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Research Methods

The document outlines essential research methods in psychology, emphasizing the scientific method and three primary research designs: descriptive, correlational, and experimental. It details various techniques within these designs, including case studies, observations, surveys, and ethical considerations in conducting research. Additionally, it discusses research involving time-spans, such as cross-sectional, longitudinal, and sequential studies, highlighting their advantages and limitations.

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5 views

Research Methods

The document outlines essential research methods in psychology, emphasizing the scientific method and three primary research designs: descriptive, correlational, and experimental. It details various techniques within these designs, including case studies, observations, surveys, and ethical considerations in conducting research. Additionally, it discusses research involving time-spans, such as cross-sectional, longitudinal, and sequential studies, highlighting their advantages and limitations.

Uploaded by

sureshutup
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY

An essential aspect of learning psychology is understanding the techniques used to gather


information. Scientific investigation follows a structured set of procedures designed to
encourage questioning and skepticism while describing, explaining, or testing
phenomena. The scientific method consists of assumptions, rules, and procedures that
guide research, ensuring continuous inquiry and improvement of knowledge.

Research Designs
Psychologists use three primary research designs, each serving a unique purpose:

1. Descriptive Research – Focuses on describing events or behaviors at a specific


point in time.
2. Correlational Research – Examines relationships between variables and helps
predict future outcomes based on current data.
3. Experimental Research – Involves manipulating one or more variables to
determine their effects.

Descriptive Research
Descriptive research aims to systematically record and describe behaviors, experiences,
or phenomena without manipulating variables. Various methods are used, each with
unique advantages and limitations.

Case Study

• Focuses on one person or a small group, providing detailed insights into


experiences and behavior.
• Often used for individuals with unusual or abnormal conditions (e.g., Piaget
studying his own children).
• Limitation: Findings may not be generalizable to a larger population and are time-
consuming and expensive.

Observations

1. Naturalistic Observation – Behavior is recorded in real-world settings without


interference (e.g., children playing on a playground).
o Limitation: No control over variables affecting behavior.
2. Laboratory Observation – Conducted in controlled settings, allowing researchers
to manage variables (e.g., strange situation test).
o Limitation: Participants may alter behavior due to awareness of being
observed.
Survey Research

• Uses verbal or written questionnaires to assess beliefs or behaviors in a sample


representative of a larger population.
• Strengths: Quick, cost-effective, and capable of collecting data from many people.
• Limitations: Responses may be influenced by social desirability bias or
misinterpretation of questions.

Interviews

• Direct questioning allows researchers to clarify misunderstandings and probe


deeper into responses.
• Strengths: Provides richer and more accurate data.
• Limitations: More time-consuming, expensive, and still subject to social
desirability bias.

Psychophysiological Assessment

• Measures biological responses (e.g., heart rate, hormone levels, brain activity) to
study connections between biology and behavior.
• Example: Event-Related Potentials (ERPs) measure brain activity through
electrodes in response to stimuli.
• Research on autism spectrum disorders using ERPs has provided insights into
differences in face and object processing.

Secondary/Content Analysis

• Involves analyzing existing data or media (e.g., U.S. Census Data) to identify
trends or attitudes.
• Strengths: No need to recruit subjects, cost-effective.
• Limitation: Quality of original data must be carefully assessed.

Correlational Research
Correlational research examines the relationship between two or more variables to
determine how they are associated. Unlike descriptive research, which provides a static
picture, correlational research assesses patterns and trends between variables.

Understanding Correlations

• A correlation exists when two variables systematically relate to each other (e.g.,
height and weight).
• The Pearson Correlation Coefficient (r) measures the strength and direction of a
linear relationship, ranging from -1.00 to +1.00.
o Positive correlation (r > 0): As one variable increases, the other also
increases (e.g., education and income).
o Negative correlation (r < 0): As one variable increases, the other decreases
(e.g., age and number of diapers used).
o Strength of correlation: The closer the absolute value of r is to 1.00, the
stronger the relationship (e.g., r = 0.72 is stronger than r = -0.57).

Limitations: Correlation ≠ Causation

• Correlational research does not establish causation because other factors may
influence the relationship.
• Example: A study finds a positive correlation between watching violent TV and
aggressive play in children. However:
o Reverse causation: Aggressive children may prefer violent shows.
o Third-variable problem: Another factor (e.g., parental discipline style)
may explain the relationship.

Strengths and Applications

• When experimental research is not possible (e.g., ethical concerns, inability to


manipulate variables).
• Studying behavior in real-world settings without intervention.
• Making predictions based on observed patterns (e.g., using test scores to predict
job performance).

Experimental Research
Experimental research aims to determine causal relationships between variables by
manipulating conditions in a controlled setting. Unlike correlational research,
experiments allow researchers to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Key Components of Experimental Research

• Hypothesis: A specific statement predicting the relationship between variables.


• Independent Variable (IV): The variable manipulated by the researcher (e.g.,
exposure to violent TV).
• Dependent Variable (DV): The variable measured to assess the effect of the IV
(e.g., aggressive behavior).

Experimental Design

• Random Assignment: Participants are randomly placed in either:


o Experimental Group: Receives the treatment (e.g., watches violent TV).
o Control Group: Does not receive the treatment, serving as a baseline (e.g.,
watches non-violent TV).
• Extraneous Variables: Factors not part of the experiment that could
unintentionally affect the results are controlled.
Limitations of Experimental Research

• Artificial Settings: Many experiments occur in laboratories, making it unclear if


findings apply to real-life situations.
• Ethical Constraints: Some variables (e.g., the effects of child abuse) cannot be
experimentally manipulated, requiring correlational methods instead.

Research Involving Time-Spans


Cross-Sectional Research

• Compares samples from different age groups at a single point in time.


• Participants complete surveys or tests to analyze age-related differences.
• Advantages: Quick, cost-effective, and free from practice effects.
• Limitations: Cannot assess individual changes over time and is affected by cohort
effects—differences due to historical or generational experiences rather than age.

Longitudinal Research

• Studies the same group of individuals over an extended period.


• Ideal for examining individual differences and long-term development.
• Advantages: Helps track stability and change over time.
• Limitations: Time-consuming, expensive, subject to attrition (dropout of
participants), and affected by practice effects (improvement due to repeated
testing rather than actual development).

Sequential Research

• Combines elements of both longitudinal and


cross-sectional designs.
• Follows multiple age groups over time, allowing
researchers to compare both age-related changes
and cohort effects.
• Advantages: More efficient than purely
longitudinal studies and provides more insight
than cross-sectional studies.
• Limitations: Requires more time and effort than cross-sectional studies and may
still be influenced by attrition and practice effects.
Summary:

• Cross-sectional research is fast and efficient but cannot track developmental


changes.
• Longitudinal research provides deep insights into individual development but
faces issues like attrition and practice effects.
• Sequential research offers a balanced approach, reducing some limitations of the
other two methods.
Conducting Ethical Research
Psychologists must adhere to ethical guidelines to prevent harm, stress, or discomfort to
research participants, including humans and animals. Ethical decisions follow established
codes from organizations such as the American Psychological Association (APA) and
government agencies like the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

Key Ethical Principles in Psychological Research (APA, 2016):

• No Harm: Researchers must ensure participants are not harmed physically,


emotionally, or psychologically.
• Informed Consent: Participants must be informed about the study’s nature, risks,
and their right to withdraw at any time.
o For minors, consent must be obtained from a parent or legal guardian.
o Researchers must monitor children’s well-being and allow discontinuation if
necessary.
• Confidentiality: Researchers must protect participants' privacy by avoiding the
use of identifiable personal information.
• Deception: Sometimes, participants are not fully informed of the study's true
purpose to prevent bias. However, deception must be justified and minimized.
• Debriefing: At the study’s conclusion, participants must be fully informed about
the research purpose, procedures, and any deception used, ensuring no lasting
negative effects.

Ethical research ensures participants' rights and well-being are protected while
maintaining scientific integrity.

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