5G Core Network : Standalone Architecture (5G Series - Part 5)

Tuesday, June 11, 2024 10:54 PM

5G Core Network : Standalone Architecture (5G Series - Part 5)

In 5G Standalone (SA) architecture, the core network is designed with a clear separation between the control plane and the user plane. Let’s dive into the key
components of the 5G core network and their functions.

◾ Control Plane Connectivity:

AMF (Access and Mobility Management Function):

The first node a user connects to. AMF handles authentication (in collaboration with AUSF) and mobility management as users move between cells.

AUSF (Authentication Server Function):

Works with UDM (Unified Data Management) to verify user subscriptions. Together, they ensure that a user is authorized to access network services.

PCF (Policy Control Function):

Manages policy and billing, including roaming permissions and service-specific rules.

SMF (Session Management Function):

Oversees PDU sessions and handles IP allocation, traffic routing, and session management between the user device and the core network.

◾ User Plane Connectivity:

UPF (User Plane Function):

This node handles the actual transmission of user data between the device and the core network. UPF also manages packet routing, forwarding, and ensures
seamless communication with external data networks. Additionally, it supports network slicing, enabling dedicated slices for different services or use cases.

This architecture, with its distinct roles for each component, enables 5G to deliver high-speed, low-latency services while supporting advanced features like
QoS handling and network slicing.

By separating control and user planes, 5G is optimized for flexibility, scalability, and efficiency, setting the stage for future innovations.

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Capacity optimization - 4G/5G
Friday, January 17, 2025 7:33 AM

To ensure that the user gets sufficient resources in the radio network (especially during
busy hours), it is imperative to equip the radio access network with the right amount of
capacity. Capacity should not be under or over provisioned.

Over-provisioning leads to inefficient network whereas Under-provisioning can lead to

poor customer experience by degrading key KPIs such as accessibility (no resources),
mobility (Handover issues), integrity (poor user throughput) etc.

To avoid scenario of under/over provisioning of capacity, following reports can be looked

at : –
· Busy Hour Utilization – measures the utilization of equipped resources in terms of
Resource blocks or CCEs and its correlation with user experience such as throughput.
· Traffic volume - measures the traffic carried by each cell (identify outliers).
· Blocking – when resources are unavailable in the cell to use (for control & shared
channel)- indicates which cells to be addressed first.
· Backhaul congestion – Resources at the backhaul are insufficient & to be addressed.

Some of the ways to resolve capacity related issues –

· By ensuring radio resources among control and shared channels are allocated
appropriately (e.g., allocation of resources among PCFICH, PHICH, PDCCH (CCEs),
PDSCH etc.)
· By improving quality of the network (reducing weak coverage, overlapping,
overshooting, interference etc.) as better quality helps to send more bits in same no of
resources.
· By enabling load balancing among different cells in a cluster.
· Lastly by adding capacity in terms of new antenna, cells, sites, backhaul or carrier
(if available).

Note - There are few other actions that can be taken but above are the key actions be
taken during capacity optimization.

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Monday, January 20, 2025 8:05 PM

RRC & Bearers : Control/Data Planes (KPI Part 9)

Control and user planes serve distinct but critical roles for managing signaling and user data
flow respectively. Here's a breakdown :

1. Control Plane

Responsible for managing signaling between the user equipment (UE) and the network,
including:

ECM (EPS Connection Management):

- EMM Registered: The UE is registered with the LTE network.
- ECM Connected: Both NAS & AS layers connected, enable signaling exchange
- RRC Connected: RRC signaling link between UE and RAN is established.

S1 Signaling Connection: Interface bw RAN & EPC for control signaling.

S11 GTP-C & S5 GTP-C: Interfaces that handle control plane signaling in the core network (MME to
SGW and SGW to PGW, respectively).

2. User Plane

Handles the actual transmission of user data (e.g., voice, video, and internet browsing):

Data Radio Bearer: Carries user data over radio interface bw UE and RAN.
S1 Bearer: The bearer path between the RAN and SGW.
S5 Bearer: Carries user data between SGW and PGW in core network.
E-UTRAN Radio Access Bearer: Data Radio Bearer + S1 Bearer
EPS Bearer: End-to-end IP connectivity from UE to PGW for data services.

Efficient communication requires seamless interaction between the Control Plane and User
Plane to manage both signaling and data delivery.

Understanding these technical fundamentals is key to enhancing network performance and to learn
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Timer: RRC (KPI part 6)
Friday, January 17, 2025 7:32 AM

Accessibility is one of the key performance indicator in providing services to end -users
by giving access to the network in an appropriate manner.

During access part, when UE (user equipment) connects to core network through NAS,
its state is termed as RRC connected. In this state, if there detects any problem at
physical layer then UE timer (T310) starts after receiving "out-of-sync" indications from
lower layer. Once these indications reached to the out of sync number defined (N310),
timer T311 starts and after T311 expires, UE goes to idle mode (disconnects from core
NW).

There can be different criteria set for “Out of Sync” indications, for example, BLER
(block error rate) of PDCCH/PCFICH is greater than or equal to 10%.
Similar criteria can be defined for “In Sync” such as - BLER is less than or equal to 2%.
Based on RSRP, UE monitors RS (reference signal) in the DL. If the reference signals
have enough strength so that the UE can decode consistently the PDCCH, then the link
is in-sync else it will be out of sync.

Recovery of physical layer problems :

While timer T310 is running and UE upper layer receives N311 consecutive "in-sync"
indications from lower layers, UE shall stop timer T310 and resumes the RRC
connection without explicit Signalling, i.e. the UE resumes the entire radio resource
configuration.

Detection of radio link failure :

If timer T310 expired, or random-access problem is indicated from MAC while neither
T300, T301, T304 nor T311 is running; or upon indication from RLC that the maximum
number of retransmissions has been reached, it is considered as radio link failure.

Value of these timers can be increased to reduce the radio link failures but it can add
more delay, so there is always a tradeoff.

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Friday, January 17, 2025 7:39 AM

RRC - Radio Resource Control (KPI - Part4)

RRC operates at the IP level (Layer 3) between the User Equipment (UE) and the base
station, playing a critical role in network accessibility and resource management. Its
functions include:

Connection Establishment:

RRC is responsible for setting up and releasing the RRC connection between the UE
and the base station. When a device wants to communicate with the network, RRC
handles the initial access and ensures a reliable connection.

Broadcast of System Information:

RRC is used to broadcast system information, such as network configurations and

parameters (e.g., bandwidth, access conditions, movement across intra/inter
carriers/technologies). This information allows the UE to understand how to connect to
the network and maintain communication.

RRC Connection Mobility Procedures:

As users move, RRC handles mobility management, including handovers between cells.
It ensures continuous service as the UE moves across the network, minimizing service
interruptions and ensuring seamless connectivity during handovers.

NAS Signaling (Non-Access Stratum):

RRC facilitates NAS signaling, which is used for higher-level functions like
authentication, security, and mobility management that operate beyond the radio
network. This interface links the core network to the radio access network.

Radio Bearer Establishment, Re-establishment, and Release:

RRC is in charge of establishing radio bearers, which are carrying data between the UE
and the network. It ensures the bearer is correctly configured to meet the service
requirements (QoS, latency, etc.) and handles re-establishing the bearer if the
connection is interrupted. RRC also manages the release of radio bearers when
communication is complete to free up resources.

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Monday, January 20, 2025 8:35 PM

RRC Idle state (KPI - Part 7)

In mobile networks, Radio Resource Control (RRC) Idle state plays a key role in
network efficiency and UE (User Equipment) power saving and in this state -

MME does not hold valid location/routing information i.e. EMM (Mobility management) -
DEREGISTERED, and

UE does not have a NAS signaling connection with the MME i.e. ECM (Connection
management) IDLE

Key functions of RRC Idle state -

• PLMN selection
• Broadcast of system information
• Cell re-selection mobility
• Paging for mobile terminated data is initiated by EPC
• DRX for CN paging configured by NAS
• UE controlled mobility

RRC messages include (as shown in drive test logs below):

• MIB (Master Information Block):

Bandwidth - Defines the radio channel width.
System Frame Number - Helps synchronize network timing.
PHICH Config - Configures physical HARQ Indicator Channel parameters.

• SIB1 (System Information Block 1):

- MCC/MNC - Mobile Country/Network Codes.
- TAC - Tracking Area Code.
- ECGI - E-UTRAN Cell Global Identifier.

• SIB2: Configures physical channels, essential info for network access.

• SIB3: Specifies cell reselection parameters.

• SIB4: Contains info about neighboring cells on the same frequency.

• SIB5: info about neighboring cells on different frequencies.

• SIB6: Information about UMTS neighboring cells.

• SIB7: Information related to GSM/GPRS neighboring cells.

• SIB8: Details on CDMA2000 neighboring cells.

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• SIB9: Home eNB identity for small cell deployments.

• SIB10-11: Earthquake and Tsunami Warning System (ETWS) for emergency alerts, and few
more not listed here.

Understanding these key components is crucial for optimizing network performance and to
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Monday, January 20, 2025 8:34 PM

RRC setup success rate (KPI part 8)

Accessibility - In providing services to end-users, the first step UE performs is to get

access to the network. It is imperative to provide services to users whenever requested
and the first key performance indictor that comes first into picture to analyse it is RRC
connection setup success rate.

Radio resource control (RRC) protocol exists at IP level (layer 3) between UE and eNB.
The major functions of the RRC protocol include connection establishment and release
functions, broadcast of system information, radio bearer establishment,
reconfiguration/release, RRC connection mobility procedures, paging notification and
outer loop power control.

From OSS reports, RRC failure reasons can be identified and accordingly plan of action
to mitigate it is mechanized. Key reasons for low RRC success rate are as follow –

• Failure in Radio layer – Coverage/Quality/Interference

• Failure due to unavailability of resources – Radio/MME/Transport
• Maximum number of RRC connections achieved
• Failure due to other reasons – HW/SW/VSWR/Ant line etc.

Note - There can be few other reasons for RRC failure but majority belongs to above
mentioned ones.

To learn about Network KPIs, please refer to the complete course on KPIs at -
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Friday, January 17, 2025 7:54 AM

4G Physical layer (explained with live demo) :-

4G Downlink Channels and Signals –

· PDCCH
· PBCH
· PSS and SSS
· PCFICH & PHICH
· Cell specific RS & CSI-RS
· PDSCH

1. Physical data control channel (PDCCH) :- conveys Downlink Control Information

(DCI). It carries information such as scheduling and resource grant to UE. It includes
one or more control channel elements (CCE, consists of 9 resource element group). A
PDCCH can span from symbol 1 to 3 in the time domain.
2. Physical Broadcast Channel (PBCH) :- The PBCH carries part of the system
information (MIB) required by the UE to access the network. Together with the PSS and
the SSS, PBCH performs the initial access procedure. It spans across 72 subcarriers in
frequency domain and 4 ofdm symbols across time domain.
3. Primary and Secondary Synchronization Signals (PSS & SSS) :- PSS and SSS are
used for cell-search procedures and cell identification.
PSS and SSS together carry the PCI. PSS sends one of three orthogonal sequences
and SSS sends one of 167 binary sequences. Therefore, there are 504 unique PCIs.
4. Physical control format indicator channel (PCFICH):- Carries the number of OFDM
symbols used for transmission of PDCCHs in a subframe
5. Physical Hybrid Automatic request (HARQ) indicator (PHICH) :- To send ACK/NACK
feedback to the UE for the uplink blocks received by eNB
6. Cell specific reference signal – To estimate all the channels in the physical layer &
measure signal strength and quality.
7. Channel State Information Reference Signal (CSI -RS) :- It is used for RSRP
measurements in advanced antenna technique and calculate CQI, PMI, Rank indicator
related data.
8. Physical data shared channel (PDSCH) :-
PDSCH carries user data, paging info & SIB msgs. All the Resource elements left after
allocation of all above messages, rest of the resources are allocated to PDSCH.
Different formats can be used depending upon the transmission modes.

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4G PHY Layer
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Friday, January 17, 2025 11:43 AM

Handover - Phases

Handover is crucial for maintaining seamless connectivity in mobile networks & it

involves three key phases:

1. Handover Preparation:
The source Radio Access Network (RAN) requests the target RAN to prepare for the
User Equipment (UE). The target RAN reserves the necessary resources and sends
access information to the UE via the source RAN.

2. Handover Execution:
The source RAN commands the UE to switch to the target RAN, forwarding data
packets as the UE connects to the new network. This phase ends when the UE
successfully accesses the target cell.

3. Handover Completion:
The user data path is switched from the source to the target RAN. The target RAN
informs the Mobility Management Entity (MME) and SAE Gateway, and the bearer path
is updated. The source RAN releases the resources after the handover is confirmed
complete.

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Friday, January 17, 2025 11:44 AM

How Network Slicing works?

Slicing is the technique to deliver various type of communication services (such as

eMBB, URLLC, MMTC etc.) depending upon the requirement and needs of the different
customers. Each communication service (Service Instance) here is provided using
Network Slicing Instance (NSI).

Each Network Slicing Instance (NSI) is instantiated through multiple Network Slice
Subnet Instance (NSSI), which consists of different network functions (access network:
AN /core network: CN) and associated resources (storage, processing, compute etc.),
example as follows -

Access NW : NSSI AN-1 and NSSI AN-2 each contain distinct sets of instances of AN
NFs.

Core NW : NSSI CN-1, NSSI CN-2 and NSSI CN-3 each contain distinct sets of
instances of CN NFs.

Transport network (TN) supporting connectivity facilitates the communication between

CN and AN NFs.

NSSI A combines NSSI AN-1 with NSSI CN-1 and corresponding TN connectivity
NSSI B combines NSSI AN-2 and NSSI CN-2 and corresponding TN connectivity
NSSI C combines NSSI AN-2 with NSSI CN-3 and corresponding TN connectivity. The
NSSI AN-2 is shared between NSSI B and NSSI C, while NSSI AN-1 is dedicated to
NSSI A.

CSP offers NSSI A as a Network Slice instance NSI A, in this relationship NSI A
represents NSSI A with associated Service Level Specification (SLS). It also offers
NSSI B as NSI B and NSSI C as NSI C. The SLS of NSI A satisfies the service
requirements of Communication Service Instance 1 and Communication Service
Instance 2. The SLS of NSI B satisfies the service requirements of Communication
Service Instance 2. The SLS of NSI C satisfies the service requirements of
Communication Service Instance 3.

The Communication Service Instance 1 is supported by NSI A. The Communication

Service Instance 2 may be supported by either NSI A or NSI B. The Communication
Service Instance 3 is supported by NSI C.
Ref:3GPP

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Friday, January 17, 2025 4:12 PM

Traditional vs 5G Network

The shift from traditional network (3G/4G) to 5G brings major improvements in flexibility
and performance.

1. Traditional Network Architecture (rigid, hierarchical structure):

- Core Network (CN): Manages data routing and user authentication.
- Radio Access Network (RAN): Connects user devices to the core network.
- Backhaul: Links the RAN to the core.

2. 5G Network Architecture- introduces a more modular, flexible architecture.

a. Disaggregation in RAN
- Central Unit (CU): Handles non-real-time tasks like session management.
- Distributed Unit (DU): Performs real-time tasks like scheduling.
- Radio Unit (RU): Manages radio frequencies and antennas.
Disaggregation allows for more flexible deployment and optimization.

b. Midhaul
5G adds a midhaul layer between the CU and DU, improving traffic management and
reducing latency.

c. Edge Computing
Brings computing closer to users, reducing latency. This is essential for applications like
autonomous driving, AR, etc.

d. Network Virtualization, Cloud and SDN

Runs network functions on shared hardware, enabling network slicing for different
services.
SDN separates network control from hardware, allowing dynamic resource
management in transmission NW.

3. Massive MIMO and Beamforming

- Massive MIMO uses multiple antenna elements, increasing spectrum efficiency.
- Beamforming focuses signals toward specific users, boosting signal strength and
reducing interference.

4. Flexible Frame Structure

5G introduces a flexible frame structure that adapts to different use cases. Smaller slots
reduce latency for critical applications, while larger slots improve data throughput. This
dynamic structure supports a wide range of services.

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hashtag#telecom hashtag#technology hashtag#learning hashtag#platform

hashtag#itelcotech hashtag#academia
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Friday, January 17, 2025 4:12 PM

RSRP : Coverage

Reference Signal Received Power (RSRP) - It is a critical metric used to assess the
coverage of a 4G/5G mobile network.

This indicator measures the linear average over the power contributions of the resource
elements that carry cell specific reference signals within the considered measurement
frequency bandwidth.

The following classifications outline RSRP values and their corresponding signal
penetration capabilities:

- Excellent (-75 dBm or better): Optimal for indoor coverage.

- Good (-85 to -75 dBm): Reliable performance in various environments.
- Fair (-95 to -85 dBm): Adequate for in-car use.
- Weak (-105 to -95 dBm): Limited outdoor connectivity.
- Poor (< -115 dBm): Signal is generally unusable.

Understanding RSRP helps in optimizing network performance and enhancing user

experience.

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Friday, January 17, 2025 4:13 PM

Reasons of low throughput (4G)

Low throughput in LTE networks can be attributed to various factors, both within the
network and at the user equipment (UE) level. Here are some common reasons for low
throughput in network:

1. Poor Signal Strength: Weak signal strength) can significantly impact throughput.
This can occur due to distance from the cell tower or obstacles like buildings or terrain
etc.

2. Interference: Interference from neighboring cells, adjacent frequency bands, or

other radio sources can degrade signal quality and reduce throughput. Too large
overlapping coverage area leads to high RSSI and creates pilot pollution. There are
sometimes external interference issues too.

3. Improper Network Settings – Improper setting of key parameters such as modulation

(higher modulation not enabled), antenna configuration, transmission mode, bandwidth etc.
can lead to low throughput.

4. Hardware/Software issue – Malfunctioning at hardware such as radio, baseband unit

along-with CIPRI cable, SFP, outdated SW,

5. Network Congestion: High user demand or congestion in the network can lead to
reduced throughput, especially during peak hours or in densely populated areas. This
congestion can occur at various network elements such as the radio interface, core
network, or backhaul links.

6. Errors over air interface: Errors caused by channel impairments, fading, or

environmental conditions can result in retransmissions, reducing overall throughput.

7. Backhaul Limitations: Inadequate backhaul capacity or congestion in the

backhaul network can bottleneck data traffic and reduce throughput. Check media
provisioning end to end till ISP.

8. Packet Loss and Latency: High packet loss and latency can impact the efficiency
of data transmission and reduce overall throughput, especially for real-time applications
like video streaming or online gaming.

UE Capability: The capabilities of the user equipment, such as antenna design,

processing power, and modem capabilities, can also affect throughput. Older devices or
devices with inferior specifications may experience lower throughput compared to
newer, more advanced devices.

Addressing low throughput issues in LTE networks typically involves a combination of

network optimization techniques, capacity upgrades, spectrum management,
interference mitigation strategies, and ensuring optimal UE performance. Continual
monitoring, analysis, and optimization are essential to maintain satisfactory throughput
levels and ensure a positive user experience in LTE networks.

** To learn about such topics, please refer to the RAN Engineering course at -
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Friday, January 17, 2025 4:20 PM

Protocols - 4G RAN

RRC (L3) – The RRC protocol manages the control plane, handling signaling between the UE (User
Equipment) and the network.
The major functions of the RRC protocol include connection establishment/release functions, broadcast
of system information, radio bearer establishment, mobility procedures, paging notification and outer
loop power control.

PDCP (L2) - It deals with higher-layer data, ensuring efficient transmission through header
compression and encryption. It transfers user plane & control plane data.

RLC (L2)– The RLC protocol ensures reliable data transfer. With ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request), it
detects errors in data transmission and triggers retransmissions, ensuring that any corrupted or lost data
is resent

MAC (L2) – Medium Access Control is responsible for logical channel multiplexing, hybrid automatic
repeat request (HARQ), uplink/downlink scheduling, random access procedure, and maintenance of
uplink timing.

PHY layer (L1) handles crucial tasks like IFFT (Inverse Fast Fourier Transform), modulation, coding, and
rate matching. It contains different channels-
- Physical Broadcast Channel (PBCH), which carries part of the system information (MIB) required by the
UE to access the network; Primary and Secondary Synchronization Signals (PSS & SSS) for cell-search
procedures and cell identification;
- Physical control format indicator channel (PCFICH) to carry the number of OFDM symbols used for
transmission of PDCCHs in a subframe;
- Physical Hybrid Automatic request (HARQ) indicator (PHICH) to send ACK/NACK feedback to the UE for
the uplink blocks received by eNB;
Physical data shared channel (PDSCH) to carry user data, paging info & SIB msgs.

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Friday, January 17, 2025 4:22 PM

Handovers - Intra Freq.

To keep the UE (user equipment) connected to the best serving cell (with best radio conditions) during
connected (RRC) mode, it is important to switch the call/session from one cell to another in an efficient
manner (without much delay or interruption) during mobility.

During this handover from one cell to another within same carrier frequency, different events occur
based on signal strength (RSRP) or signal quality (RSRQ):

● Event A1: Serving becomes better than threshold

● Event A2: Serving becomes worse than threshold
● Event A3: Neighbor becomes offset better than serving
● Event A4: Neighbor cell becomes better than a threshold value. Event A4 is mainly used to configure
UE to perform measurements on inter‐frequency carriers for offloading purposes.
● Event A5: Serving becomes worse than threshold1 and neighbor becomes better than threshold2

Following A3 related parameters need to be optimized to enable efficient handover procedures –

1. A3 Offset - Neighbor becomes offset better than serving. Handover margin for better cell HO. Used
in measurement event type A3 where the event is triggered when the neighbor cell becomes better
than the serving cell by the value of the A3 offset. Normally, its value is 3dB.

2. A3 Hysteresis - Related Hysteresis of Handover Margin for Better Cell Handover of Intra-Frequency
Parameter is used within the entry and leave condition of the A3 triggered reporting condition.
Normally, its value is 0 but to avoid ping-pong its value can be increased.

3. Time to trigger - Time for which the specific criteria for the measurement event A3 must be met to
trigger a measurement report. Normally, its value is 320ms.

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Layer 3- RRC
Friday, January 17, 2025 4:59 PM

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Friday, January 17, 2025 6:10 PM

4G/5G Network KPIs - Part 1 (Accessibility)

Accessibility measures how efficiently users access the network and obtain services.
Key KPIs :-

1. Random Access Channel (RACH) Success Rate

Random access (RA) is a basic procedure for uplink synchronization between user &
network to enable uplink transmission

Formula: RACH Success Rate=Successful RACH /Total RACH Attempts×100

High success rate - users can effectively setup a connection with network
Low success rate - call setup failures

Key Factors Influencing RACH Success Rate:

- Poor radio conditions (e.g., signal interference, weak coverage)
- Parameters - config index, power related, HARQ, TA settings

2. Radio Resource Control (RRC) Connection Setup Success Rate

RRC is a process where connection between user and network is established initially in
control plane.

Formula:
RRC Connection Setup Success Rate=Successful RRC Connection Setups/Total RRC
Connection Setup Attempts×100

High success rate - users initiate calls, sessions promptly

Low success rate - significant portion of connection requests fails

Key Factors Influencing RRC Setup Success Rate:

- Coverage/Quality/Interfere
- Timers/Counters - T300/N300
- Failure due to other reasons – HW/SW/VSWR/Ant line

3. RRC Connection Re-establishment Success Ratio

Procedure initiated after RRC connection failure, caused by poor signal quality, radio
link failures, or mobility issues (e.g., handover failures).

RRC Connection Re-establishment Success Ratio=Successful RRC Re-

establishments/Total RRC Re-establishment Attempts×100

Key Factors Influencing RRC Re-establishment Success Ratio:

- Radio link quality and signal strength
- Handover performance
- Congestion in the network
- Timers/Counters - T301/N301 for connection recovery

4. E-RAB (Radio Access Bearer) Setup Success Rate

It defines the bearer used for transmitting data packets (including voice, video, and
internet traffic characterized by QoS )

Quick Notes Page 25

Formula:
E-RAB Setup Success Rate=Successful E-RAB Setups/Total E-RAB Setup Attempts×
100

High success rate - establish user plane smoothly for voice/data

Low success rate - failed session setups for voice, video calls, or internet access

Key Factors Influencing E-RAB Setup Success Rate:

- Resource availability (bandwidth, power, Licenses)
- Radio link conditions (e.g., interference, weak coverage)
- Hardware or software issues in radio, transmission, or core network

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Friday, January 17, 2025 8:26 PM

what happen when we initially power ON our phone in LTE mobile network. As in the
table picture we can see it as following steps:
1. UE is powered ON
2. Cell sync and selection
3. RACH procedure
4. RRC Connection Request for the first time, it is contain Attach Request and PDN
Connectivity Request
5. UE building a control-plane with the core to do signaling
6. To be attached/registered to the network. EPC will check if the user are legal or not.
also to match capability with the UE
7. only after that, then UE will also build an user-plane connection with the core to do
data transfer
8. UE will always report the measurement that instructed by eNodeB
9. Attach complete means UE allowed to latch and get the services
10. Activate default EPS bearer means UE now has an internet connection through LTE
system
11. UE completely can do browsing, download or upload in the network
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Tuesday, January 21, 2025 5:19 PM

Q. My phone is displaying 5G icon, but there’s no 5G coverage !

A. Actually 5G Icon appears in your phone due to LTE SIB2 that include
UpperLayerIndication-r15 IE flag that supposed to be "1" . So this scenario is likely
occurring because of 5G icon shows it is just configuration issue.

The GSM Association (GSMA) has agreed upon a set of 4 candidate UE configurations
which determine when a UE should display the 5G icon. These 4 configurations are
presented in Table (this config is depends on UE manufacture vendor).

configuration ‘A’ is the most conservative because it limits the UE to displaying the 5G
icon when the UE is already connected to both LTE and NR cells.
In contrast, Configuration ‘D’ is the most aggressive because it allows the UE to display
the 5G icon when using only an LTE cell belonging to an NSA Base Station, without
having to verify NR coverage.
Configurations ‘B’ and ‘C’ rely upon the UE verifying that NR coverage exists

Solution: some vendor have setting for UpperLayerIndicationSwitch that may configure
so let LTE SIB2 broadcast upperlayerindication-r15 only if E-UTRAN cell is configured
with at least one neighboring NRCell.

hashtag#OptimizationHassle
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Friday, January 17, 2025 8:26 PM

5G Channels/Signals (5G Series - Part 8)

5G data transmission occurs across both time and frequency domains, with each
resource carefully managed to maximize efficiency and performance.

- Time Domain: Each NR frame is 10 milliseconds, containing 10 subframes, each

divided into 14 OFDM symbols.

- Frequency Domain: Each slot includes 12 subcarriers, and these subcarriers form
resource blocks, used to efficiently allocate resources.

In terms of downlink communication, several key channels/signals are involved:

- Primary Synchronization Signal (PSS) & Secondary Synchronization Signal (SSS):

Helps (UE) perform cell search and synchronize with the network’s central frequency.

- Broadcast Channel (PBCH): Carries info - subcarrier spacing, frame number, and
control channel configurations, ensuring the UE can successfully connect

- The PSS, SSS, and PBCH form the Synchronization Signal Block (SSB), transmitted
every 20 milliseconds.

- Control Channel (PDCCH): Manages the transmission schedule, ensuring data is sent
at the right time.

- Shared Channel (PDSCH): Responsible for transmitting the actual data payload to the
UE.

- Reference signals are used for channel estimation.

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Monday, January 20, 2025 8:34 PM

5G NR Frame Structure (5G Series - Part 7)

Efficient frame structure is crucial for managing data transmission across a much faster
and more flexible wireless networks. Key components:

Frame:

- In 5G, the frame duration is also 10 ms

- It consists of 10 subframes, each of 1 ms.

Subframe:

- 1 ms long and contains a varying number of slots basis subcarrier spacing

- With flexible subcarrier spacing (15 kHz to 240 kHz), the number of slots per subframe
can change (e.g., 1 slot for 15 kHz, 2 slots for 30 kHz, etc.).
- Subframes are critical for scheduling, can prioritize control information.

Slot:

- The slot duration varies based on the subcarrier spacing:

For 15 kHz spacing, a slot is 1 ms long
For 30 kHz spacing, a slot is 0.5 ms, and so on.
- Each slot contains 14 OFDM symbols (with normal cyclic prefix)

Resource Block (RB):

- Number of subcarriers over one slot

- RB size vary basis subcarrier spacing of 15, 30, 60, 120, or 240 kHz.
e.g., 30 kHz spacing - RB spans 360 kHz (12 subcarriers × 30 kHz)

Resource Element (RE):

- Smallest unit of data transmission - one subcarrier in frequency domain and one
OFDM symbol in the time domain.

Numerology and Scaling:

Different numerologies are used basis service or deployment scenario:

- 15 kHz spacing widely used in lower frequency bands.
- 30 kHz, 60 kHz, and beyond allow for faster data rates and shorter slot durations, ideal
for higher frequency bands and low-latency applications.

Note - There are 489/960kHz subcarriers also, but rarely used.

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Monday, January 20, 2025 8:42 PM

How to improve RACH SR in NSA Mode?

RACH mainly used in NSA Mode : for SGNB addition (CBRA) & for HO(CFRA).
-Remove RSN(root sequence number) Clashes.
-Change PRACH Configuration index from short format (L137) to long format(L838),will
minimize RSN Clashes.
-Increase Cell range.
-Increase Preamble power & its step.
-Tune B1 threshold for SGNB addition.(not aggressive values)
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Monday, January 20, 2025 8:46 PM

#Nokia_NSA
hashtag#NR_Notes
How to make RSI (root sequence index) planning in NR?
The purpose from RSI Planning is to eliminate RSI Clashes to enhance RACH SR performance.
- Using Different RSI Values per site.
- Using Same RSI Values per site with Different shift in Time Domain (PRACHConfigindex).
- Using Same RSI Values per site with Different shift in Frequency Domain(msg1-FrequencyStart)

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Quick Notes Page 34

 Monday, January 20, 2025 8:48 PM

#5G_Nokia
hashtag#5G_Notes_NSA
How many center frequency in LTE & NR?
- In LTE we have 1 center frequency called : earfcn.
- In NR we have 2 center frequencies called : NR-ARFCN & GSCN.
•NR-ARFCN is applicable to the channel bandwidth.
•GSCN is applicable to the Synchronization Signals / PBCH Block (GSCN uses a coarse raster to reduce cell
search times)
•SSB Can be placed automatically at the bottom, middle, top of the channel
•Also in DT will scan GSCN Carrier only.

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Monday, January 20, 2025 8:52 PM

RF Interview Preparation: RACH(Random Access Channel) Process Accessibility KPIs Optimization

hashtag#5G hashtag#4G hashtag#NSA hashtag#SA hashtag#VoLTE hashtag#IMS
-----------------

What is RACH?
Ans: RACH (Random Access Channel) is a procedure in 5G networks that allows a User Equipment (UE)
to connect to the network and establish timing alignment for uplink transmission.

There are two types of RACH procedures:

1) Contention Based RACH (CBRA)....In case of Network Load-to manage access attempts and ensure
fairness.
2) Contention-Free Random Access (CFRA)...Handover

Note: You can see RACH Parameters in SIB1 (System information-1).

SIB-1 RACH Parameters:
1) prach-ConfigurationIndex INTEGER (0..255)
2) msg1-FDM ENUMERATED {one, two, four, eight}
3) msg1-FrequencyStart INTEGER (0..maxNrofPhysicalResourceBlocks-1) => INTEGER (0..274)
4) zeroCorrelationZoneConfig INTEGER (0..15)
5) preambleReceivedTargetPower INTEGER (-202 .. -60)
6) preambleTransMax ENUMERATED {n3, n4, n5, n6, n7, n8, n10, n20, n50, n100, n200}
7) powerRampingStep ENUMERATED {dB0, dB2, dB4, dB6}
8) ra-ResponseWindow ENUMERATED {sl1, sl2, sl4, sl8, sl10, sl20, sl40, sl80}
9) ra-PreambleStartIndex INTEGER (0..63)
10) ra-AssociationPeriodIndex INTEGER (0..15)
11) ra-AssociationPeriodIndex INTEGER (0..15)

1) hashtag#CBRA : hashtag#Contention_Based_Random_Access
In 5G NR, there are two types of CBRA procedures:
4-step CBRA: The procedure used in LTE and NR-Release 15
2-step CBRA: Introduced in 3GPP Release-16 to reduce latency and control signaling overhead.
Definition: Contention-based random access (CBRA) is a procedure in which multiple users (UEs) can
attempt to access a network at the same time and use same preamble ID (0-63), which can lead to
Collision/contention.
-> Why two or more UE select same preamble?
Ans: Because less number of Preambles (0-63)

2) CFRA (Contention Free Random Access) -Whenever we are in connected mode, the eNodeB/gNodeB
provides dedicated preamble to the UE, it reduces latency and signalling overhead
Suppose, If we use CBRA at handover time and there is contention at any point, the network KPIs will be
degraded.
-> Contention Free Random Access Reduce Signalling overhead and Latency.

Qns: Why UE don't use CFRA in case of initial access?

Ans: Because UE don't have dedicated channel (DCCH) at initial access time, it has only Common Control
Channels.
Note: Correct me if I'm wrong.

hashtag#Contention_Resolution: Contention resolution is the process of determining which UE has the

Quick Notes Page 36

hashtag#Contention_Resolution: Contention resolution is the process of determining which UE has the
right to access the network.
hashtag#MAC_Based_Contention_Resolution: If the UE has a valid C-RNTI (Cell Radio Network
Temporary Identity) and is going for Random access procedure then it will be a MAC based Contention
Resolution Procedure. hashtag#In_Dedicated_Mode (HO Procedure, Use DCCH Logical Channel).

hashtag#L1_Based_Contention_Resolution_Procedure: If the UE does not have valid C-RNTI and

going for RA procedure then it will be L1 Based Contention Resolution.(Initial Access)

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Quick Notes Page 37

Tuesday, January 21, 2025 2:59 PM

Quick Notes Page 38

Tuesday, January 21, 2025 5:23 PM

(9) Optimization Hassle - Q & A [Interviews] - YouTube

Quick Notes Page 39

Friday, February 7, 2025 8:59 PM

Handover failure in 4G. Reasons and Solutions

Reasons..
Radio and Transmission Part...
Poor Signal Strength/Quality :
- Weak target cell signal (RSRP/RSRQ) due to distance or obstacles.
- Incorrect handover thresholds (e.g., hysteresis, time-to-trigger (TTT) settings).

Network Planning Gaps :

- Coverage holes or overlapping cells due to poor RF planning.

Congestion :
- Target cell resource congestion (lack of PRBs, channels, or processing capacity).

Configuration Issues :
- Incorrect neighbor cell lists (missing or outdated entries).
- Faulty X2/S1 interfaces between eNodeBs or core network elements.

Mobility Challenges :
- High speed scenarios causing rapid cell changes.
- Radio link failure before handover completion.

Core Part...
Hardware Software aults
- eNodeB or UE hardware malfunctions.
- Software bugs in eNodeB, MME, or UE firmware.

Solutions..
Network Parameter Optimization:
Fine tune handover parameters such as:
- Event A3 offset (determines when handover is triggered)
- Time-to-trigger (TTT) values (prevents ping-pong handovers)
- Hysteresis margins (provides stability in decision making)

Configuration and Synchronization Improvements:

- Enable Automatic Neighbor Relations (ANR) to update neighbor lists dynamically.
- Validate X2/S1 interface health and redundancy.

on es on ana e ent
- Expand capacity e.g., carrier aggregation and MIMO.
- Improve network coverage by:
2. Adjusting antenna tilts and azimuths.
3. Optimizing power levels.
4. Adding small cells in problem areas.
- Use admission control to prioritize handover requests.
- Implement smart load balancing through:

Quick Notes Page 40

- Implement smart load balancing through:
1. Dynamic resource allocation.
2. Traffic steering.
3. Cell breathing techniques.

Network Testing and Monitoring:

- Conduct drive tests and use RF planning tools to identify coverage gaps.
- Monitor Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) like Handover Success Rate (HOSR) and
RLF counters.

Core Network Enhancements:

- Ensure MME robustness with failover mechanisms.
- Optimize authentication/authorization processes to reduce latency.

Hardware/Software Maintenance:
- Regular firmware updates for eNodeBs and UEs.
- Proactive hardware audits and redundancy checks.

These are reasons and solutions for handover failure in general in the generations not for 4G
only, I just focused on it as an example. but some techniques depends on specific system.

hashtag#Optimization hashtag#4G hashtag#wireless hashtag#RF hashtag#Handover

hashtag# _ _
hashtag#Prophet_Muhammad (‫ )ﷺ‬said: "The best of people are those who are most
beneficial to people".

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Quick Notes Page 42

Friday, February 7, 2025 9:05 PM

Handover Redirection Cell Selection Cell Re-Selection.

HO:
When the user moves out of coverage of one cell to another cell. For smooth operation
and to avoid call drop.
HO happens only in case of connected user.

Redirection:
When UE changes its RAT, cell redirection happens. and in redirection UE goes from
connected state to idle state.
and when a particular service and coverage is not available to one cell, the UE is
redirected by the eNB to other cells for better coverage and respective service
requested.

Cell Selec on
In Idle mode, when UE is not RRC connected to any particular cell, but it camps on a
cell instead.
In idle mode, the procedure of camping on a cell is called cell selection.

♋ Cell Re-selection:
When UE moves out of coverage of one cell to another cell in idle mode, UE has to
camp from one camp to another cell.
This process of reselecting a new cell, while UE is already camping on an existing
selected cell is called Cell Re-Selection.

hashtag#Telecom hashtag#RF hashtag#LTE hashtag#HO hashtag#Cell

hashtag# _ _
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Quick Notes Page 43

Friday, February 7, 2025 9:12 PM

LTE Events.
Handover types Events ‐‐‐

for nter‐ re uency.

for nter‐ re uency.

for ntra‐ re uency and nter‐ re uency.

for nter‐ re uency.

for nter‐ re uency.

hashtag#LTE hashtag#Handover hashtag#Event hashtag#Radio hashtag#RF hashtag#

4G hashtag#Telecom
hashtag# _ _
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Quick Notes Page 45

Friday, February 7, 2025 9:54 PM

Quick Notes Page 46