Chapter 11

Aircraft, spacecraft and tourism

Learning outcomes

At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

• Describe the concept, parts and types of aircraft.
• Understand the way different types of aircraft contribute in tourism.
• Elaborate the recreational use of aircraft in the realm of tourism.
• Discuss the scope of spacecraft in tourism.

11.1 Introduction
In fact, the history of aviation is greatly associated with the evolution of aircraft as
well. Every stage of aircraft’s evolution has subsequently transformed aviation and
stimulated the progress of air transport. Indubitably, modern tourism’s progress
coincided with the advancements in air transport and complemented each other
in their progress. While we analyse the history of aviation, a number of milestones
can be identified that had remarkable contribution in the progress of aviation.
Of them, the most noteworthy is the introduction of jet engines and wide-body
aircraft. At every stage of advancement in aircraft, air transport turned speedier,
smoother, more comfortable, safer and increasingly attractive. This chapter is an
exploration into a new area of tourism, aircraft- and spacecraft-based tourism,
by elaborating the role played by aircraft and spacecraft in leisure and business
trips. Certainly, aircraft, both lighter-than-air and heavier-than-air, have diverse
roles in tourism. Some enable tourists to move from their place of origin to the
destination and to return and offer significant contribution by ensuring economi-
cal, comfortable and safe travel. Some others have recreational significance in the
spectrum of leisure tourism. Aircraft thus turns into tourist attractions and con-
tributes in the tourist experience. Spacecraft, still in its early stages of evolution,
offers the scope for amazing tourism opportunities in the years to come. Let us

DOI: 10.4324/9781003136927-11 213

Aircraft, spacecraft and tourism

have a journey through the way aircraft and spacecraft contribute in the increas-
ing phenomenon of tourism, one of the largest economic sectors in the world.

11.2 Aircraft
In air transportation system, aircraft is one of the primary elements that enable
the air transport service providers to undertake the operation to carry people and
goods from one place to another and is considered as the vehicle used for trans-
portation via air. Basically, it represents only a machine with necessary equipment
and features to fly. According to ICAO (2003), aircraft is “Any machine that can
derive support in the atmosphere from the reactions of the air other than the
reactions of the air against the earth’s surface”. It is also defined as “…a heavier-
than-air-machine that depends on the movement of air, either by the engine(s) or
through the influence of the aircraft’s shape, and most significantly by the wing,
to attain and sustain normal flight” (Ashford et al., 2013b). Modern air trans-
portation encompasses a wide range of aircraft. They vary in size, performance,
capacity, etc. Some of the aircraft move beyond the speed of sound even. Some
can carry more than 800 passengers. Innovation is a regular phenomenon in air-
craft design and it is continuing. The current focus is to increase the efficiency of
flying with maximum fuel efficiency and minimum pollution. An aircraft can have
the following major components.

• Fuselage
• Engine
• Wings
• Tail structure
• Landing gear.

The fuselage is the main body of an aircraft, which is cylindrical in shape and all
other components are attached to it. The divisions in it include the cockpit or
flight deck, passenger compartment and cargo compartment. In order to keep
it lightweight, very thin metal has been used to make it. In a passenger aircraft,
passenger compartment is considered the main deck and cargo section is the
lower deck. The passenger section is fitted with seats, temperature control de-
vices, bathrooms, galleys, etc. The engine is also the propulsion unit, and they
enable the aircraft to move ahead by pushing air backward with the objective of
causing a thrust in the forward direction. The wings, aerofoils attached to each
side of the fuselage, provide the required push to lift to the aircraft. Tail struc-
ture, also known as the empennage, consists of two parts: the vertical part (fin)
and the horizontal part (stabilizer). Both are with movable parts, which enable
movement of the aircraft nose. The horizontal part is with elevator, which enables
the aircraft nose to move up and vice versa. This phenomenon is called pitching.
The vertical part, the fin, is with rudder, which causes yawing. It takes place when
rudder side moved to the left will cause the aircraft nose to move to the left and
vice versa. Landing gear or undercarriage is the part by which the aircraft touches
down on the runway. The main function of it is to ensure smooth landing and
cushion and absorb the shock waves resulting from the impact. When a flight is
flying, the following four forces are acting.

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• Lift
• Weight
• Thrust
• Drag.

Lift is the upward force. It helps in opposing the downward force of weight. It is
generated mainly by the dynamic effect of the air acting on the wing. Weight, try
to pull the aeroplane down, is due to gravitational force, and it is the combined
load of the aeroplane itself, the crew, the fuel, passenger, and the cargo or bag-
gage. Thrust is produced by the engine of the aircraft. This enables the aircraft
to overcome the force of drag for the aircraft to move forward. Drag opposes
thrust, and it is a rearward or air resistance force occurs when the aircraft move
ahead. When more thrust is there, the aircraft will accelerate. When the aircraft
is climbing, more lift is there on it. The lift is generated when the aircraft is in
forward motion and the wings are created that way to generate lift. A wing has
the following parts:

• Ailerons
• Slats
• Flaps.

The ailerons, located at the trailing edge of the wing, help in the turning of the
aircraft from left to right (rolling/banking). Slats, seen at the leading edge of the
wings, support the movement of air from the bottom to the top of the wing to
accelerate the speed of airflow at the top of the wing. Flaps are found at the

Wing
Vertical Fin
Stabilizer
Fuselage

Rudder

Cockpit/
Flight Deck Elevator
Flap

Aileron Horizontal
Engine Stabilizer

Slats

Spoiler

Cockpit : Compartment for pilots to Flap : To increase lift during take off. Horizontal stabilizer : Stabilizes the aircraft
aviate, navigate and communicate around lateral axis
Fuselage : The main body of the aircraft Aileron : To control the aircraft’s rolling Elevator : To control aircraft’s pitch
Wing : The appendages attached to fuselage Spoiler : To reduse lift and increase drag Rudder : To change yaw
that enable lift of aircraft
Slat : On the leading edge of wings, to Vertical stabilizer: Stabilizes arround
increase lift during low speed operations vertical axis

Figure 11.1 Parts of aircraft

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trailing edge of the wing and work together with the slats to increase lift. Due to
the actions of the components, the following movements take place.

• Yawing
• Pitching
• Rolling.

Rudder enables the yawing by which the aircraft nose can move from side to side.
Pitching is the movement of the aircraft nose up and down. The elevator causes
this function and its moving up enables the aircraft nose to move upwards and
vice versa. The ailerons facilitate rolling. If the right aileron is raised, and the left
aileron is lowered, the plane will roll to the right and vice versa.

11.3 Types of aircraft

Aircraft are classified on a diverse basis. One type of classification is based on the
nature of the aircraft in association with the heaviness related to the density of it
with that of air.

11.3.1 Heavier-than-air aircraft

This category consists of “Any aircraft deriving its lift in flight chiefly from aerody-
namic forces” (ICAO, 2003). These are fitted with source to provide power to fly,
with the help of lift primarily. Ranges of air-based vehicles are there included in this
category, which include autogyros, helicopters and gyrocopters, and conventional
fixed-wing aircraft (aeroplanes). Fixed-wing aircraft takes the advantage of wings
to generate lift due to the peculiar shape of them and the internal-combustion
engine (except in gliders) in the form of a piston engine that can generate ‘thrust’
to move forward. Aerodyne is a terminology used interchangeably for representing
these types of aircraft. The term aerodyne is considered rather as a technical term
to represent heavier-than-air aircraft that derive lift in flight primarily from aerody-
namic forces. There are powered as well as non-powered aerodynes. Examples for
unpowered manned heavier-than-air vehicles include hang gliders, gliders and sail-
planes, which also can fly. Aircraft we see usually, which are used in commercial air
transportation as well as in military aviation, are included in this category. Powered
aerodynes (with engines) are classified as follows:

• Aeroplane
• Rotorcraft
• Ornithopter.

Aeroplanes are power driven with engine that achieves lift from the dynamic ac-
tion of air against fixed wings. The required lift in flight is achieved mainly from
aerodynamic reactions on surfaces, which remain fixed under given conditions of
flight. The following are the two types.

• Seaplane
• Landplane.

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A seaplane is an aeroplane that can take off and land upon the water. The float-
plane and flying boat are the categories in this. Floatplanes (pontoon planes) are
the seaplanes with separate pontoons or floats. Slender pontoons are mounted
beneath the fuselage in floatplanes. It is supported on water by a pair of floats
instead of a hull. Seaplanes with boat like hulls are called flying boats. Hull acts as
its main body and it also supports the aircraft on water. Landplane can land and
take off on land surface. Amphibian floats are also there.
Rotorcraft represents rotary-wing aircraft, which gain the lift through the dy-
namic action of air against rotating wings. The flight of this is supported by the re-
actions of the air on one or more rotors. This consists of the following categories:

• Helicopter
• Gyroplane.

In the case of helicopter, the lift is provided by the reactions of the air on one or
more power-driven rotors. The horizontally spanning propellers or rotors enable
the helicopters to take off and land vertically, to remain stationary in the air and
even to move in any direction. Rotating rotors provide the lift and thrust. Helicop-
ters with single main rotor with tail rotor, side-by-side non-intermeshing rotors,
torque less single rotor, tandem rotors, coaxial rotors, etc., can be seen. Land heli-
copter, sea helicopter and amphibian helicopter are there in use. Land helicopters
are used more in the realm of tourism. Gyroplane, also known as autogyro, is an-
other type of heavier-than-air aircraft that obtains thrust from a conventional en-
gine and lift from a rotor freely rotating in the horizontal plane, on a vertical axis.
It “is a type of rotorcraft that uses an unpowered rotor in autorotation to develop
lift, and an engine-powered propeller, similar to that of a fixed-wing aircraft, to
provide thrust” (www.casa.gov.au). Ornithopter is “supported in flight chiefly by
the reactions of the air on planes to which a flapping motion is imparted” (ICAO,
2003). The flapping wings, like a bird, generate the lift for this type of aircraft.
The types in this may include land ornithopter, sea ornithopter and amphibian
ornithopter.
Non-powered/non-power-driven (aerodynes without engines) aerodynes con-
sists mainly of the following categories.

• Glider
• Sailplane
• Kite.

Glider is heavier than air which is a non-power-driven vehicle and flies without
any applied power. It obtains the required lift from aerodynamic reactions on
surfaces. Lift is derived mainly from its wings and initial thrust is given by some
launching mechanism. This vehicle, without an engine, is used for gliding from
a higher to a lower and vice versa and can sustain flight for certain duration
with the actions of air currents. According to the Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA), a glider is “as a heavier-than-air aircraft that is supported in flight by the
dynamic reaction of the air against its lifting surfaces, and whose free flight does
not depend principally on an engine” (FAA Handbook). Sailplanes have standard
aircraft parts, design and systems, which are high-performance ones that can fly
higher and for an extended duration covering a longer distance. FAA defines it

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Table 11.1 Aircraft Typology

Based on Engines Based on Mach Number

Propeller: thrust for flight from a rotating (Mach number represents the ratio of the
propeller, supported by an engine inside, speed of an object to the speed of sound. If
that can convert rotational energy into an aircraft has Mach speed means, it moves at
propulsive force a speed of sound, under certain conditions)
Turboprop: This also has propeller, and Subsonic: Aircraft with maximum speed much
the gas-turbine engines that turn the less than that of sound (M < 1). Majority of the
propeller(s) civil aviation aircraft as subsonic
Turbofan: This has engine, which is the Transonic: Transonic aircraft fly at a speed
modern version of gas-turbine engine. matching with that of sound (M ~ 1)
The engine is a sort of air-breathing jet
engine, and the mechanical energy is from
combustion
Turbojet: This has a jet engine, which emits Supersonic: Aircraft that moves faster than
a high-energy gas stream through exhaust the speed of sound. Concorde flights are
nozzle to derive the needed thrust examples of this (M > 1)
Ramjet: This aircraft, which can move very Hypersonic (M >> 1): Hypersonic represents
fast, has another type of air-breathing much higher Mach speed. The scope of it is
jet engine, which operates with no major mainly for defence purposes
moving parts

Based on Range Based on Number of Wings

(Range: the maximum distance an aircraft Aircraft can also be classified based on the
can fly at a stretch, from take-off to number of wings
landing)

Short range: flights with a range up to Monoplane: Flight with a single pair
500 kms (e.g. some of the general aviation of wings. Commercial air transport is
aircraft come in this category) dominated by this category of flights
Medium range: flights with range around Biplane: Two wings are there, one above
3000kms (e.g. Dornier 328, Embraer 135) other
Long range: flights of range well above Triplanes and quad planes: though rarely
3000kms (e.g. Boeing 777-200LR: range these are also there
17,395km. Airbus A340–500: range
16,670km)

Source: Author collected data from various sources.

as “a glider (heavier-than-air fixed-wing aircraft) designed to fly efficiently and

gain altitude solely from natural forces, such as thermals and ridge waves” (FAA
Handbook). There are powered sailplanes also in use with certain specific pur-
poses. Kite is a simple form used for flight that can be anchored from the earth
and obtains lift from aerodynamic forces.

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11.3.2 Lighter-than-air aircraft/aerostats

These vehicles, when filled with gas which is lighter than air, displace the sur-
rounding ambient air and floats. Such aircraft, known as aerostat, are kept aloft
by using buoyant gas. They are used mainly for recreational purposes. These ve-
hicles can contain a sufficient volume of gas lighter than air, like heated air, hy-
drogen or helium; and hence, it can displace the surrounding ambient air so as to
float in the air. In this also, powered as well as non-powered categories are there.
The following are the types of lighter-than-air aircraft.

• Powered lighter-than-air aircraft

Airship (rigid, semi-rigid and non-rigid airships/blimps)
• Non-powered lighter-than-air aircraft
Free balloon (spherical and non-spherical free balloons)
Captive balloon (spherical and kite/non-spherical free balloons).

Airships have a simple power-deriving mechanism within it. It is used for both
propulsion and steering the craft. This can navigate through the air under its
own power and can gain lift and float with the assistance of the less dense gas
filled within. Non-rigid airships are often called “blimps”, which depend mainly
on internal pressure to maintain their shape. Semi-rigid airships have a supporting
structure to maintain shape and the rigid ones consist of outer structural frame-
work in order to maintain the shape.
Free balloons are not anchored ones, having the freedom to move with the
wind. These are not engine driven, yet can sustain flight by using gas buoyancy or
an airborne heater. The captive balloons are with lighter-than-air gas filled within
and remain connected to the ground with a cord. In order to maintain stability

Table 11.2 Classification of Aircraft

Aircraft

Heavier-than-air Aircraft Lighter-than-air Aircraft

Power Driven Non- Power Non-power Driven

power Driven
Driven

Ornithopter Rotorcraft Aeroplane Glider, Airship Captive Free

Kite Balloon Balloon

Land Helicopter: Gyroplane: Landplane, Land Rigid Spherical Spherical

ornithopter, land land seaplane, glider, airship, captive free
sea helicopter, gyroplane, amphibian sea semi- balloon, balloon,
ornithopter, sea sea glider rigid non- non-
amphibian helicopter, gyroplane, airship, spherical spherical
ornithopter amphibian amphibian non-rigid captive free
helicopter gyroplane airship balloon balloon

Source: ICAO (2003).

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from wind, kite balloon is shaped and trimmed and combines a lifting gas with
active lift structures like wings to fly in all aerial conditions.

11.3.3 Aircraft classification based on purpose

Another classification of the aircraft is based on the purpose of flying. The follow-
ing are the categories:

• Civil aircraft
General aviation aircraft
• Private aircraft
• Business planes
Commercial aircraft
Passenger aircraft
Freighter
Combi-aircraft
• Military aircraft.

Table 11.3 Aircraft Used for General Aviation and State’s Purposes

Aircraft used for Aircraft used for aerial operations Aircraft used for
State’s purposes
• Corporate aviation • Aerial crane operations
(non-general aviation
(corporate’s own use) • Aerial survey
category)
• Fractional ownership • Agricultural flights
operations (aircraft • Banner towing/ Advertising • State VIP
operated by a flights transports
specialized company • Environment surveillance and • Police/customs
on behalf of multiple enforcement aircraft
co-owners) • Ferry flights/delivery flights • General air traffic
• Business travel (self- • Flight demonstrations (air shows) (military)
flown for business • Fire fighting • Operational air
purposes) • Glider towing traffic (military)
• Personal/ private travel • Medical evacuations
Surveillance/
• Travel for personal • Nostalgic flights using vintage
identification, air
reasons/personal aircraft
superiority defence,
transport • Pilot training
tactical intelligence/
• Air tourism (self-flown • R&D flights
photography, ground
inbound/outbound • Search and rescue
troops support,
tours) • Sightseeing flights
training for the
• Recreational flying • Skydiver hoisting
above, etc.
(powered/ non-powered • Supplies dropping
leisure flying activities) • Traffic surveillance
• Air sports (e.g. • Transplant organ transports
aerobatics, air races, • TV-live reporting
competitions) • Weather research

Source: Adapted from International Council of Aircraft Owner and Pilot Associations (IAOPA). https://
www.iaopa.eu/what-is-general-aviation

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Civil aircraft include all the non-military aircraft. Among the civil aviation aircraft,
those used for general aviation constitute the majority. It “includes over 416,000
general aviation aircraft flying worldwide today, ranging from two-seat train-
ing aircraft and utility helicopters to intercontinental business jets….” (GAMA,
2016). The range of aircraft widely varies, from small, single-seater as well as non-
powered recreational aircraft to modern business jets. Private aircraft are personal
planes used for pleasure flying, often single-engine monoplanes. Business aircraft
can be small single-engine aircraft used for pilot training or to transport small
packages over short distances to four-engine executive jets that can fly across
continents and oceans. Different types of planes are used for varied purposes like
traffic reporting, forest-fire fighting, medical evacuation, pipeline surveillance,
freight hauling and many other applications.
The most visible category is the aircraft used for commercial aviation. Small
aircraft to large aircraft like A 380, which can carry more than 800 passengers,
are there. Commercial aircraft have advanced greatly by having high standards of
comfort, efficiency, fuel efficiency, value to customers, versatility and in providing
a flying experience. Single-aisle and twin-aisle to double-decker aircraft are there
in use. There are smaller aircraft also in service.

Table 11.4 Wide-Body Aircraft

Wide-body aircraft transport began in the 1970s, by the use of Boeing 747, McDonnell
Douglas DC-10, Lockheed L-1011, Airbus 300, etc.
Wide-body aircraft has a wider fuselage so that it can have more seats in each row. The
forward section may have first and/or business class. The economy compartment will
have two aisles, and the seats are arranged on the sides of both the aisles. Basically, it
will have seven seats. Depending on the size of the aircraft, ten seats can also be there
in a row. Narrow-body aircraft having a small first or business class compartment with
four-abreast seating and a longer economy class compartment with six-abreast seating,
along with a single aisle by which the seats are arranged on either side of the aisle

Boeing 747 became the pioneer in the wide-body aircraft revolution. It was introduced
by the beginning of the 1970s. The first version of B747 had four efficient high-
bypass turbofan engines and could carry up to 400 passengers. Lockheed L-1011 and
the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 the other wide-body aircraft were in use during the
1970s. McDonnell Douglas DC-10 had the capacity of 250–360 seats. A300 was initially
designed as 300 seater

Currently, a number of wide-body aircraft are in use. Airbus A380 is the widest with
a width 7.14 metres. Boeing 747 currently has a width of 6.5 metres. Boeing 777/777X,
Ilyushin 86/96, and Lockheed L-1011 TriStar are some of the other major wide-body
aircraft in wide use nowadays. They are used mainly in long-haul and medium-haul
routes. They can carry passengers from 200 to 850 passengers and typically have twin-
aisle cabins

Source: Author collected data from various sources.

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One more general classification of aircraft can be seen based on the volume/
width of them. The following are the categories:

• Narrow-body aircraft and

• Wide-body aircraft.

Narrow-body aircraft are smaller and have a single aisle through the passenger
cabin. It may have a fuselage diameter of 3 to 4 m, e.g. Embraer E-Jet E2, Airbus
320, Boeing737. Wide-body aircraft may typically have two aisles that divide the
seating into three groups, and with a fuselage diameter varying from 5 to 6 m,
e.g. Boeing 747, McDonnell Douglas DC-10, Lockheed L-1011 TriStar, Airbus A300,
Airbus 380. Jumbo jets are there depending upon the size. They are usually of very
large size, e.g. Boeing 747, Airbus A380 (superjumbo jet).

11.4 Aircraft manufacturers

Manufacturers include a variety of firms, such as airframe manufacturers, engine
manufacturers, manufactures of mechanical systems, creators of computer hard-
ware and software, and producers of materials and chemicals required for various
air transport operations. Aircraft manufacturing is one of the most concentrated
industries in the world with extreme oligopoly. A few players are dominated in
the international market. Airbus, Boeing and Tupolev focus on the wide-body and
narrow-body jet airliners. Bombardier, ATR and Embraer concentrate on smaller
aircraft useful for the regional airlines. Though they are the major aircraft manu-
facturers, the engines required for the aircraft are manufactured by other compa-
nies. A brief about major of them are given below.

11.4.1 Airbus
Airbus design, manufacture and deliver industry-leading commercial aircraft,
helicopters, military transports, satellites and launch vehicles, as well as provid-
ing data services, navigation, secure communications, urban mobility and other
solutions for customers on a global scale. In commercial aviation sector, Airbus’
diverse product line includes everything from passenger jetliners to freighters
and private jets. The product range in this category ranges in size from 100-seat
jetliners to the double-deck A380 that is capable of transporting more than 850
passengers. Airbus is based in Europe with its headquarters in Toulouse, France,
and has 12 sites in Europe located in France, Germany, Spain and UK. Airbus also
has three subsidiaries in the USA, Japan and China. The major commercial aircraft
in service are A 300, A301, A318, A319, A 320, A320neo, A 321, A 330, A330neo,
A350 and Airbus Beluga XL (www.airbus.com).

11.4.2 Boeing
Boeing is one of the largest aerospace companies and a leading manufacturer
of commercial jetliners, defence, space and security systems and service provider
of aftermarket support. With corporate offices in Chicago, it employs more than
153,000 people across the United States and in more than 65 countries (www.

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boeing.com). Currently, Boeing manufactures the 737, 747, 767, 777 and 787 fam-
ilies of aeroplanes and the Boeing Business Jet range. New product development
efforts include the Boeing 787-10 Dreamliner, the 737 MAX, and the 777X. As of
now, more than 10,000 Boeing-built commercial jetliners are in service across the
world. It also offers the most complete family of freighters, and, according to it, a
vast majority of world’s cargo is carried onboard Boeing planes.

11.4.3 Bombardier
Bombardier focuses on aerospace and rail transportation. Bombardier Aerospace
are leading civil aircraft manufacturers and are leaders in the design and man-
ufacture of innovative aviation products and services for the business, regional
and amphibious aircraft markets. It is headquartered in Montréal, Canada, and
its aircraft and services are seen in a number of different markets including busi-
ness aircraft, commercial aircraft and amphibious aircraft. Its Canadair Regional
Jet (CRJ) is one of the most successful families of regional jets. This company has
already sold more than 1,900 aircraft, flying people in more than 90 countries
(www.bombardier.com).

11.4.4 Embraer
Embraer has become one of the main aircraft manufacturers in the world by fo-
cusing on specific market segments with high growth potential in commercial, de-
fence and executive aviation. Embraer is based in São José dos Campos, Brazil. It is
considered the 3rd largest commercial jets manufacturer that has delivered more
than 8.000 aeroplanes. Over the years, it has established factories, offices and cen-
tres of distribution for parts and services in the Americas, Africa, Asia and Europe.
E-JETS E2 is its latest jet aircraft with advanced technologies. This company has set
a standard in manufacturing smaller aircraft in the series of E-Jets having a capacity
of 70–130-seats. ERJs are another major aircraft family of Embraer with a capacity
of 37–50-seats. Today, some 70 operators fly the Embraer model, ERJ 145.

11.4.5 Tupolev
Tupolev is a Russian aerospace and defence company, headquartered in Moscow,
Russia, and is officially known as Public Stock Company (PSC), Tupolev. It is the
head enterprise of the strategic and long-range aviation division of the United
Aircraft Corporation (UAC). Built since 1923, about 1,000 of them delivered to
20 countries. Tu-214 and Tu-204 are the major commercial aircraft in service now
(www.tupolev.ru).

11.4.6 ATR (Avions de transport Regional)

ATR is a Toulouse, Southern France-based turboprop aircraft manufacturer, who is
currently a leader in the market for regional aircraft up to 90 seats. Established in
November 1981, it is a joint partnership between two major European aeronautics
players, Airbus and Leonardo. As of now, it has sold nearly 1,700 aircraft and has
over 200 operators in more than 100 countries (www.atraircraft.com). It manufac-
tures two sizes of turboprop aircraft, the 70-seat ATR 72 and the 50-seat ATR 42.

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These are ideal for airlines servicing smaller markets and to have regular services
between regional airports and to main airports and hubs.

11.4.7 McDonnell Douglas Corporation

This was a major American aircraft manufacturing company and was taken over
by Boeing. They produced jet fighters, commercial aircraft and space vehicles.
They were having a range of propeller as well as jet aircraft. McDonnell Douglass
DC-9 and DC-10 are some of the major aircraft of them in service.
Aircraft manufacturers make use of the engines that are manufactured by
other companies. The major aircraft engine manufacturers are as follows:

• Rolls-Royce plc. (UK),

• Pratt & Whitney (P&W) (USA),
• General Electric (GE Aircraft Engines) (USA),
• IAE (International Aero Engines-AG) (Switzerland and USA),
• Rolls Smiths Engine Controls Ltd. (UK).

11.5 Jet engines and tourism growth

It has been well stated that modern tourism started growing since the end of the
Second World War. In fact, one of the major reasons for the growth of interna-
tional tourism in the post-Second World War era is the evolution and advance-
ments in aviation as well. It was during then jet engines were used in commercial
air transportation widely, which had immense influence on the increase in cross-
border travel. Jet engines were found to be more reliable, safer, and with opera-
tional economy. Moreover, aircraft with jet engines had much more range and with
larger size so that more passengers could be accommodated. Commercial air trans-
portation has seen jet engine aircraft use in the second half of the 1950s. Boeing
707 and Douglas DC-8 were used for the same in the beginning. British de Havilland
D.H. 106 Comets and Soviet Tupolev Tu-104s were also in use during then.
Jet engines were experimentally used in aviation before the Second World War
and used during the war and commercial application took more time, towards the
end of the 1950s. Jet engine is a marvellous innovation in the aircraft technology,
a breakthrough which could revolutionize the people’s travel by air, and the con-
cept of it is simply illustrated by NASA in the following way.

The engine sucks air in at the front with a fan. A compressor raises the pres-
sure of the air. The compressor is made with many blades attached to a shaft.
The blades spin at high speed and compress or squeeze the air. The com-
pressed air is then sprayed with fuel and an electric spark lights the mixture.
The burning gases expand and blast out through the nozzle, at the back of
the engine. As the jets of gas shoot backward, the engine and the aircraft are
thrust forward. As the hot air is going to the nozzle, it passes through another
group of blades called the turbine. The turbine is attached to the same shaft
as the compressor. Spinning the turbine causes the compressor to spin.
(NASA/www.grc.nasa.gov)

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