CHAPTER-3

STATICS

Self weight

1
• Hydrostatics deals
with the study of
pressures throughout a
fluid at rest and the
pressure forces on
finite(solid) surfaces.

Engineering applications of hydrostatics principles include:-

 the study of forces acting on submerged
bodies such as dam faces, gates & others
 the analysis of stability of floating bodies.
Fluid Pressure
The pressure intensity or
more simply the pressure
on a surface is the
pressure force per unit
area expressed by the
relation
dF
P
dA
but the force should be applied normal
to the surface.
Pressure at a point
Consider a finite but small element (the small triangular
prism) of liquid at rest, acted upon by the fluid around it. The
values of average unit pressures on the three surfaces are Px,
Py and Pz. In the Z direction the forces are equal and opposite
and cancel each other.
 1.Pressure Distribution PASCAL’s Law

The basic equation of Hydrostatics may be derived by considering the

infinitesimal fluid parallel piped in a static fluid shown in fig.
 Pressure Measurement
Absolute and Gage Pressures

The pressure at a point within a fluid mass can be expressed as either

an absolute pressure or a gage pressure.
The pressure in a vacuum is called absolute zero, and all pressures
referenced with respect to this zero pressure are termed absolute
pressures.

If a pressure is expressed with respect to local atmospheric pressure,

it is called gage pressure, Pgage.
For example, if a pressure of 50 kPa is measured with a gage referenced
to the atmosphere and the atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa, then the
pressure can be expressed as either p = 50 kPa gage or p = 150 kPa
absolute.
 Measurement of pressure
Devices to measure hydraulic pressure:
1. Mercury Barometer
 The measurement of atmospheric pressure is usually accomplished
with a mercury barometer, which in its simplest form, consists of a
glass tube closed at one end with the open end immersed in a
container of mercury as shown in Fig.
 The tube is initially filled with mercury (inverted with its open end up)
and then turned upside down (open end down) with the open end in the
container of mercury.
 The column of mercury will come to an equilibrium position where its
weight plus the force due to the vapor pressure (which develops in the
space above the column) balances the force due to the atmospheric
pressure
Thus,
Patm = h + Pvapor
Where:  is the specific weight of mercury
 2. Manometry

•A standard technique for measuring pressure involves the use of liquid

columns in vertical or inclined tubes containing one or more liquid of
different specific gravities.
• Pressure measuring devices based on this technique are called
manometers.
• In using a manometer, generally a known pressure (which may be
atmospheric) is applied to one end of the manometer tube and the
unknown pressure to be determined is applied to the other end.
•A manometer to determine this differential pressure is known as
differential pressure manometer.
•The mercury barometer is an example of one type of manometer, but
there are many other configurations possible, depending on the particular
application

The common types of manometers include

 the piezometer tube,

 the U-tube manometer,
 micro- manometer and
 the inclined - tube manometer
a) Piezometer Tube
The simplest type of manometer consists of a vertical tube, open at the
top, and attached to the container in which the pressure is desired, as
illustrated in Fig. below. Since manometers involve columns of fluids at
rest, the fundamental equation describing their use is the Eq.

P = h + P0

b) U- Tube Manometer
 Another type of manometer, which is widely used, consists of a
tube formed into the shape of U as is shown in Fig..
 The fluid in the manometer is called the gage fluid.
 To measure larger pressure differences we can choose a manometer
with higher density, and to measure smaller pressure differences with
accuracy we can choose a manometer fluid which is having a density
closer to the fluid density.
To find the pressure pa in terms of the various column heights, we
can use one of the two ways of manometer reading techniques:
 Surface of equal pressure(SEP)
 Step by step procedure(SS)
Start at one end and write the pressure there,
Add the change in pressure there
(+) If next meniscus is lower and
(-) If next meniscus is higher
Continue until the other end of the gage and equate the pressure at
that point
 Thus, for the U- tube manometer shown in the above Fig., using SS
method we will start at point A and work around to the open end.
 The pressure at points A and (1) are the same, and as we move from
point (1) to (2) the pressure will increase by 1h1.
 The pressure at point (2) is equal to the pressure at point (3), since the
pressures at equal elevation in a continuous mass of fluid at rest must
be the same.
 Note that we could not simply “jump across” from point (1) to a point
at the same elevation in the right – hand tube since these would not be
points within the same continuous mass of fluid.
 With the pressure at point (3) specified we now move to the open end
where the pressure is zero.
 As we move vertically upward the pressure decreases by an amount
2h2.
 In equation form these various steps can be expressed as:
 B
A

PA = 2h2 - 1h1 PA - PB = 2h2 + 3h3 - 1h1

 The U- tube manometer is also widely used to measure the
difference in pressure between two containers or two points in a
given system.
 Consider a manometer connected between container A and B as is
shown in the above Fig..
 The difference in pressure between A and B can be found by again
starting at one end of the system and working around to the other
end.
 For example, at A the pressure is PA, which is equal to p1, and as we
move to point (2) pressure increases by 1h1.
 The pressure at p2 is equal to p3, and as we move upward to from
point (4) to (5) the pressure decreases by 3h3. Finally, P5 = PB, since
they are at equal elevation. Thus,
PA + 1h1 - 3h3 = PB
 And the pressure difference is
PA - PB = 2h2 + 3h3 - 1h1

c) Differential U-tube
 Inverted U-tube manometer is used for measuring pressure
differences in liquids.
 The space above the liquid in the manometer is filled with air which
can be admitted or expelled through the tap on the top, in order to
adjust the level of the liquid in the manometer.
d) Inclined – tube Manometer
1. What is the pressure at a point 10m below the free surface in a fluid that has a
variable density in kg/m3 given by   450  ah , in which a  12Kg / m 4 and h is
the distance in meters measured from the free surface.
2. Express a pressure of 50Kpa in
a) mm of mercury
b) m of water
c)m of acetylene tetra bromide, S=2.94.

3. Determine the heights of column of

a)water;
b)kerosene, S=0.83; and
c)acetylene tetra bromide, S=2.94 equivalent to 300mmHg.
 4. In the fig below, S1=1.0, S2=0.95, S3=1.0, h1=h2=280mm and
h3=1m. Compute PA-PB in mm of water.

Reading Assignment: mechanical gage pressure measuring device?

Last class we have discussed about
Definition of hydrostatics and its practical application
Fluid pressure
Pressure at a point
Pressure distribution
Pressure measurement methods
Manometry
In this class we will discuss about
Hydrostatic pressure on plane and curved surfaces
 Hydrostatic pressure on plane and
curved surfaces
When a surface is submerged in a fluid, forces develop on the
surface due to the fluid.

The determination
of these forces is
important in the
design of storage
tanks, ships, dams,
and other hydraulic
structures.
 1. Forces on plane surface
The distributed forces resulting from the action of fluid
on a finite area can be conveniently replaced by resultant
force.

The magnitude of resultant force and its line of action (pressure

center) are determined by
integration,
by formula and
by concept of the pressure prism.
Horizontal surfaces
A plane surface in a horizontal position in a fluid at rest
is subjected to a constant pressure

The magnitude of the force acting on one side of the

surface is
FR=PdA=PdA
FR=PA=h.A
FR* Xp =xP.dA (moment taken to find the line of action of resultant force
PA. Xp =P xdA
1
Xp  
A A
x dA  x

FR* Yp =yP.dA
PA. Yp =P ydA
1
Yp 
A  A
y dA  y

x and y are the distances to the centroid of the area.

 Inclined surfaces:-
For a plane inclined by angle,  from the horizontal, the
intersection of the plane of area and the free surface is taken as
the x-axis.
The y-axis is taken in the plane of the area with origin 0 at the free
surface

The force acting on the elemental area dA,

For constant  and  FR become ,

FR 
dF= h. dA

FR   hdA   y sindA

 sin  ydA

but
 ydAIs the first moment of the area about x- axis, Yc*A

FR=yc sinA but yc sin=hc

FR=hc A
By summing moment about the x-axis

FR. y p   y. dF   yy sindA    y sindA 2

yc sinAyp   sin  y dA 2

1 1
yp      
2 2
y sin dA y dA
 sin  A yc A yc
And by parallel axis theorem Ix  Ixc  Ayc 2 The second moment of inertia for
plane area about x-axis
I xc
y p  yc 
Ay
 This shows the resultant doesn’t passes
through the centroid but it always acts
below it.
 For moment about y-axis

FR.x p   x. dF   xy sindA    xy sindA

yc sinAxp   sin  xy dA
1 1
xp 
 sin  Ayc   xy sin  dA 
Ayc  xy dA

and Iy  Ixy  xcycA The second moment of

inertia for plane area about
I xy y-axis
xp  x 
Ay
Hydrostatic Force on Curved Surfaces

The total hydrostatic force on a curved surface

immersed in a liquid can not be directly determined
by the methods developed for plane surface

Consider the curved surface BC of unit width shown

Buoyancy and stability of floating bodies
1. Buoyant force (Archimedes Principle)
The buoyant force on a submerged body is the
difference between the vertical components of
pressure force on its underside and the vertical
component of pressure force on its upper side

Buoyant force always acts vertically upward

B
Archimedes principle states that the up
thrust or the buoyancy on a body immersed
in a fluid is equal to the weight, of the fluid
displaced.

The up thrust will act through the center of

gravity of the displaced fluid, which is called
the center of buoyancy.

Up thrust on body = weight of fluid displaced

by the body (Archimedes principle.)
2. Stability of submerged and floating bodies.
There are three possible conditions of equilibrium of solid
body.
1.Stable equilibrium – A small displacement from the
equilibrium produces a righting moment tending to restore the
body to the equilibrium position.
2. Unstable equilibrium – A small displacement produces an
over turning moment tending to displace the body further from
its equilibrium position
3. Neutral equilibrium - The body remains at rest in any
position to which it may be displaced. No couple.
2.1 Stability in Submerged bodies

Where: B is center of buoyancy and G is center of gravity

2.2 Stability on Floating body
 Solid body floating in equilibrium (weight acts
through G & the buoyancy through B).

 Both act in the same straight line. When the body

is displaced from its equilibrium, weight continues
to act at G.

 The volume of liquid displaced remains constant

but the shape of this volume will change and the
position of its G and B will move relative to the
body.
 The point at which the line of action of the
buoyant force for the displaced position cuts the
original vertical through the center of gravity of
the body G is called metacenter, designated M
 Metacentric height is the distance GM.

 The displaced fluid is rectangular in section (fig a)

but it is triangular in (fig b) and the center of
buoyancy moves to B1.
 As a result FB and W are not in the same straight
line producing a turning moment W*X that is a
righting moment.
 Comparing the above figures, it can be seen that:
 If M lies above G a righting moment is produced, GM is
regarded as positive, and equilibrium is stable.
 If M lies below G an overturning moment is produced,
GM is regarded as negative, and equilibrium is unstable.
 If M and G coincide the body is in neutral equilibrium.
Evaluation of Metacentric height
 AB original water line when floating object was
undisturbed
 CD new water line after floating object has small rotation
through angle ,
 As a result BOD came out and COA gone inside. The total
displaced volume does not change. This is gain and loss of
buoyant force FB
 The moment formed this force is FB*S (clockwise sense)
and this moment is equal to the opposite moment
resulting from FB,
 Total buoyant force , V=FB (counter clockwise sense),
where V is total volume displaced by the floating object
 Thus, FB*S=FB*=V
  =FB*S/V…..  =MBsin
 MB=FB*S/Vsin

 The buoyant force produced by AOC can be

estimated by considering small prism of wedge
 Assume that prism has a horizontal area dA, and
located at distance X from axis of rotation O, then
the height of prism is Xtan
 For small angle, <=sin <=tan =, then height
is X* 
 Then the buoyant force
 FB    x dA

 The moment produced by the couple is

 FB * S    x dA * x
  
2
x dA

 FB * S  Iy
 Now substitute MB=Iy/Vsin =Iy/V
 MB=Iy/V
 The metacentric height, M
M

GM  MB  BG B
I G
GM   BG
V
 (+ )sign is used when G is below B, G
B
 ( - )Sign is used when G falls above B
 If the value of GM is positive the floating
object is in stable equilibrium
 If the value of GM is negative the floating
object is in unstable equilibrium
 If the value of GM is zero the floating object is
in neutral equilibrium
 Example-1
A vertical, symmetrical trapezoidal gate with its
upper edge located 5m below the free surface is
shown in the figure. Determine the total hydrostatic
force and its center of pressure
Example-2
 Example-3
A cylinder of 1m diameter and 2m high floats in
water . The cylinder weighs kN and its center of
gravity 1m above the base of the cylinder.
Calculate the meta centric height of the cylinder
and state the stability condition
 Relative Equilibrium

Practical/laboratory Work

Determining density and the specific gravity of a given liquid

Determining the viscosity of liquids

Determination of the center of pressure on plane surfaces

Verification of Archimedes principle

Verifying Bernoulli Theorem