate. The curve also shows a decrease in head as flow rate increases beyond the
maximum value, indicating the pump's inability to maintain a constant pressure at higher flow
rates. The head flow curve is an essential tool for pump selection and system design, as it
provides critical information on the pump's performance under various operating conditions. The
use of software for obtaining the head flow curve offers a convenient and accurate method that
eliminates the need for physical testing. Overall, the experiment demonstrates the importance of
understanding the head flow curve and its significance in pump performance analysis and
selection.

5.5References:

[1]Kochevsky, Alexey N., and Victor G. Nenya. "Contemporary Approach for Simulation and
Computation of Fluid Flows in Centrifugal Hydromachines." arXiv preprint
arXiv:physics/0409102 (2004)

[2] Research on Operating Characteristics of a Centrifugal Pump with Broken Impeller

Malfunction." Advances in Mechanical Engineering (2021).
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/16878140211049951.
journals.sagepub.com

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